Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
INDEX
1 - Introduction
2 - Fibers as structural element for the reinforcement of concrete
2.1 - Historical review of the technology of incorporating fibers in concrete
2.2 - Concept of reinforcement of concrete through fibers
2.3 - Fiber types Classification of current commercial fibers in function of the
raw material. Organic fibers (natural and synthetic polymers) and inorganic
fibers (metallic)
2.4 - Steel fibers. Classification upon geometrical, physical, chemical, mechanical characteristics and production process
2.5 - Synthetic and natural fibers. Classification based upon geometric, physical,
chemical, mechanical characteristics and production process
2.6 - Current standard situation
2.7 - List of MACCAFERRIs fibers. Classification of MACCAFERRIs fibers
3 - Fiber reinforced concrete; Basic elements for the structural project
3.1 - Mechanical characterization of fiber reinforced concrete. Most important
resistant features
3.2 - Structural compatibility of fiber reinforced concrete elements
3.3 - Instructions for the design of fiber reinforced concrete frameworks
3.4 - Current standard situation
4 - Design and detailed considerations for concrete mixtures;
advice for fibers incorporation into the mixture
4. 1 - Concrete, technological aspects for its formulation
4.2 - Advice for the incorporation of fibers in concrete
4.3 - Advice for insertion of fibers into concretes for prefabricated elements
4.4 - Recommendations for the use of fibers into wet and dry sprayed concretes
4.5 - Concrete admixtures and their compatibility of use in fiber reinforced concrete
4.6 - Typical applications of the structural and not structural fiber reinforced concrete
4.7 - Current standard situation
5 - Applications of fiber-reinforced concrete: tunnels, design
of the pre-lining and of the final lining
5.1 - Conventionally bored tunnels and tunnels excavated through TBM
5.2 - Design criteria for tunnel supports and linings
5.3 - Design of supporting structures made of fiber-reinforced shotcrete
5.4 - Design of lining made of fiber-reinforced concrete pumped on-site
5.5 - Use of fibers for fire resistance of concrete. Description of fiber mixes,
structural and anti-spalling proposal for final linings
INDEX
INDEX
1 - Introduction.
The purpose of this manual is to provide general information, criteria and new methodologies for the
calculation, project and execution of concrete reinforced works with fibers. They will be presented,
therefore, the obtained data of the investigations made by Maccaferri, oriented to the study of the
behavior, resistance and efficiency of such structures.
The Maccaferri intention is to have new and useful contributions to concrete works reinforced with
fibers, helping the consultants and contractors work who act in the segment of structural engineering.
For a more detailed analysis on the arguments treated here, we suggest to consult the specific publications that are indicated in the bibliographical references.
This manual they will be presented and discussed theoretical foundations, numerical examples of
the of the concrete reinforced with fibers applications and details of the use of the Wirand metallic
fibers and Fibromac plastic fibers.
Maccaferri is placed to total disposition, to give solution to problems, cradle in its experience, acquired
along more than 100 years of existence in all the world.
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Ductility is the ability of a material to stand considerable deformation thereby maintaining good resistance.
Toughness is the ability of a material to counteract crack propagation by dissipating deformation energy.
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First-crack
point
Load
Under the incidence of moderate loads, below breaking loads for concrete, the materials behaviour is always elastic and no fracture is produced in the specimen during the bending test,
independently from the presence or the quality and quantity of fibers. In contrast, considerably
different behaviours can occur in continuing the test, thus increasing the applied load departing
from point A, called first-crack point:
Deflection
Elastic phase
Non-elastic phase
- Curve I depicts the behaviour of a traditional concrete without reinforcement. Since
the structure is isostatic (the beam is simply supported at both ends), it collapses immediately
after first-crack loading is reached, such as typically occurring for brittle materials.
- Curve II shows some ability of the (fiber-reinforced) concrete to absorb, departing from
the first-crack point, a certain although low load (A-B) through a progressive slower collapse
(degrading behaviour).
- Curve III, in contrast, is typical of a ductile material, and shows a concrete able to sustain, departing from the first-crack point, a considerable deflection (A-B) under constant load,
still before the even slower occurrence of collapse (plastic behaviour).
- Curve IV finally highlights even an increment in the tolerable load under a wide deflection (A-B) after the first-crack point (hardening behaviour).
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It is evident that all these possible behaviours, or different ductility and toughness levels acquired by the concrete, depend both from the quantity of the present fibers as well as from
their mechanical, and geometrical characteristics.
Considering the influence of the fiber geometry on the behaviour of FRC(3) and of SFRC(4),
although any aspect is relevant, it is the relationship between the fiber length and equivalent
diameter (L/D named aspect ratio or slenderness ratio) which is considered as the most characterising element, since ductility and toughness of a fiber-reinforced concrete depend in large
measure on its value (Graphic 2.2).
Equally important are the mechanical characteristics of fibers, and, between them, tensile
strength essentially. Tensile strength plays a fundamental role on the behaviour of FRC and of
SFRC as the hindered pull out, which is due to the real and the forced adherence between fiber
and concrete (Graphic 2.3), can lead to fiber breakage caused by insufficient tensile strength
(Graphic 2.4).
Fibra com
Hooked
fiberAncoragem
Fibrafiber
Reta
Straight
Displacement
Graphic 2.3 Increase in the adherence fiber-concrete with fiber shape.
(3)
(4)
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Displacement
STRAIGHT
HOOKED
PADDLED
CRIMPED
ENLARGED ENDS
IRREGULAR
DOUBLE
DUOFOR
ORDINARY
DUOFORM
INDENTED
ROUND (wire)
RECTANGULAR (sheet)
Equivalent diameter De (mm): it is defined by means of different methods, depending from the
cross-sectional shape and the production process.
Direct method
In the case of fibers obtained from wire, disregarding from the longitudinal shape, the equivalent
diameter De is equal to the nominal diameter of the original wire or of the finished fiber.
Indirect geometric method
In the case of fibers obtained from laminate, disregarding from the longitudinal shape, the
equivalent diameter De is equal to the circle having the same area as the fiber cross-section
given by the following relation.
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Following prEN 14889-1. Fibers for concrete. Part. 1: Steel fibers, the equivalent diameter is
calculated from the fully developed length of the fiber L d obtained by flattening or straightening
the fiber by hand or by hammering.
where:
L = Length of the fiber (mm)
De = Equivalent diameter of the fiber (mm)
g = Density (kg/m3)
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The aspect ratio [l=L/De] defines the slenderness of the fiber: for the same fiber length, the higher
is the aspect ratio, the smaller is the equivalent diameter, which is the thinner is the fiber.
Moreover, for the same fiber length, the greater the value of l, the more lightweight the fiber
is, indicating a higher fiber density.
If the direct method and the indirect geometric method are applied, the aspect ratio neglects
the longitudinal shape, thus the volume and weight of the fiber.
If, in contrast, the indirect gravimetric method is applied, the aspect ratio takes the effective
geometry of the fiber into account through the fibers mass:
The tensile strength Rm [N/mm2 or MPa] of the fiber is calculated by dividing the tensile force
necessary to break through the cross-section of the fiber or of the intermediate product (UNI EN
10218 for wire). Besides the tensile strength Rm, the standard UNI 11037 foresees that the tensile
strength for a residual deformation set of 0,2 %, Rp0,2, is indicated as well. Again, in the same Italian standard, the tensile strength is divided into three classes, R1, R2 and R3. Each of these three
classes is further subdivided depending upon the case that the tensile strength is referred to the
intermediate product applied to obtain straight fibers:
1) Straight fiber: in this case is does not matter to test the intermediate product or the fiber itself,
and the case that the tensile strength is referred to the intermediate product applied to obtain
shaped fibers.
2) Fiber with hooked ends: In that case, and for a same class, the strength threshold is higher if it
is foreseen that the shaping / forming process produces a detriment of the tensile strength of the
fiber. This classification of tensile strength takes into account the diameter of the fiber: to decreasing diameters correspond increasing strength thresholds.
Equivalent
diameter
(mm)
Rm
400
320
350
Rm
R1
1)
Rp0.2
2)
Rp0.2
Rm
480
400
280
450
240
390
R2
1)
2)
R3
Rp0.2
2)
Rp0.2
Rm
900
720
1.080
900
350
800
640
1.040
800
300
700
560
910
700
Rp0.2
Rm
1)
Rm
NOTE: The indicated mechanical properties in the present table mention all to it the types of steel fibers.
1) Straight fiber s.
2) Profiled fiber s.
Table 2.3 - Tensile strength for three fibers classes according to Italian norm.
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Tensile
strength
test
Tensile strength
2
(N/mm )
Rp0.2
All the
class
Tensile
strength
B
Fibers from cut laminated sheet
C
Other production methods
A2
High C
content
A3
Inox
B1
Low C
content
B2
High C
content
B3
Inox
C1
Low C
content
C2
High C
content
C3
Inox
In prEN 14889-1. Fibers for concrete. Part. 1: Steel fibers the category Other production
methods is further detailed:
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
I: cold-drawn wire;
II: cut sheet;
Ill: melt extracted;
IV: shaved cold drawn wire;
V: milled from blocks.
Chemical composition
The raw material might have various chemical compositions. It is for this reason that in the
standard UNI 11037 a prospect for the chemical analysis of casting has been elaborated.
Type of steel
Mn
A1-B1-C1
A2-B2-C2
A3-B3-C3
< 0.20 1)
1)
< 0.20
< 0.60
2)
< 0.80
Pmax.
Cr
Ni
0.045
0.045
0.06
0.05
Following UNI EN 10088-1
---
---
Si
2)
< 0.30
< 0.30
Smax.
Surface coating
In order to guarantee durability in the case that the fibers are applied in particularly aggressive
environments, fibers may have a zinc surface coating. The following table presents coating thickness as a function of wire diameter:
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Diameter (mm)
15
20
25
Tolerances
Standards (UNI 11037, prEN 14889-1 and ASTM A820) provide different criteria for the evaluation of tolerances. The following table reports the most restrictive conditions provided by prEN 14889-1, which prescribes
that the percentage of conformity should not be less than 95 % of the verified specimens (whereby ASTM
A820 considers 90%, and additionally, with deviation onto the higher average nominal values):
Symbol
+ 10%
+ 5%
+ 1.5 mm
De
+ 10%
+ 5%
+ 0.015 mm
= L/De
+ 15%
+ 7.5%
Property
Symbol
Length
+ 10%
+ 10%
Equivalent diameter
De
+ 10%
+ 10%
Length/diameter
ratio
= L/De
+ 15%
+ 15%
Standard prEN 14889-1 indicates tolerances for the tensile strength and the Youngs modulus.
For tensile strength, a tolerance of 15% is considered onto the average value, and a tolerance of
7.5 % is considered onto individual values; at least the 95% of the specimens must be conform
to the above indicated tolerances.
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2.5 - Synthetic and natural fibers. Classification based upon geometric, physical,
chemical, mechanical characteristics and production process.
Synthetic fibers for use in the most common concretes can be grouped as indicated by the
following figure, taken from a BISFA document:
Polypropylene
Polyproyilene
Vinylal
Where n > 0
Modarcrylic
Acrylic copolymers
If X = H e Y = Cl
Poly(acrylonitrile or vinyl chloride)
If X = Y = Cl
Poly(acrylonitrile or vinylidene chloride)
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Polyamide
or
nylon
Polycaproamide (polyamide 6)
Aramid
Example 1:
Example 2:
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Construction Product
Directive
CPD 89/106
M128
Products related to
Concrete, Mortar
and Grout
CEN/TC104/WG11
Concrete
fibers for concret
CEN/TC229/WG3/TG7
Precast concret products
Test method for metalic fiber
prEN 14845-1
Test method for fibers
in concret
Part 1 - References
concret
prEN 14845-2
Test method for fibers
in concret
Part 2 - Effect on strenght
prEN 14651
Test method for metalic
fiber concret
Measuring the flexural
strenght
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CEN Enquiry
(May 2004)
CEN Enquiry
(May 2004)
CEN Enquiry
(July 2003)
prEN 14889-1
Fibers for concret
Part 2. Steel fibers
prEN 14889-2
Fibers for concret
Part 1. Polymer fibers
CEN Enquiry (August 2004)
Material of
production
Wirand FF1
Inorganic
Wirand FF3
Code of
the Fiber
Tensile
strength
Dimensions
(MPa)
Length
(mm)
Diameter
(mm)
Aspect
ratio
(L/d)
Number of
fibers for kg
(n/kg)
Cold-drawn wire
with low
carbon content.
1100
50
1.00
50
3212
Inorganic
Cold-drawn wire
with low
carbon content.
1200
50
0.75
67
5710
Wirand FS1
Inorganic
Cold-drawn wire
with low
carbon content.
1200
37
0.55
67
14348
Wirand FS3N
Inorganic
Cold-drawn wire
with low
carbon content.
1200
33
0.75
44
8651
Wirand FS4N
Inorganic
Cold-drawn wire
with low
carbon content.
1200
33
0.60
55
13518
Wirand FS7
Inorganic
Cold-drawn wire
with low
carbon content.
1300
33
0.55
60
16087
FibroMac 12
Inorganic
Multifilament of
virgin polypropylene
320-400
12
0.02
180.000.000
(for m3 of
mixture)
Ultrafiber 500
Vegetal
organic
Multifilamento of
virgin cellulose
90-130 ksi
02:01
0.02
1.450.000.000
MC1
Inorganic
Melt
extracto
800
32
0.4
32
7657
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Minimum performance
MC1
MC1
Wirand Wirand Wirand Wirand Wirand Wirand Wirand
Ultrafiber
FF1 FibroMac
500
FF1
FF3
FS1
FS3N
FS4N
FS7
12
(mix)
25
25
15
18
15
15
25
Tunnels
Dos. Thick. Dos. Thick. Dos. Thick. Dos. Thick. Dos. Thick. Dos. Thick. Dos. Thick.
Advised
addition
Advised
addition
Dosage
Dosage
0.6 / 0.9
Industries
25
200
25
200
30
200
0.6 / 0.10
Airports
35
300
30
300
40
300
1.9
Commercial areas
Improvement of sub-base
foundation
Foundation for machines base
20
150
20
150
20
100
20
100
20
60
25
50
20
50
20
50
30
200
0.6 / 0.10
40
250
35
250
30
250
35
250
35
250
35
300
35
300
25
150
35
150
30
150
25
150
35
300
0.6 / 0.9
60
300
0.6 / 0.9
Primary linings
Final linings
30
300
Precast segment
60
350
50
350
Light
25
Pretensile
Extruded
30
150
25
150
Channel linings
25
150
20
150
60
30
50
30
50
25
50
50
50
50
50
0.6 / 0.10
0.6 / 0.10
Table 2.13 - Application guide of the concrete fibers reinforced. Orientation according to type of fiber and thicknesses.
Comments:
All the advised dosages and thicknesses in this table are based on experiences, therefore they can vary each in accordance with case that will have particularly to be studied.
To consult the Structural Engineering department of the Maccaferri for a correct orientation to its project.
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The properties of under load (static and dynamic) fiber reinforced concrete may be classified according to the following actions:
- Compression;
- Uniaxial direct traction;
- Splitting indirect traction;
- Bending indirect traction (measure of toughness and fracture energy);
- Shearing and torsion;
- Fatigue;
- Impact;
- Abrasion;
- Viscous deformation (Creep).
The physical and chemical behaviour is to be valued according to the following phenomena:
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- Fibers corrosion in the presence of chlorides (cls cracked and not cracked);
- Exposure to the fire.
For each of the above-mentioned features suitable prescriptive references will be given.
Compression
Concrete compressive strength isnt substantially modified by fibers addition.
A moderate increase for considerable rates of steel fibers (no less than 1.5% in volume, approximately) can be observed.
After reaching the peak, the material shows a marked ductility which strongly depends on fibers
contents:
Graphic 3.1 - Chart load vs. deformation, for concrete with different fiber dosages.
Again about the behaviour of fiber reinforced to compression, the elastic modulus and the ratio of
Poisson prove to be substantially unchanged for rates of fibers lower than 2% in volume.
Strength tests are made on cylindrical (diam 150mm, height 300mm) or cubical (side 100 or 150mm)
specimen.
Reference prescriptions are the same applied to ordinary concrete (ASTM C39, EN 12390-3, etc.).
Uniaxial direct traction
Fiber reinforced behaviour to uniaxial traction is strongly affected by the presence of fibers, particularly in the phase following the first cracking.
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Only by using high measurings, above all of microfibers (about 1.5 2% in volume and above), remarkable additions of peak value can be obtained:
Graphic 3.2 - Load curve (P) vs. deformation (), for concrete with low fiber dosage (a) and high
fiber dosage (b).
Its the case of High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites (fck > 100 MPa) and with
high short fibers measurings (Lf < 13 mm, measuring > 2% volume), where the behaviour turns into
hardening kind.
The direct traction test of fiber reinforced concrete isnt easy to be carried out.
As it may be proved by the following picture, its better to engrave the specimen so as to spot the
crack:
Figure 3.2 - Arrangement for fiber reinforced concrete tensile strength test according UNI U73041440.
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In the picture the specimen is cylindrical but its also possible to test cubical or prismatical specimen.
The test consists in subjecting a cylindrical specimen to a compression force applied to a restricted
zone for the cylinder overall length.
The breaking comes after reaching the maximum traction strength in direction orthogonal to the
applied force. The fiber reinforced concrete indirect traction strength is obtained by the maximum
load.
To determine such a property its possible to apply to ASTM C496 and EN 12390-6 norms.
As for ordinary concretes, its possible to deduce the direct traction strength following up the indirect one (EC 2, Italian Technical Norms, ACI). The possible correlations also for fiber reinforced
concretes arent at present codified.
Indirect traction - Bending
The bending test is surely the most widespread owing to its carrying out relative facility and as it is
representative of many practical situations. Another reason for the success of this test comes from
the higher degree of the test redundancy, which points out the ductility brought by the fibrous reinforcement, more than it happens in the previous tests (compression and direct traction):
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5.0
zoom w = 0.2 mm
TRA0 med
TRA4 med
TRA8 med
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.00
0.10
Displacement w (mm)
0.20
Graphic 3.3 - Results comparison of fiber reinforced concrete tensile strength with different dosage rates.
Load P (kN)
12.0
zoom w = 5.00 mm
FLE0 med
FLE4 med
FLE8 med
8.0
4.0
Plain
0.0
0.00
2.50
5.00
Deflection f (mm)
Graphic 3.4 - Results comparison of fiber reinforced concrete flexural strength with different disage rates.
There are two kinds of tests: bending test on prismatical specimen (beam) and plate (circular or
square) punching test.
Bending test on beam:
This test aims at determining the toughness brought by the fibers to concrete.
The toughness is the strength opposed by the material to the feed of breaking process (static, dynamic or after shock) owing to its capacity of dispersing energy distortion.
The specimen rests on two points, and is loaded in one or two points: the former case is called Three
Point Bending Test (3PBT), the latter Four Point Bending Test (4PBT) (Figures 3.4 and 3.5):
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Support
Loading device
Support
L
Figure 3.4 - Configuration of flexural test with the third point load
arrangement.
Figure 3.5 - Configuration of flexural test with the four point load
arrangement.
The beam on three load points is loaded at midspan, while in the four points one the span is divided
in three parts of equal length.
The beams dimensions in the main regulations arent so different one from another.
In ASTM C1018 norm, according to the fibers length, its possible to choose between two different
structures:
Standard
Specimen and
loading
Specimen
dimensions
Parameters
monitored
Measurements
ASTM 1018-92
- Beam
- Third-point loading
- Load
- Net deflection at
midspan
UNE 83-510-89
Spain
- Beam
- Third-point loading
- Load
- Deflection at midspan
P 18-409
France
- Beam
- Third-point loading
b = d = 140 mm
l = 420 mm
s = 560 mm
- Load
- Deflection at midspan
(avg)
NBN B 15-238
Belgium
- Beam
- Third-point loading
b = d = 150 mm
l = 3d
4d < s < 5d
- Load
- Net deflection at
midspan
Concrete
Institute
JSCE-SF4
Japan
- Beam
- Third-point loading
h = d = 100 mm for
ll < 40 mm
h = d = 140 mm for
If > 40mm
l = 3d + 80 mm
- Load
- Net deflection at
midspan, or Net
deflection at load
points
- Flexural strength
- Load ratio P*max / Pmax (P*max = maximum load
on reloading after unloading at 0,9 Pmax in the
post-peak; Pmax = maximum load)
DBV Recommendat
(Germany)
- Beam
- Third-point loading
h = d = 150 mm
l = 600 mm
s = 700 mm
- Total load
- Net deflection at
midspan (avg)
CUR Recommend
(The Netherlands)
- Beam
- Third-point loading
h = d = 150 mm
l = 450 mm
s = 600 mm
- Total load
- Net deflection at
midspan
Concrete
Association
Recommend
Norway
- Beam
- Third-point loading
h = 125 mm
d = 75 mm
l = 450 mm
s = 550 mm
- Total load
- Load point deflection
- Flexural strength
- Residual flexural strength at deflections of 1 mm
and 3 mm
- Toughness classification based on residual flexural
strength
Table 3.1 - Comparison table of different international codes, description and results.
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Stiffness
ratio
(mm2)
System/
loading
Flex.
strength
Cq. flex.
strength
2000
781,3
3 pt/
centrally
LOP (Fu)
0,05 mm
interval
SIA 162/6
1999
h0 x h0 x 6h0 / 4,5h0
(h0 100)
370,4
4pt/3 pt
NB
publication
n7
1999
125 x 75 x l / 450
( l 500)
260,4
Germany
DBV
tunneling
1996
Sweden
SB Report
nr 4
1997
Spain
AENOR UNE
83-5xx
CIMNE n54
2000
Netherlands
CUR 35
Komo-Attest
Austria
Res. flex.
strength
Tensile
strength
Specialties
l/1000
(0.5 mm)
l/200
(2.5 mm)
0.37 x flex.
0.45 x flex
Notched beams
Concrete part
of absorption
taken into
account
Dependent on
crack location
Crack location
normalized
4 pt/3rd pt
Fu
(1 crack)
0.5 mm
1.0 mm
2.0 mm
4.0 mm
937,5
4 pt/3rd pt
Fu
(1st crack)
0,05 mm
interval
l/1200
(0.5 mm)
l/200
(3.0 mm)
0.37 x flex.
0.45 x flex
Concrete part
of absorption
taken into
account
260,4
723,4
4 pt/3 pt
Fu, Fcr
(special
method)
Refers to
DBV, ASTM
1250,0
4 pt/3 pt
3 pt/
centrally
1994
1997
1250,0
4 pt/3 pt
OBV
guideline
for shotcrete
Fu
(1st crack)
0,05 mm
interval
l/300
(1,5 mm)
l/150
(3,0 mm)
l/300
(1,5 mm)
l/150
(3,0 mm)
1998
555,6
1250,0
4 pt/3rd pt
(DBV)
Belgium
NBN
B-15-238
1992
1250,0
4 pt/3rd pt
France
NF P 18-409
1993
1088,9
Fu
Fr (0,05 mm
interval)
10
Japan
JSCE-SF4
1984
555,6
1250,0
4 pt/3rd pt
11
USA
ATSM
C 1018
1997
555,6
1250,0
4 pt/3 pt
Issued
Dimensions/span
w x d x l/s (mm)
World
Rilem
TC 162-TDF
Suisse
Norway
Country
Standard
nn
1989
rd
st
rd
rd
R = feq/fcr
Toughness
classes
l/600 l/150
ctility factors
dx.x = Fx.x/Fcr
Fu
Residual
factor after
reloading
F 0.9/Fu
Reloading
of specimen
Fcr
Toughness
indices
Ixx
Residual
strength
factors Rx,x
Evaluation stages
depending on
cracking
displacement
Fu, Fcr
rd
Fu, Fr
l/300 (1,5 mm)
0,05 mm
l/150 (3,0 mm)
interval
rd
Table 3.2 - Comparison table of different flexural test international codes, description and results.
The bending test may be represented by a Load curve Vertical displacement (measured under load
points) or, if the specimen is engraved, by a Load curve Crack Opening Displacement or COD), so
as it can be seen in the following picture:
R60-FF3-35 - Vf=0,45%
7,0
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
CTODm A
CTODm B
CTODm C
CTODm D
CTODm E
CTODm F
CTODm G
2,0
1,0
0,0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
CTODm (mm)
2,0
Graphic 3.5 - Example of UNI 11039 flexural test. Load vs. crack opening.
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2,5
3,0
3,5
Figure 3.6 - Example of first crack moment definition. Energy absorption calculation in the post cracking phase in the load vs. crack opening
chart.
The Italian norm UNI 11039 is based on bending tests on 4 points in control of crack aperture.
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Figure 3.7a - Geometry and restraints for fiber reinforced concrete beams.
Photo 3.3 - Frontal view of an instrumented specimen before the beginning of the test.
The UNI 11039 norm allows to classify the fiber reinforced concrete according to its resistance and
its toughness.
The first crack strength (fIf) derives from the relation
Where:
- l is the distance between inferior supports (450 mm)
- b is the width of the beam (150 mm)
- h is the height of the beam (150 mm)
- a0 is the depth of the engraving (45 mm)
The norm provides as well the determination of two post-crack strengths: the former, typical for exercise
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With:
U1
CTOD 0
Stress
Load
P If
U2
CTOD 0 + 0.6mm
CTOD 0 + 0.3mm
U1
0.3
U2
0.6
1.8
3 mm
The UNI 11039 norm (2003) proposes to determine two Ductility indexes defined as:
.
.
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Photo 3.4 - UNI 10834 or EFNARC test full configured front view.
This kind of test has become very popular in common in usual practice being fairly easy to be carried
out. On the other hand, the results show a marked statistical dispersion, owing to the redundant
bond: thats why its spreading, starting from the USA, the test on circular plate put on 3 spherical
hinges and for this reason statistically determined.
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Issued
Dimensions
a x b x d/s (mm)
System/loading
Toughness classes
Specialties
UE
CEN TC229
Allround hinged,
centrally loaded
100 x 100
E in J
nn
UE
EFNARC
1996
Allround hinged,
centrally loaded
100 x 100
Suisse
SIA 162/6
1999
Allround hinged,
centrally loaded
100 x 100
l: 500 J
ll: 800 J
lll: 1000 J
(min G = 4 kN/m)
Calculation of equivalent
flex. tensile strength
Norway
NB
Publication
n7
1999
Allround hinged,
centrally loaded
100 x 100
Austria
OBV
Guideline for
Shotcrete
1998
Allround hinged,
centrally loaded
100 x 100
EUA
ASTM
C1550-05
2005
800 x 75 / 700
4 pt/3 pt support
@ 5, 10, 20, 40 mm
Country
nn
Bernards statically
determined test
Table 3.3 - Comparison table of different energy absorption test or plate test.
(Walraven)
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(Minelli)
Generally, its possible to state that the field of validity of all the expressions above is anyway still
rather restricted, as they derive from experimental observations and as specific national regulations
dont exist.
Fatigue
The increase of fatigue strength caused by the introduction of fibers is well known: in support there
exists a wide literature based on several experimental campaigns.
The tests dimensions and procedures are various: in this case, too, there are no regulations in this
matter.
The fatigue strength can be defined as the maximum stress level to which the fiber reinforced concrete can resist for a definite number of load cycles before cracking, or as the maximum number of
load cycles necessary to breaking for a definite stress level (ACI Committee: Report 544.1R Fiber
Reinforced Concrete; Report 544.2R Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete).
Impact
The behaviour of fiber reinforced concrete may be studied by various test procedures (ACI Committee: Report 544.2R Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete):
For instance, in the case 2, the number of drops necessary to generate a certain level of damage in
the specimen is measured.
With these kinds of tests its possible to compare:
Some experiments carried out by several researchers have proved that, by using drop-weight procedure, its registered a very strong increase of the strength of normal strength concretes, of about 6-7
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If, on the contrary, the structure isnt free of shrinking, there would arise some traction tensions
which can overcome the material resistant capacity causing the arising of cracks spread over concrete.
Its possible to get out of this phenomenon by adding to the mixture short fibers, in suitable quantity.
The optimum fibers in this sense are steel microfibers (Q 0.20 mm) owing to the larger specific
surface and, therefore, to the possibility of interacting with cementitious matrix.
One of the procedures used to measure the effects of shrinking, in not confined conditions, is the
norm ASTM C157 Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-cement Mortar and Concrete.
At present, there are no confined condition regulations, for fiber reinforced concretes.
Durability
In the recent instructions CNR DT204 2006 its reproduced a table concerning steel fibers, which
specifies these fibers possibilities of use according to exposure classes (in accordance with the norm
EN 206-1:2006 - Concrete - Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity) and to
penetration depth of water under pressure (UNI EN 12390-8).
Freeze-thaw
As for frost resistance of fiber reinforced mixtures with steel fibers, it must be said that just an increase of air pockets ratio is to be held as efficient: only by acting this way its possible to obtain frost
resistant concretes and this is true also for fiber reinforced concretes.
Reinforced concretes with steel fibers, with suitable air contents show a very good resistance to
freeze-thaw cycles in comparison with not reinforced concretes (Massazza and Coppetti, Italcementi, 1991).
The norm to be used, ASTM C666-03 Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid
Freezing and Thawing, applies to fiber reinforced concretes, too.
In European ambit its possible to use the regulations CEN/TR 15177:2006 Testing the freeze-thaw
resistance of concrete - Internal structural damage, EN 13581-2003 Products and systems for the
protection and repair of concrete structures - Test method - Determination of loss of mass of hydrophobic impregnated concrete after freeze-thaw salt stress or the norm UNI 7987-2002 Concrete
- Determination of deterioration resistance for freeze and thaw cycles.
Carbonation
The presence of fibers seems not to affect meaningly the carbonation phenomenon as no increases
of the depth of CO2 face have been noticed.
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Hardening
Plastic-Rigid
Softening
Graphic 3.9 - Constitution law determination, tensile strength vs crack opening. Hardening, plastic-rigid and softening behavior idealization. CNR DT
204/2006.
The same can be said for the advice RILEM TC 162-TDF, with some differences in the constitutive connection and in the formulae which correlate the bending remaining strengths and the traction ones:
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fc
(N/mm )
(%0)
(%0)
(Axial force)
fc
(N/mm2)
Graphic 3.10 - Tension versus deformation diagram considered for RILEM TC-162).
The testings of fiber reinforced elements must be carried out both concerning the limit states of
exercise (SLE), and concerning the last limit state (SLU), as determined in the regulation in force.
It must be tested, through the partial coefficients procedure, that, in all design situations, adopting
the design values of actions, of stresses and of strengths, no limit state has been violated.
Therefore it must come out:
where Ed and Rd are, respectively, the design values of the generic effect taken into consideration
and of the corresponding strength in the environment of the limit state examined.
The design values are obtained from the characteristic ones, resulting from laboratory normalized
tests, through suitable partial coefficients, the values of which, for the various limit states, are those
recommended by the regulation in force appropriately supplemented concerning fiber reinforced
concrete traction strength.
The properties values of the materials used in the fiber reinforced frameworks design must have
been determined through laboratory normalized tests.
The mechanical properties of strength and distortion of the materials, as it was said above, are quantified by the corresponding characteristic values.
The only rigidity parameters (coefficient of elasticity) of the materials are evaluated through the corresponding average values.
The design value of the generic strength property, Xd, may be expressed in general form through a
relation such as:
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where Xk is the characteristic value of the generic property and gm is a partial coefficient of the material.
In the determination of the characteristic value of the fiber reinforced concrete traction strength its
possible to consider the structural redundancy:
where fFtm is the middle value, k is Students factor, s the standard deviation while a is a coefficient
which decreases when structural redundancy increases.
Testing to limit states for monodimensional elements
Combined compressive and bending stress
The design to SLU of beam elements subjected to bending requires the reckoning of the resistant
last moment and the comparison with the design moment.
Its assumed that bending cracking shows when one of the following conditions takes place:
For a deteriorating constitutive connection, the maximum traction distortion is assumed equal to 2%
and anyway the maximum crack aperture mustnt be wider than 3 mm.
For a hardening constitutive connection, the maximum distortion is about 1%.
The calculation of bending and combined compressive and bending stress SLU, with or without the
presence of steel bars ordinary framework, can be carried out on the basis of constitutive connections simplified as in the following picture:
Hardening
(Vf>Vcrtico)
Softening
(Vf<Vcrtico)
Graphic 3.11 - Limit states for the combined compressive and bending stress: use of the constituent simplified laws (stress-block with coefficients e
as EC2).
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Axial
strenght
Factors
Relation
Relation
Graphic 3.12 - Limit states for the combined compressive and bending stress: simplified method (stress-block as RILEM TC-162).
As already quoted, the values to be used in testing come out of bending tests in laboratory and are
then converted into traction values, reduced of safety partial coefficients.
Shearing and torsion
Without going into details (its possible to refer to the quoted normative documents for the study in
depth) its interesting the possibility of quantifying the contribution due to fibers (to be determined
with the same procedure followed for the combined compressive and bending stress) which allows
to replace, partially or totally, the shearing or torsion framework.
If the shearing or torsion strain is of little importance, the regulations require, however, a minimum
framework which can be guaranteed by the fibrous reinforcement.
Testing to SLU for plate elements
For plate elements without conventional framework subjected to prevalent bending strains, the
strength testing can be carried out referring to the resistant moment, mRd, reckoned assuming the
rigid-plastic constitutive connection:
In case of contemporary action of two bending moments mx and my acting in orthogonal directions,
the testing to SLU requires the fulfilment of the restriction:
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Cracks aperture
In reckoning the cracks characteristic width, its possible to quantify the contribution given by fibers
through the aliquot of the strain absorbed by the fiber reinforced for the benefit of the ordinary
framework (RILEM TC 162-TDF and Instructions CNR DT204 2006).
To do this the CNR Instructions suggest to assume a constant distribution of width tensions equal to
traction tension characteristic to SLE, fFtsk.
Minimum framework for crack control
In order to control crack, in bent elements its necessary to provide for a minimum framework.
In CNR Instructions the minimum framework area is equal to:
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where:
- As is the stretch bending framework area [mm2]. In case As is negative, the minimum framework may consist only of fibrous reinforcement;
- Act is the concrete area of the section subjected to traction [mm2], determined assuming a
strain state to the elastic limit;
- ss is the maximum tension in the framework admissible in cracked phase. It may be assumed equal to steel yield;
- fct,ef is the traction strength to concrete effective at first crack moment [mm2]. It depends
on environment conditions. In absence of specific data, the traction strength must be considered as
determined 28 days after the casting;
- kc is a coefficient which considers sectional reallocation of strains soon before the crack.
kc = 1 in presence of pure traction, kc = 0.4 in presence of pure bending,
for e/h<0.4;
for e/h>0.4;
- ks considers the effect of not uniform autobalanced strains. In absence of precise data, this
value may be considered equal to 0.8;
- kp considers the presence of precompression:
where
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- UNE 83-510 Determination del Indice de Tenacidad y Resistencia a Primera Fisura
- NBN B 15-238 Essai des btons renforcs des fibers. Essai de Flexion sur prouvettes prismatiques
- JCISF4 Method of Tests for Flexural Strength and Flexural Toughness of Fiber Reinforced
Concrete
- UNI 7087 - Calcestruzzo - Determinazione della resistenza al degrado per cicli di gelo e
disgelo
- UNI 9944 - Corrosione e protezione dellarmatura del calcestruzzo. Determinazione della
profondit di carbonatazione e del profilo di penetrazione degli ioni cloruro nel calcestruzzo
- UNI 11039-1 Calcestruzzo rinforzato con fiber di acciaio. Part. I: Definizioni, classificazione e designazione
- UNI 11039-2 Calcestruzzo rinforzato con fiber di acciaio. Part. II. Metodo di prova per la
determinazione della resistenza di prima fessurazione e degli indici di duttilit
- UNI U73041440 - Progettazione, esecuzione e controllo degli elementi strutturali in calcestruzzo rinforzato con fiber dacciaio
- Norme Tecniche per le Costruzioni Decr. 14/09/05 G.U. 23/09/05
- CNR DT204 2006 - Istruzioni per la Progettazione, lEsecuzione ed il Controllo di Strutture
di Calcestruzzo Fibrorinforzato
- ISO 834 Fire resistance tests - Elements of building construction
- BS 476 - Fire tests on building materials and structures
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STRENGTH
WATER/CEMENT RATIO
WORKABILITY
Figure 4.1. - Base relation between the parameters which affect the mixture.
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QUANTITY OF CONCRETE
Where:
c = cement content (kg/m3)
a = a/c = water/cement ratio (1/kg)
T = Slump of Abramss cone (cm)
K, m e n are variables which depend on the kind of aggregate used.
This equation is known as the triangular ratio. Together with Abramss law (workability), these relationships form the two main laws which must be considered for the design of concrete mixture using
the method presented in this handbook.
At present, there are many design methodologies proposed for the design of concrete mixtures. For
the purpose of this handbook, a method with a general character has been selected that has been
used and proven on many occasions. The method has been developed for use in the design of compression strength concretes (average strength after 28 days of age, in cylindrical test tubes of 15 cm
of diameter and 30 cm of height) between 18 MPa and 42 MPa and Abramss cone lowering between
2,5 cm and 18 cm. For concrete mixes that differ from these stated conditions, it is recommended
to use another design methodology.
The methodology which follows will be proposed in summed up form, if theres the wish of analysing
better this subject its advisable to see the corresponding regulations.
Entry data
1) Strength
The calculation strength or characteristic strength will have to be equal to compression strength expected by the designer, increased through the following equation (strength measured in test tubes
of 15 cm of diameter and 30 cm of height):
Where:
Fcr = calculation compression strength or characteristic strength.
fc = compression strength expected by the designer.
Z = students variable of normal distribution (see Table 4.1).
s = deviation expected for concrete (see Table 4.2).
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4.
FRATTILE %
20
0,842
10
1,282
1,645
CONTROL DEGREE
WITHOUT
CONTROL
BAD
MEDIUM
GOOD
EXCELLENT
9,0
6,5
5,0
4,0
3,0
>92
66
51
41
31
2) Workability
It has to be calculated through Abramss cone. It must be considered that the more its difficult to
cast concrete, the greater the expected lowering will have to be. Table 4.3 shows the usual values
of lowering to the cone:
Element
Huge foundations
Floors
11
10
18
Carried by pumping
18
Superplasticized
Greater than 18
Prefabricated building
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This ratio must be such as to include the granulometry in the zone recommended in Table 4.4.
There are several methods for the correct calculation of b, the easiest and quite precise its the graphic
method which can be found in the usual bibliography for the formulation of concrete.
6) Abramss law
This law fixes the correlation existing between concrete strength and the relation of water content/cement in
weight, the expression of which is called a:
Where:
a = water weight;
c = cement weight.
Abramss law can be expressed as:
where:
R = strength to a defined age of ripening;
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4.
M and N: they are constants which depend on the characteristics of the materials component the
mixture and on the test age.
Sieve
Maximum dimension
(mm/inches)
88,9mm
76,2mm
63,5mm
60,8mm
38,1mm
25,4mm
19,0mm
12,7mm
9,53mm
6,35mm
4,76mm
2,38mm
1,19mm
0,595mm
0,298mm
0,149mm
(mm / inches)
3 / ''
3''
2 / ''
2''
1 / ''
1''
/ ''
/ ''
/ ''
/ ''
4''
8''
16''
30''
50''
100''
1
1
3
1
2
8
4
88,9mm
76,2mm
63,5mm
50,8mm
38,1mm
25,4mm
31/2 ''
3 ''
21/2 ''
2 ''
11/2 ''
1 ''
100-90
95-80
92-60
85-50
76-40
68-33
63-30
57-28
53-25
45-22
45-22
40-20
35-15
25-10
16-7
8-2
100-90
92-70
87-55
80-45
72-38
68-35
62-35
58-30
48-25
48-25
43-20
35-15
25-10
16-7
8-2
100-90
87-65
80-55
73-47
68-43
62-37
60-35
58-30
50-28
45-20
35-15
25-10
16-7
8-2
100-90
87-73 100-90
77-59 84-70
73-53 77-61
68-44 70-49
65-40 65-43
60-35 60-35
55-30 55-30
45-20 45-20
35-15 35-15
25-10 25-10
16-7
16-7
8-2
8-2
100-90
90-70
75-55
68-45
60-35
55-30
45-20
35-15
25-10
16-5
8-2
19,0mm
/4 ''
12,7mm
/2 ''
100-90
85-65 100-90
75-55 78-90
65-45 65-51
60-38 58-42
45-20 43-37
35-15 31-17
25-10 20-10
16-5
11-5
8-2
6-2
9,53mm
/8 ''
100-90
73-61
62-48
40-26
26-14
13-5
7-3
5-1
6,35mm
/4 ''
100-90
62-52
38-26
21-9
8-2
5-1
2-0
Table 4.4 - Gradation limits recommended for different maximum dimensions of the aggregate passing rates.
If from the expression 37 the unknown a is made explicit, the result is:
For coarse aggregates of 25.4 mm of maximum dimension, natural sand (both in saturated condition with dry surface) and Portland cement Type I of a medium quality, good approximations are
obtained with:
a) R7 = 902.5 / 13.1a ; a = 1.724 0.3887 Ln R7 ; (MPa)
b) R28 = 88.50 / 8.69a ; a = 2.073 0.4628 Ln R28 ; (MPa)
c) R90 = 95.43 / 7.71a ; a = 2.232 0.4896 Ln R90 ; (MPa)
Formule 37. Specific Abrams Low.
7) Correction of a
In case the conditions of M and N arent those expected originally, there is a factor KR the aim of which
is to fit the values of a to the different kinds of aggregates. Refer to Table 4.5 and Table 4.6.
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6.35
9.51
12.7
19.0
25.4
38.1
50.8
64.0
76.1
Maximum
(1/4)
(3/8)
(1/2)
(3/4)
(1)
(1 )
(2)
(2 )
(3)
Factor KR
1.60
1.30
1.10
1.05
1.0
0.91
0.82
0.78
0.74
Coarse
Fine
Natural sand
Ground sand
Ground
Half-ground
Cobblestone
(natural gravel)
1.00
0.97
0.91
1.10
0.93
1.14
Once calculated, it is necessary for the correction factors KR and KA to be applied according to the
kind of aggregate to be used so as to obtain a more precise value
8) Limits of a for durability
Its important to consider that a must be within certain limits, as this factor affects concrete durability. In case a exceeds these values, its value will have to be considered as the maximum allowable.
See Table 4.7.
Kind of damage
Conditions
Maximum
0.75
0.60
Deterioration of
concrete and
corrosion of
frameworks
0.55
,
0.50
0.40
According to case
Deterioration for
washed out.
permeability
0.45
0.65
9) Triangular ratio
Through this law, it is possible to correlate three of the most important parameters which are typical
of concrete, water/cement ratio (a), quantity of cement (c) and slump through Abramss cone.
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4.
Where K, n and m are constants which depend on the characteristics of the materials being parts
of concrete.
Similarly to the case of a, in the situation where concrete is formed by coarse, round aggregates of
25.4 mm of maximum size, natural sand (both in saturated condition with dry surface) and Portland
cement Type I of a medium quality, good approximations are obtained with:
Dimension
6.35
9.51
12.7
19.0
25.4
38.1
50.8
64.0
76.1
Maximum
(1/4)
(3/8)
(1/2)
(3/4)
(1)
(1 )
(2)
(2 )
(3)
Factor KR
1.33
1.20
1.14
1.05
1.0
0.93
0.88
0.85
0.82
Coarse
Fine
Ground
Natural sand
1.00
Ground sand
1.28
Half-ground
Cobblestone
(natural gravel)
1.03
0.90
1.23
0.96
And, as in case of a, the quantity of cement will never have to be inferior to the values shown in
Table 4.10
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Quantities of cement
3
(kg/m )
270
.
In sea aggressive environments. etc. or
in concretes subjected to deterioration
350
Where:
V = volume of included air
c = quantity of cement (kg/m3)
P = maximum dimension of aggregates (mm)
- Cement absolute volume:
Its equal to the weight of the material divided by its specific gravity, its a value which must be calculated in laboratory, for the aim of this handbook its sufficient to know that, in normal conditions,
this value is equal about to 3.3, the opposite of which is 0.3.
- Water absolute volume (kg/m3)
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4.
(G+A)
+ 0.3.c + a + V 1000 litros
(G+A)
(42)
Where:
g (G + A) = Specific gravity of the combined aggregate. This value can be calculated on the basis of b
through the following expression:
; ( b < 1)
Finally, drawn A + G from formule 42 and using ratio b, each of the weights can be obtained separately;
A....G
Evidently, as already previously explained, the method shown in this handbook is rather simplified and
doesnt consider many other factors which may come into play when designing a mixture, nevertheless it sums up, in a simple way, the main steps to follow for concrete formulation.
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4.
Insertion with the aggregates at batching plant. The fibers are incorporated with the dry aggregates
during the batching of the concrete mix. In this case, it is important to specify the correct water/cement ratio in order to obtain the desired workability. The design slump can vary up to +/- 25 mm.
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The use of fiber reinforced concrete cast on site does not require the additional use of specialized
equipment. Equipment normally used, such as vibrators and pumps, is all that is required. Special
care is required when using pumped concrete mixes in order to avoid clogging. The fiber length must
not exceed 70% of the diameter of the exit mouth of the pumping system.
Presented below are photos of fiber reinforced concrete mixes being poured in various conditions
and using different types of equipment.
Concretes poured in the field typically have slumps ranging between 100-150 mm and water/cement
ratios of 0.3-0.5. The choice of the aggregates and their granulometry will have to suit the element
to cast and will be affected only by the structure and the mechanical strength required by the design,
so the choice of the fiber will have to be compatible with these bases.
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4.
4.3 - Advice for insertion of fibers into concretes for prefabricated elements.
In the previous sections, it has been widely described the manufacture of mixtures with the addition
of fibers, and the fundamental rules to avoid problems of segregation or fibers conglomeration. The
flexibility of the insertion of fibers into the mixture is so wide that can generate concretes with very
low ratio water/cement, in this particular case, the rules of fibers configuration and geometrical selection are of maximum importance. Nowadays, the steel fibers of loose format can be incorporated
to dry mixtures without harming homogeneity.
In the case of concrete mixes with a low water/cement ratio, the role of the additives is to keep the
mixture workable and to obtain a suitable finish of the precast elements.
The suggestion for these types of mixes is to use fibers with low high aspect ratios. This will avoid
fiber conglomeration during the dry mixing process that can prevent the development of uniform
fiber distribution in the mix. It is generally accepted that fibers with high aspect ratios have a greater
tendency towards conglomeration; there are few producers that have been successful in controlling
this phenomenon.
One possible solution to control the tendency to conglomerate of high aspect ratio fibers is to use
fibers that have a thin coating of glued. This approach is problematic in the case of low ratio water/
cement mixtures, as the small quantity of water cannot thin completely the glue resulting in a certain
amount of conglomeration of fibers. The use of plasticizing admixtures in this case can help improve
this situation.
As previously mentioned, the presence of the fibers in the concrete mix does not require the use of
specialized production equipment. Standard concrete batching facilities are used and the fibers are
incorporated as an additional aggregate, as shown in the photos below:
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In case of mixtures used in the manufacture of precast concrete elements, it is possible to sometimes
use higher slump mixes than normally used for cast-in-place structures. The considerations previously
stated for cast-in-place concretes must be followed.
The selection of aggregates and their gradations are generally controlled by the dimensions of the
precast elements to manufacture. The choice of fiber used in these mixes should be compatible with
the element dimensions and aggregates used.
4.4 - Recommendations for the use of fibers into wet and dry sprayed
concretes.
A sprayed mixture of sand, water and cement commonly referred to as shortcrete or gunite has been
used for almost a century in the field of civil engineering. The materials used in the formulation of the
mix are the same as in traditional concrete mixes, only the method of application differs pneumatic
spraying instead of casting.
There are two general methods of applying shotcrete mixtures, wet or dry. In the dry method, sand,
gravel and cement are worked in a mixer and then conveyed through pipes using pressured air. In
the wet method, the mixture is conveyed through pipes as well, but water is introduced at the point
of discharge.
A combination of the wet and dry methods of shotcrete application is also used. A small amount of
water is incorporated into the mix during batching. The resultant damp mixture is conveyed through
pipes and onto the work surface by pressured air. This procedure is in common usage throughout
the world. In some countries, it is the only method used.
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4.
There are numerous fields where shotcrete technologies have been applied. The ease of use of its
manufacture and the advantages it offers in approaching in quick and effective way places difficult
to be reached in another way, are some of the reasons for which this procedure was and keeps on
being used all over the world. Typically applications are:
- Building of tunnels.
- Mining industry.
- Slope facing.
- Stabilization of excavations for foundations.
- Clearance works.
Generally, shotcrete can be used in any kind of work directed to pursue the stabilization or the covering
of an irregular superficial layer where the conventional formwork cannot be used. Although the primary application is that of soil support, it can be used in the general repair of concrete structures.
GENERAL ASPECTS OF MIX DESIGN
As it has already been stated, the composition of shotcrete is similar to that of conventional concrete
mixes. There are, however, some differences, including:
Regarding the water/cement ratio, it is necessary to mention the differences between the two application procedures. For the dry application method, the water/cement ratio is calculated considering
not only the water which will be added to the pipe mouth, but also the moisture content of the aggregates used in the mix. Nevertheless, in this procedure there isnt a definite value for the aforesaid
ratio as the worker who controls the pipe is the same who controls the quantity of water which will
be discharged, which is a disadvantage. Just the physical characteristics of concrete get Water/Cement
ratio not to be so changed, because in case such proportion isnt between the allowed values either
there will be an excess of powder (in case of water shortage) or concrete will not fix to the surface
(in case of water excess). Such ratio varies normally between 0.4 and 0.5.
In the damp way procedure, the Water/Cement ratio keeps the same levels as the dry way procedure,
the difference is that, as the mixture has been manufactured previously, its possible to control such
ratio from the beginning.
Owing to the fact that, in most cases, gunite is used through damp way, this will be the method of
most reference in this chapter.
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Given the importance and the variety of the additives existing on the market, this subject has been
left for a separate chapter. For more information see chapter 3.1 and 3.2.
- The insertion of fibers distributed homogeneously in concrete, on one hand proves to be extremely
effective to contrast the phenomenon of shrinking crack and, on the other hand, gives the concrete
a ductility which may become remarkable insofar as the fibers strength is increased. For further
information see chapters 3.1 and 3.2.
As peculiarity of the dry way procedure, the fibers incorporation isnt very spread as they then bounce
in great quantity (up to 50%).
Sieve ISO
.
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4.
Tamiz ISO
Min. %
Max. %
0.149
0.125
12
0.297
0.25
11
26
0.595
0.5
22
50
1.19
37
72
2.38
55
90
4.76
73
100
9.51
90
100
19
16
100
100
38.1
32
76.1
64
Table 4.11 - Selection of aggregates in function of the sieve for a shotcrete mixture.
ut
out
ay way o
w
r
s
e
te
Wa regat
Agg
Figure 4.2 - Diagram of equipment for dry mixture. On the left diagram of mixer machine: A. Material, B. mixture rotor, C. pipe way
out nozzle, P. pressure from the compressor to pump the mixture.
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4.
Damp process:
At present, the pumping mechanisms of the equipments used for spraying concrete through damp
way use two kinds of systems: a) a spiral system which pumps the flow of concrete or b) a system of
plungers which, through pressure, expel the mixture from the conveying pipe.
Its important to point out that in damp way procedure the mixture must be prepared before being
incorporated to the machine (including corresponding water). This mixture must be enough fluid to
avoid obstructions of the pipe, its advisable the use of additives to increase concrete fluidity at the
moment of pumping.
Here follows a photographic sequence of preparing and using of concrete mixture with damp way
process:
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4.
Spraying techniques
As already pointed out, being shot concrete a method of application, its correct carrying out is as
important as the mixture composition. An uncorrected carrying out leads to a faulty result.
With a good application of Shotcrete a conglomerate with the characteristics required by the designer
is obtained. The uncorrected carrying out may lead to a bad distribution of the components, excessive
waste or bouncing, bad allocation, among the other unwanted factors.
In order to finish this chapter there will follow some of the most important recommendations which
will have to be respected during the gunited:
Photo 4.41 - Worker who keeps the perpendicularity between the surface to gunite and the position of
the plain of the nozzle mouth.
Angle of incidence:
The angle of incidence through which the concrete casting is going to reach the surface must be
perpendicular to the surface itself. Otherwise, the quantity of bouncing material (wasted material)
will be excessive. For this reason, the mouth of the conveyance pipe will always have to be perpendicular to the surface.
Velocity of impact:
The distance between the mouth and the surface is of great importance; this distance is directly proportional to the way out speed of concrete that is, the faster it is, the greater the distance will have
to be and vice versa. So, in case the velocity of impact is very high there will be an excess of bouncing
preventing that concrete gets fixed effectively to the surface, on the contrary, owing to absence of
cohesion, the mass of concrete wont get fixed to the surface causing wide leaks.
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4.
The additives discussed above are in common usage in the design and batching of concrete mixtures.
There have been no interaction problems reported with the use of fiber reinforcements. The additives control the mixture quality and workability; the fibers are a reinforcement. The fiber dosage in
a concrete volume does not appear to represent a workability problem requiring additional methods
of control.
4.6 - Typical applications of the structural and not structural fiber reinforced
concrete.
Starting in the1960s, the technology of steel fiber reinforced concrete has evolved from lab experimentation done in the 1950s, into practical industrial applications. Examples of the various applications are monolithic prefabricated elements, industrial floors, the supports of surface and subsurface
excavations using shotcrete, and prefabricated tunnel lining segments. Steel fibers reinforcement is
now accepted as a viable alternate to conventional reinforcing steel.
The steel fibers were initially incorporated to the concrete matrix in order to avoid brittle behaviour
and improve its physical characteristics. Under normal conditions concrete, will tend to crack, mainly
owing to the traction forces which are internally produced. In order to avoid this phenomenon, it
is necessary to reinforce the concrete either with welded wire mesh or with fibers. The advantage
of using fibers is that the fibers will blend into the matix, creating a three-dimensional framework,
avoiding then the phenomenon of plastic shrinking.
Additional research has concluded that fiber reinforcement not only improves the physical properties of the concrete, but also improves the mechanical characteristics. These improvements allow the
fibers to used as structural reinforcement in many cases.
There are many cases in which fibers can be and are used as structural reinforcement. Nevertheless,
the lack of a clear and simple regulation is the greatest restriction limiting this new technology to
be able to spread among a greater number of engineers and applications.
- Mixture design.
- Fibers, regulations for their incorporation in different production processes.
- Control of material mechanical properties.
- Structural design codes.
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Photo 5.1 - Tunnel obtained through TBM of 12 m diameter, Line 9 of the metro in Barcelona, Spain.
In the almost total number of cases, this mechanised excavation procedure is associated to the use
of lining rings made of precast segments of reinforced concrete. These segments are adequately assembled within the underground tunnel systematically and continuously throughout the advancement
of the excavation works in such a way that the tunnel turns out to be completed after the passage
of the TBM.
Photo 5.2 - Precast ashlars for TBM tunnel construction, Line 9 of the metro in Barcelona, Spain.
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Photo 5.3 - Example of a tunnel obtained through conventional excavation with explosives. Railway
line Caracas-Charallave, Venezuela.
Photo 5.4 - Example of a tunnel obtained through conventional excavation with explosives, placement of metallic support. Railway line Caracas-Charallave, Venezuela.
Right after or even immediately after tunnel excavation has been completed, the cavity is generally,
although not necessarily, covered through an on-site casting of completely or partially reinforced
concrete, which function may vary from rigorously structural to purely cosmetic. This depends from
the geostatic and functional conditions of each specific work.
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Photo 5.5 - Example of tunnel obtained through conventional excavation with explosives, which final
lining is obtained though on-site concrete casting. Railway line Caracas-Charallave, Venezuela.
For all the above sequentially mentioned elements, such as the precast concrete rings, the primary
supporting structures in shotcrete and the linings of cast-in-place concrete, modern technology of
structural concrete makes use of metal fibers, either in substitution or in addition to conventional
reinforcement metal bars, ever more frequently and with ever increasing comparative advantages
and excellent results. Metal fibers may be eventually also complemented through the use of synthetic
fibers.
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In a certain sense, something similar happens also in the case of the pre-cast concrete ring segments
applied to cover tunnels excavated through TBM, because of the fact that this single support shall
fulfil all permanent static functions. Moreover, in this case, each element composing the lining shall
fulfil as well all highly demanding temporary structural functions, which are related to the construction process, to the storing, handling, assembling processes, and, sometimes, to the process of
counteracting forces exerted at the face by the TBM during excavation.
Finally, and independently from which is the case, the structural design shall begin from the definition of acting loads and of boundary conditions. As such, the geomechanical characterisation of the
environment to be excavated results being a fundamental prerequisite.
Geomechanical characterisation of rocks and ground.
The identification of grounds, soils, rocks and rock mass, which will be impacted by the excavation,
is the first step in the complex process of designing a tunnel. This characterisation is directly related
to results of what is traditionally named a geological study, or a geological survey, or, more simply,
the geology of the site of the underground construction work.
It is important that such identification and eventual classification of the involved soils, rocks and
rock mass, is carried out not just following geologic criteria, but also following engineering criteria,
in what is meant considering at any time physical and mechanical conditions and properties of the
materials and of the system as a whole.
Since the tunnel will be definitely excavated and constructed in the rock mass on a natural scale, this
will be in the end the medium towards which the geomechanical characterisation will be directed.
Nonetheless, as a consequence, characterisation will pass from the characterisation of single materials (soils and intact rock) forming the rock mass, to the characterisation of structures (discontinuities)
interconnecting materials composing the rock mass.
For highly pronounced rocky environments, in function of the fracture density and orientation (level
of anisotropy) with respect to the rock medium, the rock mass can be represented with a continuum
model, a discontinuum model, or an equivalent continuum model. For environments typically consisting
of cohesive or incoherent soils, it will be generally referred to the respective continuum models.
In case a discontinuum model is applied, fundamental objective of the characterisation is to identify
geometric and strength characteristics of discontinuities, thereby utilizing, as an example, Bartons
criterion, which becomes explicit through the following equation for shear stress:
Where:
t - shear stress
sn - normalized stress
fb - base friction angle (obtained through shear tests onto smooth, non-altered, surfaces)
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Two tables summarizing values to be possibly assumed by each of the first two parameters mentioned
above are enclosed. These tables can be used, as a first approximation, to estimate values which those
two parameters could assume for a specified rock, if laboratory tests are completely missing, or to
be used as complement to laboratory test results. Subsequently, Hoeks tables to be applied for the
definition and determination of the third parameter, the GSI, are enclosed as well.
The following step consists in considering the geomechanical characteristics of strength and deformation of the rock mass:
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(s3max/scm) = 0.47.(scm/.H)-0.91
s3n = s3max/sci
with H = depth of the tunnel and D construction disturbance factor: equal to 0 for undisturbed
conditions and equal to 1 for not well controlled explosions.
It must be highlighted that since these equations are empirical, they should be used carefully. And
in any case, it is recommended that each of those seven geomechanical parameters is quantified in
statistic terms, thus assigning to each of them a probabilistic distribution in function of its nature,
and some statistic indexes and factors in function of the specific knowledge available for them.
Point
load
index
(MPa)
Examples
Grade*
Term
Uniaxial
comp.
strength
(MPa)
R6
Extremely
strong
> 250
> 10
R5
Very strong
100 - 250
4 - 10
R4
Strong
50 - 100
2-4
R3
Medium
strong
1-2
25 - 50
R2
Weak
5 - 25
**
R1
Very weak
1-5
**
R0
Extremely
weak
0.25 - 1
**
Indented by thumbnail.
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Group
Class
SEDIMENTARY
Clastic
Carbonates
NonClastic
Texture
Coarse
Conglomerates
(21 + 3)
Breccias
(19 + 5)
Medium
Sandstones
17 + 4
Fine
Siltstones
7+2
Greywackes
(18 + 3)
Very fine
Claystones
4+2
Shales
(6 + 2)
Marls
(7 + 2)
Crystalline
limestone
(12 + 3)
Sparitic
limestones
( 10 + 2 )
Micritic
limestones
(9 + 2)
Dolomites
(9 + 3)
Gypsum
(8+2)
Anhydrite
( 12 + 2 )
Evaporites
Chalk
07 + 2
METAMORPHIC
Organic
Marble
9+ 3
Hornfels
( 19 + 4 )
Metasandstone
( 19 + 3 )
Slightly foliated
Migmatite
(29 + 3)
Amphibolites
26 + 6
Foliated*
Gneiss
28 + 5
Schists
12 + 3
Granite
32 + 3
Granodiorite
(29 + 3)
Diorite
25 + 5
Cabbro
27 + 3
Dolerite
(16 + 5)
Non foliated
Light
Plutonic
IGNEOUS
Dark
Hypabyssal
Norite
20 + 5
Vulcnica
Pyroclastic
Phyllites
(7 + 3)
Slates
7+4
Diabase
(15 + 5)
Peridotite
(25 + 5)
Rhyolite
(25 + 5)
Andesite
25 + 5
Dacite
(25 + 3)
Basalt
(25 + 5)
Obsidian
(19 + 3)
Breccia
(19 + 5)
Tuff
(13 + 5)
Porphyries
(20 + 5)
Lava
Agglomerate
(19 + 3)
Quartzites
20 + 3
* These values if relate the proven samples of unbroken rock in the normal direction to the stratification. The gotten value of mi it can vary significantly if the
rupture itself verifies in the direction of the weak or plain plan of stratification.
1* Note: this table contains substantial exchanges in reference to the shown ones in preceding publications. Such exchanges had been made to reflect given
accumulated in recent tests of laboratory and the gotten experience of great quarrels techniques with Geologists and Engineers geologists.
Table 5.2 - Values of mi for different classifications of rock according to its geomorfolgical origin.
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Rock type:
SURFACE CONDITIONS
General
VERY
GOOD
GSI selection: 31
STRUCTURE
GOOD
FAIR
VERY
POOR
POOR
90
N/A
N/A
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
N/A
10
N/A
GSI Selection: 31
VERY
GOOD
C - Sandstone and
siltstone in
similar
amounts
D - Siltstone
or silty
shale with
sandstone
layers
70
FAIR
VERY
POOR
POOR
A
60
E - Weak
sitstone or
clayey shale
with
sandstone
layers
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GOOD
50
40
30
F
20
10
VERY BAD
Mirrors of breaking, surfaces very meteorized with
hard clay waddings.
BAD
Mirrors of breaking, surfaces very meteorized with
hard waddings of angular fragmentos.
MEDIA
Plain, moderately meteorized, modified surfaces.
STRUCTURE
VERY GOOD
Very wringled, surfaces without meteorization.
From the description of the structure and the conditions of the surface
of the rock mass, to select the appropriate interval of this table.
Esteem the average value of Geolocical Strength Index (GSI) of this
interval. It does not have very to be looked for to be necessary. To
choose an acceptable value of GSI between 36 e 42 that to fix a GSI =
36. It is also important to recognize that the criterion of Hoek-Brown
will have only to be applied in rock bulks where the dimension of the
fragmented blocks is small making a comparison with the dimension
of the hollowing that must be evaluated. When the dimension of the
individual blocks is approximatively bigger to the quarter of the
dimension of the excavation, generally the rupture would be
controlled for the structure and the criterion of Hosk-Brown would not
have to be used.
SURFACE CONDITION
GOOD
Wringled, slightly meteorized, spotted oxide surfaces.
90
N/A
N/A
80
BROKEN - Massive rock partially disturbed,
formed in cubic blocks formed for three ortogonais
systems of discontinuity, very joined well between
itself.
60
Decreasing interlocking of rock pieces
70
50
40
30
20
N/A
N/A
10
Table 5.5 - GSI determination in function of the superficial quality observed and its degree and breaking.
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In a first approximation (and in case additional elements such as on-site measurements are missing),
the state of natural stress can be related directly to the depth or covering of the excavation (H) and
to the geomechanics of the environment where the excavation will take place. Moreover, it can be
related, with some approximation, to the strength of materials dominating the environment on the
one side, and to the geomechanical macro-structure of the rock mass on the other side (fractures,
modifications, anisotropies and morphologies of surfaces from discontinuities, between others), for
whose identification several geomechanical quality indexes can be used (such as e.g. the RMR of
Bieniawsky, the Q of Barton, the RSR of Wikham, etc.), and especially the already commented Hoeks
GSI.
If natural stresses result being considerably high with respect to the strength of the rock mass, and
simplifying further, one can directly refer to the non-confined compressive strength of the rock mass
(scm). The latter can be directly related to the state of natural stress (g.H), with (g) being the density
of the rock mass, whereby, for such correlation, the important concept of index of excavation competence (IC=scm/g.H) is introduced, which will be very useful at the time of discriminating the type
of behaviour of the excavation in the above described circumstances. Whereas, for high values of
the above mentioned index (IC), such as it generally happens for moderate coverings, where natural
stress conditions result being low as well, the geomechanical quality of the rock mass (GSI) alone
will be sufficiently conditioning and discriminating of the type of behaviour, as it will be explained
forward.
Within this framework, for practical reasons, the possible types of behaviour of an excavation can be
summarized in the following five ones:
*TYPE OF BEHAVIOUR A
Behaviour presenting stable overhead face and cavity. This type of behaviour appears when the state
of stress at the cavity face and the surrounding, forming as a consequence of the redistribution of
natural stresses following excavation, is such that stresses in the environment are not overcoming
strength characteristics of the environment itself. Thus, the relationship of mobilization between
strength and stresses is always greater than one (FS>2.5).
The deformation phenomena, which follow the excavation, evolve by maintaining themselves in the
elastic range; they are immediate and generally of modest capacity, thereby limiting themselves to
the order of few centimetres. The nucleus axial deformations, which appear in the form of extrusions, are negligible.
The free radial deformation of the cavity (percentage relation between radial displacement and radius
of the tunnel: Ro) is very low (e<1%). Even lower is the radial deformation at the face (eo<<0.5%). The
plastification (expressed as the spread of plastic radius, Rp) is practically inexistent (Rp/Ro=1), and the
index of excavation competence results being very high (IC>>0.45). The GSI, which is the principal
control over the behaviour of the when coverings are contained, is high (GSI>60).
The eventual presence of water, also if hydrodynamic conditions exist, does generally not influence the
stability of the tunnel, unless for loose ground, or unless excessively high hydraulic gradients cause such
a wash-out that shear strength along the existing planes of discontinuities is drastically reduced.
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*TYPE OF BEHAVIOUR B
Behaviour presenting stable overhead face and stable cavity in the short term. This type of behaviour
appears when the state of stress at the cavity face and the surrounding, forming as a consequence
of the redistribution of natural stresses following excavation, is such that stresses in the environment
approach elastic strength characteristics of the environment itself. Thus, the relationship of mobilization between strength and stresses is greater than one (FSf2) at the face and is near to one (FSc1)
in the cavity surrounding at a certain distance from the prior one.
The deformation phenomena, which follow the excavation, evolve in the elastoplastic range in the
cavity surrounding; they are slightly postponed in time and generally of modest capacity, in the order
of few centimetres. The nucleus axial deformations, which appear in the form of extrusions, are
limited and do not influence the stability of the tunnel since the ground is still capable to mobilize
sufficient residual strength.
In case of high coverings, the free radial deformation of the cavity corresponds to (1%<e<2.5%).
The radial deformation at the face corresponds to (eo<0.5%). The plastification radius corresponds
to (1<Rp/Ro<2), and the index of excavation competence corresponds to (0.3<IC<0.45). The GSI,
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which is the principal control over the behaviour of the excavation when coverings are contained, is
relatively high (40<GSI<60).
The eventual presence of water, and particularly if hydrodynamic conditions exist, promotes expanding of plastification by reducing the grounds shear strength capacity, thereby increasing the relative
importance of instability phenomena. As a result, the presence of water must be prevented, especially
at the excavation advancement face, by draining water in order to keep it as far as possible towards
the nucleus outer side.
Instability phenomena, appearing in the form of localized sliding at the face and the surrounding of
the cavity, leave generally the time to take action after a relatively short dismissal from the working
front, allowing the use of traditional radial containment intervention methods.
Stabilizing interventions are generally of conservative type and are based on passive contrast techniques,
which are directed towards avoiding complete confining of the rock mass in the cavity surrounding
and thus its decompression well beyond the surrounding itself.
Regarding specifically the support to be pre-selected for this class, the installation of a system composed of the integration of a layer of fiber-reinforced shotcrete of moderate thickness with short
spiles, and eventually light metal centres, capable to contrast radial loads with an appropriate safety
factor, is considered appropriate.
*TYPE OF BEHAVIOUR C
Behaviour presenting unstable cavity. This type of behaviour appears when the state of stress at the
cavity face and the surrounding, forming as a consequence of the redistribution of natural stresses
following excavation, is such that stresses in the environment slightly overcome elastic strength
characteristics of the environment itself. Thus, the relationship of mobilization between strength and
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*TYPE OF BEHAVIOUR D
Behaviour presenting unstable overhead face. This type of behaviour appears when the state of stress
at the cavity face and the surrounding, forming as a consequence of the redistribution of natural
stresses following excavation, is such that stresses in the environment overcome strength characteristics of the environment itself. Thus, the relationship of mobilization between strength and stresses
is lower than one (FSf<1) at the face and is much lower than one (FSc<<1) in the cavity surrounding
at a certain distance from the prior one.
Deformation phenomena are unacceptable as they evolve rapidly in the braking range, thus giving
rise to serious instabilities displays such as breakouts at the face and collapses of the cavity, which do
not leave the time to take action through radial containment interventions. As such, the nucleus axial
deformations, which appear in the form of extrusions or collapses, influence the stability of the tunnel.
At the face the tension unbalance is such that it gives rise to high deformation gradients, because
the face stability conditions result critical for normal excavation advancement velocities. Moreover,
the cavity conditions far from the face result critical, and the plastic fringe develops radially with an
extension which overcomes the tunnel radius, thus resulting in a highly important radial convergence.
As a result, pre-consolidating interventions must be provided upstream of the excavation advancement
face in order to put in place pre-containment actions capable to induce artificially arc effects.
In case of high coverings, the free radial deformation of the cavity corresponds to (5%<e<10%).
The radial deformation at the face corresponds to (eo>1%). The plastification radius corresponds to
(Rp/Ro>4), and the index of excavation competence corresponds to (0.15<IC<0.2). The GSI, which
is the principal control over the behaviour of the excavation when coverings are contained, is low
(20<GSI<40).
The eventual presence of water, if hydrostatic conditions exist, reduces even more the grounds shear
strength capacity, thus promoting a further increase of plastification and increasing the magnitude
of deformation phenomena. If hydrodynamic conditions exist, water produces materials dragging
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*TYPE OF BEHAVIOUR E
Unstable behaviour. This type of behaviour appears when the state of stress at the cavity face and the
surrounding, forming as a consequence of the redistribution of natural stresses following excavation,
is such that stresses in the environment highly overcome strength characteristics of the environment
itself. Thus, the relationship of mobilization between strength and stresses is much lower than one
(FS<<1) both at the front and in the cavity surrounding.
This type of behaviour is characterised by a short-term instability of the front with immediate sliding
breakouts of the face itself as a result of advancement operations and by the presence of a highly
emphasized free convergence of the cavity.
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Such behaviour is typical e.g. of incoherent grounds, of cataclastic rock mass, as well as in fault
zones, or in the presence of high hydraulic gradients, or in any case whereby extremely high tension
unbalances determine immediate sliding of the face just as the cavity is opened.
In the case of crossing faults, or in any tract characterised by a short-term instability of the face with
immediate collapse conditions, the necessity of pre-confining, pre-support or improvement interventions, or eventually of an adequate combination of the aforesaid methods, to be applied during
excavation advancement should be evaluated in function of geo-structural and hydrogeological
characteristics.
In case of high coverings, the free radial deformation of the cavity corresponds to (e>10%). The radial
deformation at the face corresponds to (eo >>1%). The plastification radius corresponds to (Rp/Ro>>4),
and the index of excavation competence corresponds to (IC<0.15). The GSI, which is the principal
control over the behaviour of the excavation when coverings are contained, is very low (GSI<20).
The eventual presence of water reduces drastically the grounds shear strength capacity, thus promoting a greater extension of plastification and increasing the magnitude of deformation phenomena,
thereby possibly producing materials dragging phenomena and siphoning phenomena, which are
absolutely unacceptable and dangerous for the global stability of the excavation. As a result, the
presence of water must be prevented by draining water in order to keep it as far as possible towards
the outside.
Due to the reduced load capacity of soils, besides resulting sufficiently heavy and properly integrated
such as for the prior type, the primary phase counteracting system should foresee as well adequate
complementary technical solutions (such as e.g. ribs with incremented support, remedial treatments
of the centres foundation ground, temporary inverted archs, permanent inverted archs during the
advancement of works, excavations pre-supporting archs, etc.).
The pre-selected primary support must be extremely heavy and should be constituted by a extremely
thick fiber-reinforced shotcrete layer and heavy metal ribs integrated with radial elements to be densely
applied for the improvement of the soil. Such radial improving elements may be made of glassfiber
composite, or they may be constituted by structurally equivalent strands or spiles. This will depend
from the practical feasibility related to construction with respect to the number and the length which
will result necessary.
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TYPE
BEHAVIOUR
COVERING
HIGH
IC
LOW
GSI
> 60
FSf 2,5
1%< <2.5%
(1<Rp/Ro < 2)
FSc 1
o<0.5%
FSc > 1
FSf 1
2.5% < <5% 0.5%< o<1%
(2 < Rp/Ro < 4)
0.3 - 0.45
40 - 60
FSf 1
5% < <10%
(2 < Rp/Ro < 4)
FSc > 1
o<1%
0.2 - 0.3
30 - 50
FSf << 1
> 10%
(Rp/Ro >> 4)
0.15 - 0.2
20 - 40
+ Heavy ribs @ 1 m
or spiles (L = 6-9 m)
(density 1/m)
+ Reinforcement of the face and extrados
+ Integrative spiles (eventual)
Sprayed concrete (20-30 cm)
Generalized instability
(very poor rock mass
and/or fault zone)
E
Instable face
Instable cavity
(high deformations)
D
+ Spiles L = 4 m (eventual)
FSc << 1
o >> 1%
< 20
Table 5.6 - Classification of support behavior in function the GSI, index of competence and quality of the bulk and the covering of the escavation.
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mi = 7
mi = 5
= 1244mi
3.8
1,433
(mi0,0004mi0.0046mi1.2344)
GSI
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
mi = 10
2.8
2.6
2.4
mi = 13
2.2
2.0
1.8
mi = 16
1.6
1.4
mi = 20
1.2
1.0
mi = 25
0.8
mi = 30
0.6
mi = 35
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
GSI
60
70
80
90
100
In those sections classified as intermediate, in order to estimate vertical loads acting over the final lining, an appropriate reduction of the factor a, between 25% and 50% of the value derived through
the equation, could be eventually considered. This would depend from the geomechanical conditions
and from the construction times foreseen for the lining.
SUPERFICIAL SECTIONS
HI
INTERMEDIATE SECTIONS
DEEP SECTIONS
CHARACTERISTIC LINES
LOAD SOLID
Dv = YH
Hs
Dv = Ya(b+h)
Dv = Pppl
b(GSI/5)
b(75/GSI)
Graphic 5.2 - Relationship between loads acting in to the supports vs. covering, incidence of the factor Alfa in function of
the GSI.
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The above mentioned reduction of the design load acting over the lining would be in fact the more
emphasized, the more it can be assumed that the primary support has been effectively loaded by
the effects of the loads solid before the construction of the lining. Thus, the latter should only hold
the whole portion of loads not already taken over by the primary support due to the effects of the
loads solid before the construction of the lining.
Over the final lining of these intermediate sections, design horizontal loads will be the same as loads
derived from the application of the classical theory of thrusts over soils containment structures, or
they will be simply the same as loads deriving from the elastic reaction to confining generated by
the soil over the deformable lining, following what is indicated by the analysis model applied in each
specific case.
Seismic actions will be only considered where explicitly recommended by geologic and geotechnical
studies.
For sections classifiable as deep (H>10b), the contrasting equilibrium loads acting over the primary
support will be the ones derived through an interaction analysis following the characteristic lines
method.
Over the final lining, design horizontal loads will be radial and will be only applied in the area of the
vault. Their value will be proportional to the extension of the plastification radius obtained at the
equilibrium reached by the application of the primary support, or, eventually, of the radius which
can be actually reached up to the actual entrance into action of the lining, while applied horizontal
loads will be resulting from the elastic reaction to confining generated by the soil over the deformable lining.
Seismic actions will be only considered where explicitly recommended by geologic and geotechnical
studies.
All the afore mentioned elements, related to criteria to be used to calculate loads acting over supports, can be accurately applied to obtain a detailed structural design on the base of the structural
capacity of specific supports to be possibly applied in each specific case.
These same elements have been used in this handbook to define supports to be applied on the base
of most common geomechanical conditions, and considering generally available supports, as it will
be reported in the following chapters.
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Spiles
2 IPN-140
5.
5
Sprayed
concrete
espessura
e = 0.14
7
4.3
1.83
10
1.76
Centres
0.71
TDR
7.99
min
7.3
96
CB
1.09
0.70
19
1.83
CH
1.09
.05
R4
R5
.14
CH
19
TDR
4.09
4.09
min
7.3
96
CB
1.09
0.70
19
1.83
CH
1.09
.05
R4
R5
.14
19
TDR
4.09
4.09
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CH
- An improvement in safety conditions of the construction site due to the reduction of the
personnels exposure time to excavation operations. In fact, it is possible to begin stabilization of the
working face immediately after explosions have taken place. In this way, it is avoided that personnel
is exposed to the risk of eventual sliding of material remaining on the surface of the excavation, as
it is the case for fastening operations of the welded wire mesh.
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Finally, on the base of the available, or the foreseen, supporting solutions alternatives for each design,
it is necessary to proceed to a specific selection for each design section, by comparing values of pressures (loads) applied in function of the coverings and of the possible geomechanical conditions of
the forward coming soils (whereby these are represented, for example, by Hoeks Geological Strengh
Index) with values of capacities (strengths) of the available supporting structures.
For example, following this procedure for a tunnel with approximate width and equivalent diameter
of 10 meters, the supports indicated in the following table have been preliminarily obtained.
Type of
support
Fiberreinforced
shotcrete
Metal ribs
Metal spiles 20 t
Capacity
(Kg/cm)
SP-a
10 cm
1.5
SP-b
14 cm
SP-c
16 cm
SP-d
20 cm
SP-e
20 cm
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2.5
3.5
4.5
6.5
Covering:
Geomechanics
H (m)
H (m)
H (m)
H (m)
H (m)
H (m)
H (m)
5 -10
10-20
20-100
100-150
150-200
200-300
300-500
GSI <= 20
SP-e
SP-e
SP-e
SP-e
SP-e
SP-e
SP-e
SP-e
SP-d
SP-d
SP-d
SP-d
SP-d
SP-e
SP-d
SP-c
SP-c
SP-c
SP-c
SP-d
SP-d
SP-c
SP-b
SP-b
SP-a
SP-b
SP-b
SP-c
GSI > 60
SP-c
SP-b
SP-a
SP-a
SP-a
SP-a
SP-a
Table 5.8 - Pre-selection of base supports in function of the GSI and of the covering.
Alternatively, the design of a support made of fiber-reinforced shotcrete may be also realized on the
base of the calculation of its residual flexural strength, with respect to a support made of shotcrete
reinforced through welded wire mesh.
In fact, it is already since some decades that shotcrete has been traditionally applied universally in
tunnels construction, thereby being coupled with a layer of metallic wire mesh with various objectives: providing a certain flexural strength to the concrete, controlling shrinkage cracking, improving
adhesion to faces and heading of the excavation, and limiting rebound.
Thus, since the principal functions of the mesh result being much more efficiently performed by metal
fibers, it is easy to understand how the replacement of the metallic wire mesh with metal fibers has
taken rapid spread.
At the same time, it has been equally easy and obvious to turn to a calculation methodology, for
supports made of fiber-reinforced shotcrete, that departed from researching mechanical equivalence
between the pressure-flexural strength capacity of a layer of concrete reinforced through a metallic wire
mesh installed in the middle of its thickness, and an equivalent layer of fiber-reinforced concrete.
The flexural strength (maximum resistant moment) of a 1 m concrete slab of thickness (d) reinforced
by a metallic wire mesh of section Sm (mm2) and strength y (N/mm2), installed in the middle of its
thickness (d/2 in mm), can be obtained (in Nmm) through the equation:
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where feq is the equivalent tensile strength on bending of fiber-reinforced concrete in N/mm (MPa),
whereby, from the equivalence of the resistant moments, it is finally obtained:
feq = 0.0027.Sm .y/d (strength requested to achieve the equivalence given a specified thickness)
d = 0.0027.Sm .y/feq (thickness requested to achieve the equivalence given a specified feq)
The characteristic equivalent tensile strength of the fiber-reinforced concrete feq must be initially obtained directly from tests on the beam, or, if testing results are missing, it can be preliminarily derived
by empirical correlation with the base concrete type (from which tensile strength at the first-crack
point on bending of fiber-reinforced concrete fIf principally depends) and the type and dosage of
fibers (elements from which ductility of fiber-reinforced concrete depends, expressed through the
indexes D0 and D1).
Accordingly to all what was mentioned before, the structural design of supporting structures is based
on the equivalence between flexural strength of shotcrete reinforced through metallic wire mesh
(for example: 4 x 100 x 100 mm) and flexural strength of fiber-reinforced shotcrete. Essentially, it
consists of the determination of the fiber dosage (kg/m3), assuring to the fiber-reinforced concrete,
for a specified concrete strength class and for a specified thickness, an equivalent tensile strength (f eq)
that is capable to provide the same resistant moment as the one obtained through a corresponding
section of concrete reinforced through welded wire mesh.
Thus, one should begin with determining the value of the reported minimum equivalent strength
which should be achieved, for each of the foreseen primary supports, and then, one should use the
correlation (referential or experimental) between the dosage of the selected fiber and the equivalent
tensile strength on bending (feq) of the specifically foreseen shotcrete (for example: C24/30).
By applying the equations reported before, the following minimum strengths are obtained, for
fiber-reinforced concrete, for each of the four primary supports, corresponding to the four concrete
thicknesses examined (10 cm 14 cm 16 cm 20 cm):
10 cm (P-a)
feq = 1.40 (MPa)
14 cm (P-b)
feq = 1.00 (MPa)
16 cm (P-c)
feq = 0.88 (MPa)
20 cm (P-d/e)
feq = 0.70 (MPa)
For concrete type C24/30, corresponding to a characteristic cylindrical strength fc = 240 kg/cm2,
European EFNARC standards indicate a tensile strength at the first-crack point of fIf = 3.4 MPa and,
for Wirand FS3N fibers, whose characteristics are included as an example, the producer reports the
following approximate correlation between minimum ductility and dosage:
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Ductility (feq/flf)
3
kg/m de FS3
50 %
40 %
30 %
25 %
20 %
33
26
23
21
20
Thus, the following correlation, between dosage and minimum equivalent tensile strength on bending, results for concrete type C24/30:
kg/m Fs3
feq (MPa)
3
33
1.70
26
1.36
23
1.02
20
0.68
21
0.85
An Excel sheet, appositely developed to complete the described procedure, follows, which corresponds
to the design of fiber-reinforced sections whose flexural strength is equivalent to strength of sections
reinforced through welded wire mesh.
In the last row of the table, one can observe that recommended dosage is maintained at 25 kg/m3 as
minimum value, with reference to standards indicating this value as the minimum value for structural
concrete, independently from theoretical results of analyses conducted.
mm
Concrete e=10cm
Concrete e=14cm
Concrete e=16cm
Mesh
(4/100)
Mesh
(4/100)
Mesh
(4/100)
Fiber
(0.75x30)
Fiber
(0.75x30)
Concrete e=20cm
Fiber
Mesh
(0.75x30) (4/100)
100
140
160
200
414
414
414
414
100
100
100
100
mm
mm2
kg/m2
Weight of mesh/m
kg/m3
Weight of mesh/m
125.7
125.7
125.7
125.7
1.97
19.7
19.7
1.97
19.7
14.1
12.3
9.9
50
70
80
100
Fiber
(0.75x30)
mm
Nmm
Nmm
2,341,115
3,277,561
3,745,784
mm
100
140
160
200
1.40
1.00
0.88
0.70
N/mm
%
3
kg/m
%
kg/m
2,341,115
3,277,561
Concrete e=10cm
Mesh
Fiber
(4/100) (0.75x30)
4,682,230
3,745,784
Concrete e=14cm
Mesh
Fiber
(4/100) (0.75x30)
4,682,230
Concrete e=20cm
Concrete e=16cm
Mesh
Fiber
Mesh
Fiber
(4/100) (0.75x30) (4/100) (0.75x30)
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
41
41
41
41
27
27
27
27
10
10
10
10
30
30
30
30
Table 5.9 - Mechanical comparative degree between reinforced sections with fibers and sections reinforced with conventional steel for the determination of
the thicknesses in the primary covering.
What has been reported is certainly a simplified way to proceed in sizing a resistant section made of
SFRS to be applied as support for tunnels. The objective is essentially to define the section having the
same flexural strength as the strength of an equivalent section reinforced through welded wire mesh.
Nevertheless, it may be eventually useful whether it is the case to take a decision towards a change in the
construction technology, thus whether to decide for the use of fiber-reinforced concrete for a project, for
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Loads
cases
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
More rigid
ground
Less rigid
ground
Traction in walls
2
2
(kg/cm )
(kg/cm )
0.80
0.94
0.55
0.56
2.50
2.53
1.30
1.50
0.45
0.51
0.35
0.41
1.10
1.54
2.80
2.80
0.20
1.30
1.10
2.90
(kg/cm )
2.50
2.00
8.20
5.70
2.30
1.50
7.30
9.00
2.40
3.90
Support
type
(kg/cm )
2.10
1.30
3.30
2.60
1.50
0.90
4.10
3.70
1.50
2.20
P-c
P-c
P-d
P-d
P-d
P-c
P-e
P-d
P-e
P-d
Table 5.10 - Values resulting from the analysis of the maximum tensile stresses in primary.
All the considered case studies, including the ones corresponding to the most unfavourable conditions
as far as loads intensity and schemes are concerned, such as the stiffness of the ground, show how
tensile stresses generated in supports result always being lower than 1 MPa, thus, being in principle
always compatible with the characteristic equivalent tensile strength on bending that can be reached
for shotcrete type C24/30 with minimum dosage of metal fibers (25 kg/m3), which is approximately
1.5 MPa according to various test results.
Numerical analyses allow thus to conclude that, from a strictly structural point of view, replacing
welded wire mesh with a minimum dosage (25 kg/m3) of adequate metal fibers in shotcrete for tunnel
supports is generally technically feasible, thereby confirming results obtained with simpler calculations based on the equivalence between flexural strength of supports made of shotcrete reinforced
through welded wire mesh and flexural strength of supports made of shotcrete reinforced through
metal fibers.
In more general terms, numerical analysis allowed to demonstrate that by using adequate metal fibers
in shotcrete type 24/30 (and obviously also of more elevated type), a fiber dosage of 25 25 kg/m3,
such as indicated as minimum value for structural concretes by main standards, is in principle sufficient to provide to shotcrete a tensile strength (feq) as high as (1.0 1.5 MPa), which is compatible
with stresses that are generally generated in tunnels supports in the most common geotechnical,
geometrical and covering conditions.
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Concrete C24/30
f(0-0,6)
f(0,6-3)
(MPa) (MPa)
Do x Dl
f/f
(MPa)
3,01
2,47
3,58
3,89
1,95
2,21
2,52
1,04
1,32
1,97
1,61
1,79
1,29
1,83
2,44
0,3111
0,2620
0,3865
0,4074
0,3458
0,4418
0,3517
0,6726
0,3482
0,3881
0,4167
0,4339
0,4181
0,5663
0,39
4,5
3,7
4,3
4,2
2,6
3,0
3,5
2,7
2,8
2,8
2,6
2,8
3,1
2,5
3,22
Dos. 25kg/m
feq
(MPa)
Dosage
(kg/m3)
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
30
30
30
30
30
25
1,40
0,97
1,66
1,71
0,90
1,33
1,23
1,82
0,97
1,09
1,08
1,21
1,30
1,42
1,33
1,72
1,27
2,04
2,15
1,11
1,50
1,49
1,66
1,04
1,26
1,19
1,33
1,30
1,50
1,47
Table 5.11- Table representing average strength values obtained through bending tests following UNI11309.
To continue, the table related to the design of the primary support, obtained by the union of all
analyses conducted, following what has been reported so far, is enclosed. The table can be carefully
applied in order to produce an immediate preliminary design for a tunnel support having equivalent
diameter in the order of 10 metres.
The first part of such table allows selecting the support on the base of the type of behaviour of the
excavation, which can be referred to: the GSI (Geological Strength Index) for sections of tunnels below
moderate coverings, and, for sections of tunnels of greater covering, to the Index of Competence:
IC = scm/g.H = (0.0034.mi 0.8).sci[1.029+0.025.e (-0.1mi)]GSI/g.H.
CLASS OF BEHAVIOUR OF THE EXCAVATION IN FUNCTION - H - ci
mi
5
7,5
10
15
20
25
30
35
5
7,5
10
15
20
25
30
35
5
7,5
10
15
20
25
10
11
12
13
14
15
0,11
0,15
0,18
0,24
0,29
0,35
0,40
0,45
0,17
0,22
0,26
0,33
0,40
0,47
0,54
0,60
0,26
0,32
0,38
0,47
0,56
0,64
0,09
0,13
0,16
0,21
0,26
0,30
0,35
0,39
0,15
0,19
0,23
0,29
0,35
0,41
0,47
0,53
0,23
0,28
0,33
0,41
0,49
0,56
0,08
0,11
0,14
0,19
0,23
0,27
0,31
0,35
0,13
0,17
0,20
0,26
0,31
0,37
0,42
0,47
0,20
0,25
0,29
0,37
0,43
0,50
0,08
0,10
0,12
0,17
0,21
0,24
0,28
0,31
0,12
0,15
0,18
0,23
0,28
0,33
0,38
0,42
0,18
0,23
0,26
0,33
0,39
0,45
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,15
0,19
0,22
0,25
0,28
0,11
0,14
0,17
0,21
0,26
0,34
0,38
0,16
0,21
0,24
0,30
0,35
0,41
0,06
0,08
0,10
0,14
0,17
0,20
0,23
0,26
0,10
0,13
0,15
0,20
0,24
0,27
0,31
0,35
0,15
0,19
0,22
0,27
0,32
0,37
0,06
0,08
0,10
0,13
0,16
0,19
0,21
0,24
0,09
0,12
0,14
0,18
0,22
0,25
0,29
0,32
0,14
0,17
0,20
0,25
0,30
30
35
5
7,5
10
15
20
25
30
35
5
7,5
10
15
20
0,72
0,80
0,43
0,52
0,59
0,71
0,81
0,92
1,03
1,14
0,94
1,07
1,16
1,30
1,44
0,63
0,70
0,38
0,46
0,52
0,62
0,71
0,81
0,90
1,00
0,82
0,94
1,02
1,14
1,26
0,56
0,63
0,34
0,41
0,46
0,55
0,72
0,80
0,89
0,73
0,83
0,90
1,01
1,12
0,51
0,56
0,30
0,37
0,41
0,49
0,57
0,65
0,72
0,80
0,66
0,75
0,81
0,91
1,01
0,46
0,51
0,28
0,33
0,38
0,45
0,52
0,59
0,66
0,73
0,60
0,68
0,74
0,83
0,92
0,42
0,47
0,25
0,30
0,35
0,41
0,47
0,54
0,60
0,67
0,55
0,63
0,68
0,76
0,84
0,39
0,43
0,23
0,28
0,32
0,38
0,44
0,50
0,56
0,62
0,51
0,58
0,63
0,70
0,78
0,05
0,07
0,09
0,12
0,15
0,17
0,20
0,22
0,08
0,11
0,13
0,17
0,20
0,24
0,27
0,30
0,13
0,16
0,19
0,24
0,28
0,32
0,36
0,40
0,22
0,26
0,30
0,35
0,41
0,46
0,52
0,57
0,47
0,54
0,58
0,65
0,72
0,05
0,07
0,08
0,11
0,14
0,16
0,19
0,21
0,08
0,10
0,12
0,16
0,19
0,22
0,25
0,28
0,12
0,15
0,18
0,22
0,26
0,30
0,34
0,38
0,20
0,24
0,28
0,33
0,38
0,43
0,48
0,53
0,44
0,50
0,54
0,61
0,05
0,06
0,08
0,10
0,13
0,15
0,17
0,20
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,15
0,18
0,21
0,23
0,26
0,11
0,14
0,17
0,21
0,24
0,28
0,32
0,35
0,19
0,23
0,26
0,31
0,36
0,40
0,45
0,50
0,41
0,47
0,51
0,57
0,63
25
30
35
1,60
1,76
1,94
1,40
1,54
1,70
1,24
1,37
1,51
1,12
1,23
1,36
1,02
1,12
1,23
0,93
1,03
1,13
0,86
0,95
1,04
0,80
0,88
0,97
0,75
0,82
0,91
0,70
0,77
0,85
H/ ci
(m/MPa)
GSI <=20
GSI =(20-40)
GSI = (30-50)
GSI =(40-60)
GSI > 60
16
17
0,04
0,06
0,07
0,10
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,14
0,17
0,19
0,22
0,25
0,11
0,13
0,16
0,19
0,23
0,26
0,30
0,33
0,18
0,22
0,24
0,29
0,34
0,38
0,42
0,47
0,39
0,44
0,48
0,54
0,59
0,66
0,73
0,80
G.Perri, 2002
18
19
20
23
25
28
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
0,04
0,06
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,15
0,17
0,06
0,08
0,10
0,13
0,16
0,18
0,21
0,23
0,10
0,13
0,15
0,18
0,22
0,25
0,28
0,31
0,17
0,20
0,23
0,27
0,32
0,36
0,40
0,44
0,37
0,42
0,45
0,51
0,56
0,04
0,05
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,15
0,16
0,06
0,08
0,10
0,12
0,15
0,17
0,20
0,22
0,09
0,12
0,14
0,17
0,20
0,24
0,27
0,30
0,16
0,19
0,22
0,26
0,30
0,34
0,38
0,42
0,35
0,40
0,43
0,48
0,53
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,08
0,10
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,06
0,08
0,09
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,19
0,21
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,16
0,19
0,22
0,25
0,28
0,15
0,18
0,21
0,25
0,28
0,32
0,36
0,40
0,33
0,38
0,41
0,46
0,51
0,03
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,12
0,14
0,05
0,07
0,08
0,10
0,13
0,15
0,17
0,19
0,08
0,10
0,12
0,15
0,17
0,20
0,22
0,25
0,13
0,16
0,18
0,22
0,25
0,29
0,32
0,36
0,29
0,33
0,36
0,41
0,45
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,07
0,08
0,10
0,11
0,13
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,15
0,17
0,07
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,16
0,18
0,20
0,23
0,12
0,15
0,17
0,20
0,23
0,26
0,29
0,32
0,26
0,30
0,33
0,36
0,40
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,09
0,10
0,11
0,04
0,06
0,07
0,09
0,10
0,12
0,14
0,15
0,07
0,08
0,10
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,20
0,11
0,13
0,15
0,18
0,21
0,23
0,26
0,29
0,24
0,27
0,30
0,33
0,37
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,08
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,14
0,06
0,08
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,15
0,17
0,19
0,10
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,19
0,22
0,24
0,27
0,22
0,25
0,27
0,30
0,34
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,11
0,12
0,05
0,06
0,08
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,14
0,16
0,09
0,10
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,21
0,23
0,19
0,21
0,23
0,26
0,29
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,03
0,62
0,69
0,75
0,59
0,65
0,71
0,56
0,62
0,68
0,50
0,55
0,60
0,45
0,49
0,54
0,41
0,45
0,49
0,37
0,41
0,45
0,32
0,35
0,39
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,11
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,10
0,11
0,13
0,14
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,20
0,16
0,19
0,20
0,23
0,25
0,28
0,31
0,34
0,02
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,06
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,08
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,11
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,10
0,11
0,13
0,14
0,16
0,13
0,15
0,16
0,18
0,20
0,22
0,25
0,27
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,11
0,12
0,13
0,11
0,13
0,14
0,15
0,17
0,19
0,21
0,23
0,01
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,06
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,11
0,09
0,11
0,12
0,13
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,19
0,01
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,06
0,07
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,11
0,13
0,14
0,15
0,17
0,01
0,01
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,03
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,05
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,06
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,11
0,12
0,14
0,15
0,01
0,01
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,01
0,02
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,02
0,02
0,03
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,03
0,04
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,07
0,08
0,08
0,09
0,10
0,11
0,12
0,14
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,09
0,10
0,11
0,13
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,11
0,13
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,15
0,17
0,18
0,20
0,22
0,25
0,27
0,30
Table 5.12 - Type of behaviour of the excavation in function of:GSI H - ci for tunnel of 10 m width or equivalent diameter.
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The second part of the table describes basic geometrical and structural characteristics of the supports mentioned, for which, according to the principal structural element identifying those supports
that is fiber-reinforced shotcrete, the related minimum equivalent tensile strength on bending (feq)
referentially recommended for each case, is indicated.
DESIGN OF THE PRIMARY SUPPORT: Tunnel of width ~ 10 m
COVERINGS < 20 m
COVERINGS 20 - 100 m
GSI <= 20
SP-e
GSI <= 20
SP-e
IC<=0.15
SP-e
SP-d
SP-d
SP-c
SP-c
SP-b
GSI > 60
SP-c
GSI > 60
SP-a
IC > 0.45
SP-e
SP-a
Table 5.13 - Supports classification for tunnels of 10 meters of diameter in function of the GSI.
SUPPORT
Shotcrete
(fiber-reinforced)
Metal ribs
SP-a
SP-b
2 IPN160
each 150 cm
SP-c
2 IPN160
each 125 cm
SP-d
2 IPN200
each 100 cm
SP-e
2 IPN200
each 075 cm
Table 5.14 - Example of specification of resistance required for the concrete reinforced with fibers in the primry support of tunnels.
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Requests of
containment
Interaction
containment-ground
In a first approximation, the design of such a type of structure, constituting in fact the final lining of
the tunnel, can be carried out on the base of the same principles and procedures as illustrated before
with reference to primary supports, whereby the required safety and reliability factors characteristic
of a permanent final lining must be included in calculations.
By proceeding in the same way for the same five types of behaviour of excavations that were previously
defined in function of the GSI and the IC, respectively for moderate and for high coverings, results
summarized in the following tables are obtained for tunnels with approximate equivalent diameter
of 10 metres. Tables are as well in accordance with numerical results of corresponding systematic
structural analyses that were conducted, in a similar way to the ones reported afterwards, for linings
made of cast-in-place concrete.
Final linings result having a minimum thickness of 20 cm, and, in order to apply fiber-reinforced shotcrete, this should have more demanding mechanical characteristics, which should be characterised
by tensile strength not lower than 1.5 MPa (feq >=1.5 MPa), capable to provide high and permanent
flexural strength to resistant sections of the linings structure.
COVERINGS < 20 m
COVERINGS 20 - 100 m
GSI < = 20
RD - e
GSI < = 20
RD - e
IC < = 0.15
RD - e
RD - e
RD - d
RD - d
RD - d
RD - c
RD - c
RD - c
RD - b
RD - b
GSI > 60
RD - c
GSI > 60
RD - a
IC > 0.45
RD - a
Table 5.15 - Basic project of structural model for the definitive covering.
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Type of
lining
Fiber-reinforced
Shotcrete
Metal ribs
Metal spiles 20 t
RD - a
20 cm
(feq >= 1,5 MPa)
2 IPN200 @ 150 cm
RD - b
20 cm
(feq >= 1,5 MPa)
RD - c
RD - d
RD - e
25 cm
(feq >= 1,5 MPa)
25 cm
(feq >= 1,5 MPa)
30 cm
(feq >= 1,5 MPa)
Table 5.16 - Project of the definitive covering in shotcrete reinforced with fibers (*),
The abovementioned numerical structural analyses have been conducted systematically for linings
of tunnels of 10 m net diameter, considering good quality concrete (C32/40), cast-in-place, and
considering three possible thicknesses (30 - 40 - 50 cm). The two already defined possible covering
conditions (low and high) were analysed, and two different geomechanical ground qualities were
simulated (GSI lower than 40 or GSI higher than 40).
Detailed results are reported in the enclosed table that includes, for each of the sixteen simulated
cases, maximum tensile stresses reached in the intrados of the keystone and in the extrados of both
faces of the lining section.
In the inverted vault arch, that is considered as being present in every model with a bending radius
equal to three times the radius of the main arch of the section, tensile stresses in the intrados result
being almost always high. As a consequence, they should be more efficiently absorbed by classical
reinforcement.
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CASES
Traction
roof
(Kg/cm2)
Traction
walls
2
(Kg/cm )
Traction
roof
(Kg/cm2)
Traction
walls
2
(Kg/cm )
1
16
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
24.60
12.50
42.20
32.60
16.70
4.80
1.83
46.60
44.95
2.43
0.95
7.40
4.30
2.10
0.57
0.35
11.60
10.80
131.50
34.40
221.00
175.50
53.30
27.50
15.40
276.30
165.30
101.70
11.60
178.10
141.80
12.80
4.30
0.76
250.00
216.70
LINING
Type
RF2-Pc
RF2-Pc
RF2-Pd
RF2-Pd
RF2-Pd
RF2-Pc
RF1
RF2*
RF2-Pd
CASES
Traction
roof
(Kg/cm2)
Traction
walls
2
(Kg/cm )
Traction
roof
(Kg/cm2)
Traction
walls
2
(Kg/cm )
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0.60
1.20
0.29
2.40
0.65
4.20
3.70
0.40
0.70
0.16
4.20
0.31
1.65
2.41
1.52
6.60
0.70
20.50
3.60
55.40
32.70
1.90
0.83
0.75
1.60
0.00
1.80
2.70
LINING
Type
RF1
RF2-Pc
RF1
RF2-Pd
RF2-Pc
RF2*
RF2-Pd
Table 5.17 - Maximum traction strenght in the covering gotten of the numerical analyses.
One of the results obtained through numerical analyses is reported as an example, whereby principal
maximum stresses in the tunnels lining section are graphically represented.
Scheme of design loads for the final lining
Gravity effect
Decompression is accompained by the formation
of a unstable zone above the crown which might
eventually colapse
Unstable edge
Rn
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Finally, the following table summarizes numerical values of maximum tensile stresses obtained in
the vault and in the faces, for each of the three lining thicknesses considered, for the two covering
conditions analyzed, and for the different geomechanical qualities simulated for grounds.
Less rigid
ground
More rigid
ground
Less rigid
ground
More rigid
ground
RF (30cm)
1.54
0.18
0.19
0.06
RF (40 cm)
22.1
4.49
3.27
0.37
RF (50cm)
27.63
4.66
5.54
0.42
Table 5.18 - Maximum tensile stresses in the vault and in the faces (MPa).
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Finally, in conclusion of this chapter dealing with geostructural design of final linings of tunnels made
of fiber-reinforced both shotcrete and cast-in-place concrete, it is absolutely necessary to highlight that
methodologies indicated and, above all, results summarized in the design tables enclosed, should in
no case be considered completely exhaustive in order to proceed to an executive design of a tunnel.
This is because such results could not take into due account all peculiarities, which might characterize
real circumstances, as these could often become non-usual and possibly critical in function of real
geologic and construction conditions related to a specific tunnel section.
On the contrary, the reported methodologies and results may be very useful in order to proceed to
a correct preliminary design of a tunnel. They may be even efficiently and successfully applied in real
circumstances, in the case of designs characterized by almost coinciding geomechanical, geostatic
and construction conditions, by taking into account the basic assumptions that average representative cases have been considered as far as behavioural models are concerned, for all the analyses
conducted over design conditions presented in this chapter for tunnels final linings constructed by
applying traditional excavation methods.
COVERING > Hs
GSI < 20
RF reinforced
20 < GSI < 40
RF
reinforced
RF
(50 cm)
RF
(40 cm)
RF
(50 cm)
RF
(40 cm)
RF
(40 cm)
GSI > 60
RF
(40 cm)
GS > 60
RF
(30 cm)
IC > 0,45
RF
(30 cm)
RF (40 cm)
RF (30 cm)
5.5 - Use of fibers for fire resistance of concrete. Description of fiber mixes,
structural and anti-spalling proposal for final linings.
Tunnels structures are commonly designed to withstand actions to which they will be exposed to
for their entire life-cycle. Nevertheless, there is an additional phenomenon which must be taken into
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Tunnel
(year)
Concrete
strength
Max
temp
Fire
duration
Length
affected
Affect on segment
Great Belt
(1994)
76 MPa
28 day
800 C 1,000 C
7 hrs
16 segment rings
(1.65 long)
damaged in crown
Peak of spalling
270 mm
Channel
(1996)
110 MPa
mature
1,000 C
9 hrs
500 m with 50 m
severely affected
by spalling
Up to 100% (400 m)
of thickness spalled
showing grout
Mont Blanc
(1999)
Not reported
1,000 C
50 hrs
900 m tunnel
crown most affected
Serious damage
to tunnel structure
Table 5.20 - Summary of structural damages related to recent tunnel fire events.
The fact that tunnels are confined structures and that, in the event of a fire, flames come directly in
contact with the concrete of the structure, makes temperatures reaching very high values. Thus, rapid
degradation of the structure takes place if no protection measure has been taken against fire.
The exposure of construction elements to high temperatures has the consequence that physical and
mechanical characteristics of such elements are altered, with the result that their structural functionality
is thereby reduced. In the specific case of concrete, degradation occurs stepwise with increasing temperature levels. A graphical representation of degradation can be observed in the following figure:
600
400
200
0
First cracking
appearance
Bearing capacity
half reduction
The primary function that has to be fulfilled by any type of fire protection instrument in tunnels is to
leave people sufficient escape time, besides assuring sufficient mechanical strength of the structure so
as to enable firefighters to enter the tunnel and extinguish the fire. It becomes therefore clear that it is
principally in the initial phases of a fire that a passive protection measure should come into action.
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As it can be observed in Fig. 5.8, the first phenomenon occurring by an increase in temperature is
crumbling of the surface layer (spalling). As soon as the concretes surface temperature increases,
most of the water vapour, that is present in concrete, will migrate towards the inside part, where
lower temperature conditions exist. The consequence to this phenomenon is an increase in internal
pressure of the cement matrix up to the point at which the concretes characteristic strength is overcome, and at which spalling (crumbling of the surface layer) takes place.
Load Land
thermal stresses I
Pore pressure P
Spall
y
z
Concrete
L + I
Figure 5.8 - Graphical representation of the spalling phenomenon.
1,300C
Melting starts
Ceramic binding
Total loss of water of hydration
1,200C
..
..
800C
700C
600C
1,400C
Concrete melted
400C
300C
200C
Hidrothermal reactions
Loss of chemically bound water starts
Hot permeability increases markedly
Free water lost at 1 atm
100C
Explosive spalling
(surface temperature)
500C
Calcium hydroxide dissociates
Triple point of water
Thames river gravel breaks up
20C
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1400
1000
600
RWS (NL)
ZTV (D)
Hydocarbon (EC)
Standard ISO or BS 476
200
0
0 5 10
30
60
90
Time (minutes)
120
150
Thus, it may be concluded that the whole passive protection of concrete against fire should play an
important role during the first minutes in which it is called to take action, given the fact that it is in
such period of time that evacuation of people would take place and that firefighters would try to
extinguish the fire.
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Figure 5.11 - Detail of the evaluated prismatic element, with a reinforced of 30 mm. All dimensions are in mm.
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The different behaviours in the different stages of the heating curve proposed by standard EN 13631-2/1999 have been evaluated, and the mass losses of the material have been evaluated during the
same curves. With the insertion of fibers, excellent results have been obtained, and the final objective of maintaining integrity of the element for a period of time that was safely corrected to assure
the possibility to evacuate from structures which are accidentally exposed to a fire, has been thereby
achieved.
Photo 5.14 - Samples of material lost due to superficial spalling in specimens with cellulose.
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Photo 5.15 - Specimens of material with use of polypropylene fibers. Specimen after the end of the test.
Photo 5.16 - Specimens with polypropylene fibers. To be observed superficial watering due to the loss of water and
vapour.
In the test of specimens with addition of polypropylene fibers, an adequate behaviour, with a minimum loss of mass produced by the physico-chemical reactions already reported in previous sections,
has been observed during the whole heating curve. Moreover, over these specimens, an almost null
effect of spalling has been observed.
Photo 5.17 - Example of experimental specimens without use of any type of fibers.
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Photo 5.18 - Samples of material that have detached due to spalling during testing of specimens without
fibers.
The degradation degree is evident that can reach a structure without any type of protection. During
the experimental process, a begin of spalling has been observed in the initial 3 8 minutes of the
test. Thereby, significant additional loss of material has been observed, which can be considered as
being caused by the loss of water or of vapour due to heating of the material.
To summarize, and in order to provide an exemplifying comparison between the loss of mass related
to the three different types of specimens that have been tested, the following graph showing mass
loss is shown:
Time (minutes)
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
4
6
8
1 0
1 2
1 4
1 6
1 8
2 0
2 2
2 4
Graphic 5.5 - Graph showing a comparison between the loss of mass related to the different experimented
specimens.
As a final reference to the present theme related to protection of concrete structures against the
effects of fire, it is fundamental to highlight that the use of fibers provides an effective solution for
new works. This generates that emphasis that is currently given by technicians to this kind of solution
especially in the case of underground work designs, considering the fact that those types of projects
have a highly significant economical, social as well as political importance, and considering the fact
that any kind of failure or accident which might occur would have irreversible consequences.
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Combinations of these terms will lead to different analyses having following conditions, ordered by
importance:
- Non-Structural Temporary. Regularly, in excavations of self-supporting systems, where the
lining just provides a function of sealing the surface in order to avoid its degradation due to exchanges
with the atmosphere that may occur between the surface of the fresh rock and its diaclases, or
fractures on the surface of the rock mass. These may be activated by the exchanges with the new
environment, and, as a result, they may generate partial detaching of blocks, which might become
an operational hazard, even if they do not produce a structural disequilibrium in the excavation.
This kind of supports complies with behaviours of type a that have been discussed in chapter 5.2
of the present publication, where deformations of the arch are not foreseen. Generally, they are
characterized by very low thicknesses, ranging from 3 cm to 5 cm, they are realized with sprayed
concrete, both by dry or wet systems, and are put in place during the first phase of the excavation
of an underground work.
- Non-Structural Permanent. This type of lining has the same functional characteristics as
the ones described for the type Non-Structural Temporary, with one difference, that is the fact
that, at the design level, it may be increasingly loaded in order to be considered as a permanent
lining within the work. It is generally realized with sprayed concrete, both using dry or wet systems.
In this case, higher thicknesses are foreseen, that may be in the order of 10 - 15 cm. Occasionally,
it may be combined with the use of dispersed anchorage spiles to be applied in those areas from
which blocks may potentially detach, with the objective of increasing the safety factor of the work
as a whole. Another alternative exists that may be also included within this class, that is final linings
made of concrete that has been pumped on-site in mobile moulds. Though this alternative has a
permanent character as well, in this case, it provides no structural function. Instead, it is only foreseen as finishing for the section of the underground work, whereby all the structural responsibility
for the underground excavation is assigned to the primary lining, which has been properly designed
to fulfil this function. As an example of geomechanical behaviour corresponding to this functional
classification, areas of behaviours type a and a/b, as reported within chapter 5.2 of the present
publication, may be mentioned for the case of supports made of sprayed concrete.
- Structural Temporary. This type of linings, generally realized in the first phase of the excavation, correspond to heavier linings when compared to the previous ones, since these are effectively
put in place to withstand loads generated by the rock mass and/or by the layer of ground through
which the underground work passes. Having temporary characteristics, these linings are designed
by considering low safety coefficients, ranging from 1.2 to 1.5, with the objective of providing temporary containment, while the subsequent construction of a final lining is taken into account, which
would take over final responsibility for the whole supporting system of the work, and which would
be characterized by greater safety factors. These linings are generally realized by using a set of supporting elements such as sprayed concrete, anchorage spiles, occasionally metallic profiles known
as centres or ribs, and even piles or micro-piles systems, jet-grouting when geomechanical zones
are very week, thus requiring an action of this kind. The combination of these elements manages
to stabilize the excavation, and, in this case, thicknesses of sprayed concrete are in the order of 15
cm up to 30 cm. Moreover, they may arrive to 45 cm in the case of particularly unfavourable areas.
Pumped concrete is not applied in this particular case. In order to provide a reference to the type of
lining that may be included in this functional classification, supports of types a, b, c, d and
e are extensively discussed within sub-chapter 5.2 of the present publication.
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characterization of the material towards the structural design is made by bending test of types ASTM
C1018, ASTM C1399, UNI 11039, Eurocode EN 14487-1.
An adequate quality control depends on the definition of the supports function. It is at this point
that the need for bending tests as well as for plates tests is generated. Currently, this theme has been
discussed in the most recent codes for Fiber-reinforced Concrete and its characterization.
The objective of quality control of fiber-reinforced concrete is to guarantee that pre-requisites set
out by the design-engineer for the design of supporting structures are fulfilled. In addition to tests
foreseen for mechanical characterization and characterization of the behaviour of fiber-reinforced
concrete, which can be set out according to the type of support, all currently most complete and
comprehensive codes for characterization of fiber-reinforced concrete, such as UNI 10834, EN 14721,
EN 14488, foresee the execution of field tests to confirm homogeneity of the mixture with respect
to the specified dosage for metal fibers.
Additionally, these codes suggest criteria for approval of the material.
As the most complete reference for quality control of fiber-reinforced concrete norm UNI10834 is to
be found, followed by the recent EN 14487-1 integrating all previously explained concepts for quality control of sprayed concrete.
Standard UNI10834, for what concerns fiber-reinforced concrete, proposes a classification of shotcrete
by responsibility, and by levels of absorbed energy measured by punch testing on plate.
Class
< 500
> 500
> 700
> 1000
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Acronym
Use examples
TN
- Foundations
- Fillings
- Protection of temporary slopes
- Surface protection
- Protection of excavation surfaces in
Structural
TS
- Bypass tunnels
- Piers
- Surface protection
- Protection of excavation surfaces in
Non-structural
PN
- Fillings
- Protection of slopes
- Waterproofing
Structural
PS
- Single-shell structures
- Repairs, restorations and tunnels linings
Non-structural
Temporary
Permanent
Table 5.22 - Table showing the functional classification of fiber-reinforced concrete, as proposed by UNI10834.
After having proposed a classification of the type of concrete following plate testing, quality control of
the mixture is proposed, which begins by determination of the fiber content of the mixture. Testing is
based on separation of the fibers embedded in a representative sample of fresh or of hardened material having a weight not below 56 kg. After washing, the weight ratio is calculated following:
where:
Df : is the fiber dosage.
Mf: is the weight of the fibers contained in the sample expressed in kg.
Mc: is the weight of concrete of the sample.
Pm: is the volumetric mass of concrete expressed in kg over a cubic metre of concrete.
This equation is currently applied by any current standard norm to determine the mass ratio of metallic
fibers contained into a concrete mixture of any type.
In order to provide an example of the process, a sequence of photos dealing with the process is
shown hereinafter:
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Photo 5.19 - Manual addition of fibers to the aggregates which are transported Photo 5.20 - Appearance of the ready mixture in the fresh condition, to be
to the mixing machine at the cement mixing station
noted the presence of fibers without agglomerations or any kind of problem
related to inhomogeneity.
Photo 5.22 - Beginning of the washing operation of the mixture to obtain the
mass of fibers contained in it.
Photo 5.24 - Extraction of the fibers by means of a magnetic element towards their subsequent
weighing and calculation of the mass ratio as proposed by the equation in the norm.
Photo 5.23 - Weighing of the mixture in the mould.
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Test
Temporary
non-structural
Initial (*) At steady
state
Compressive strength
Initial strength
Fiber content (***)
and additives dosage
Thickness
1.000 m3
1/month
(**)
(**)
(**)
(**)
400 m2
400 m2
(**)
Temporary
structural
Initial (*) At steady
state
Permanent
non-structural
Initial (*) At steady
state
400 m3
1/week
200 m3
2/week
400 m3
1/week
1000 m3
1/month
400 m3
1/semana
1000 m3
1/month
400 m3
1/week
(**)
400 m2
400 m2
200 m
Permanent
structural
Initial (*) At steady
state
1.000 m3
1/month
(**)
(**)
400 m2
400 m
1/week
200 m3
2/week
200 m3
2/week
1000 m3
1/week
400 m3
1/week
400 m3
1/week
400 m3
1/week
400 m2
400 m2
The standard UNI10834 does not deal with bending tests. For that, the norm UNI 11039 exists, of
which it has been widely discussed within chapter 3, and where material characteristics are defined
by means of results of bending tests. This norm proposes a classification of the material by means
of ductility indexes.
Ductility classes
Ductility indexes
(minimum
characteristic values)
Ds0
Ds1
Ds2
DP
DHo
DH1
D0
1)
>0,5
>0,7
>0,9
>1,1
>1,3
D1
>0,3
>0,5
>0,7
>0,9
>1,1
>1,3
Softening behaviour
Plastic behaviour
DH2
>1,55
2)
>1,552)
Hardening behaviour
1) Values of ductility index D0 < 0,5 are typical of non-reinforced concretes with
steel fibers.
2) Classes DH1 and DH2 of index D1 are characteristic of SFRC of highest
performance, which formulation requires the use of appropriately dosed special
fibrous reinforcements and of ad hoc designed base concretes.
Table 5.24 - Table providing ductility indexes as proposed by code UNI 11039.
Recently, the European standard EN 14487-1 has been approved, which considers control and preparation of sprayed concrete. This is the first complete proposition comprising all the concepts proposed
in previous sections. It proposes in a consecutive way, the following definitions.
As a first instance, it delimitates the characteristics of the material by means of bending tests as well
as plate probes.
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Deformation range
Deflection
(mm)
0,51
0,52
0,54
D1
D2
D3
S1
S2
S3
S4
Table 5.25 - Table providing levels of residual stress for fiber-reinforced concrete obtained by means of bending
tests following EN 14487-1.
Energy absorption in J
for deflection up to 25 mm
E500
500
E700
700
E1000
1000
Table 5.26 - Table providing classification of fiber-reinforced concretes following their response to testing
of the absorbed energy on rectangular plate (EFNARC) EN 14487-1
After having defined mechanical requirements for the material, the norm EN 14487-1 defines specifications for the materials composing the mixture.
Component
Use of cement
Use of aggregates
Use of admixtures
Limitations for the use of admixtures set out in EN 934-2 and prEN 934-5
shall not be exceeded.
Use of additions
Chloride content
Water/cement ratio
Use of fibers
Steel and polymer fibers shall comply to prEN 14889-1 and prEN 148892, other types of fibers shall comply to clause 5.1.1 of this standard.
Fibers shall be added in such a way that a homogeneous distribution is
obtained.
Table 5.27 - Table providing materials specifications for the preparation of the mixture following instructions laid out in EN 14487-1
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Density
Fiber content
Fiber content shall be determined from a fresh sample according to prEN 14488-7
The sample shall be taken from in situ material unless otherwise specified
Table 5.28 - Table providing recommendations for determination of consistence and density of materials in fresh concrete following EN 14487-1,
determination of fiber content in the mixture.
Once the content of the mixture and its density in the fresh condition have been determined, the
norm EN 14487-1 provides recommendations for control and determination of the mixture properties
in the hardened condition. These foresee the assessment of mechanical characteristics of the material
as set out in the following table:
Property
Compressive
strength
The compressive strength of sprayed concrete is expressed and defined according to EN 2061. The strength shall be determined from tests carried out at 28 days in accordance with EN
12504-1 on drilled cores, taken from the sprayed concrete structure according to EN 12504-1,
or from sprayed panels according to prEN 14488-1. Their minimum diameter shall be 50 mm
and the heigth/diameter ratio shall be either 1,0 or 2,0 specimen shall be tested in accordance
with EN 12504-1.
NOTE: The length/diameter ratio should be:
- 2,0 if the strength result is to be compared to cylinder strength
- 1,0 if the strength result is to be compared to cube strength
Density
Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity in compression shall be determined in accordance with ISO 6784,
except in repair application where EN 13412 shall apply.
Flexural strength
The flexural strength shall be determined in accordance with prEN 12390-5 for sprayed
concrete without fibers unless it is to be compared to fiber reinforced sprayed concrete when
prEN 14488-3 shall be used.
Resistance to
water penetration
The resistance to water penetration shall be determined in accordance with EN 12390-8. The
depth of an in situ sample may be reduced where the layer thickness is less than 150 mm. The
depth shall be sufficient to ensure that complete penetration does not occur. In addition the
direction of water penetration and the method of surface preparation shall be specified. The
maximum value of penetration shall be 50 mm.
The test is normally perfomed at 28 days.
Freeze/thaw
resistance
Note: while a European test method is not available, reference should be made to national
standards.
Bond strength
to substrate
The bond strength shall be determined for repair materials in accordance with EN 1542 with
the exception of mould size which shall not be smaller than 500 mm x 500 mm to provide a
border of at least 100 mm in order to exclude defective material in the edges of the specimens.
Surface finish shall either be troweled when wet or ground when hardened otherwise it shall be
on drilled cores in accordance with prEN 14488-4.
The first peak flexural strength shall be expressed as the average value of the strength at the
moment of first peak determined in accordance with prEN 14488-3. The test shall normally be
performed at 28 days.
Ultimate flexural
strength
The ultimate flexural strength of fiber reinforced sprayed concrete shall be expressed as f0
when determined according to prEN 14488-3. Unless otherwise required, tests shall normally
be performed at 28 days.
Residual strength
The residual strength class of fiber reinforced concrete shall be determined for a specified
deformation level. The stress-deflection curve shall be determined in accordance with prEN
14488-3. The test is normally done at 28 days.
Fiber content
The fiber content shall be determined from a hardened sample in accordance with prEN
14488-7, when it is not practical to determine it from the fresh sprayed concrete.
The sample shall be taken from in-situ material unless otherwise specified.
Energy absorption
capacity
The energy absorption capacity shall be expressed as the average energy absorption
capacity, determined in accordance to prEN 14488-5. The specified energy absorption
capacity for the required class shall meet the requirements in table 3. The test is normally done
at 28 days.
Table 5.29 - Table for determination of mixture properties in the hardened condition, comprehending the same mechanical properties as set
out in EN 14487-1.
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By interpreting the philosophy of underground works, the norm EN 14487-1 defines test methods
preliminary to construction, in order to verify prerequisites set out in the design of the work following
functionality concepts proposed by the norm itself, which consider what had been explained at the
beginning of this chapter, and what is explained hereinafter as well:
Type of work:
Inspection category
Strengthening of ground
Property
Consistence for wet mix
Early age strength development
Compressive strength
Modulus of elasticity
Bond to substract
Ultimate flexural strength
First peak flexural strength
Residual strength
Energy absorption capacity
Freeze/thaw resistance
(with or without deicing salts)
Resistance to water penetration
Composition
Fiber content
Maximum chloride content
Table 5.30 - Proposition for determination of the mixtures properties preliminary to the work following EN 14487-1
In the same norm, procedures for quality controls during the course of the work are proposed.
Material
Inspection/test
Additions
Inspection of
bulk powder delivery ticket
Inspection of
delivery ticket
10
11
12
Additions in
suspension
Purpose
For comparison with
manufacturers stated
value
To ascertain if the
consignment is as
ordered and from the
correct source
To ascertain if the
consignment is as
ordered and from the
correct source
To ascertain uniformity
Water
Test according to
EN 1008
Fibers
Inspection of length,
diameter and shape
according to prEN
14889-1 and prEN
14889-2
To ascertain if the
consignment is as
ordered and from the
correct source
In case of doubt
Each delivery
Each delivery
Each delivery
Each delivery
The delivery ticket or the product data sheet shall also contain information on the maximum chloride content and
should identify classification with respect to alkali silica reaction in accordance with the provisions valid in the place of
use of the concrete. The delivery ticket shall contain or be accompanied by a declaration or certificate of conformity as
required in the relevant standard or specification.
b
Table 5.31 - Proposition for verification of materials received at the construction site following pr ENI 14487.
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Inspection/test
Purpose
Consistence
when using
wet-mix method
Test according to
EN 12350-2 or
EN 12350-5
At start of production
Admixture
content except
accelerator
Record of the
quantity added
Optional
Every batch
Additions
content
Record of the
quantity added
Optional
Every batch
Fiber content
Record of the
quantity added
Every batch
Table 5.32 - Proposition for determination of in situ mixtures properties following ENI 14487-1.
Altogether, a routine procedure is indicated setting out test methods for quality control of the work
to comply with its classification.
Type of test
Inspection/
test
according to
2
3
Water/cement
ratio of fresh
concrete when
using wet mix
method
Accelerator
fiber content
in the fresh
concrete
By calculation
or by test
method
From record
of the quantity
added
min 1
According to
prEN 14488-7
Daily
Daily
Daily
Daily
Daily
Daily
1/200 m3 or
1/1 000 m2
1/100 m3 or min 1
1/500 m2
1/500 m2
min 2
1/250 m3 or
min 3
1/200 m3 or
1/1000 m2
or min 1
1/100 m3 or
1/500 m2 or
min 2
1/50 m3 or
1/250 m2
or min 3
1/50 m3 or
1/250 or
min 3
1/500 m3 or
1/2500 m2
or min 1
1/100 m3 or
1/500 or
min 2
1/50 m3 or
1/250 or
min 3
Strength test
of young
sprayed
concrete
1/5000 m2
1
prEN 14488-2 or /2
months
1/2500 m2
or 1/month
1/250 m2 or
2/month
Compressive
strength
EN 12504-1
1/1 000 m3
or
1/5 000 m2
1/500 m3 or
1/2500 m2
1/250 m3 or
1/1250 m2
Density of
hardened
concrete
EN 12390-7
Resistance
to water
penetration
Freeze/thaw
resistance
Bond
strength
3
1/500 m3 or 1/100 m or
1/500 or
1/2500 m2
min 2
or min 1
EN 12390-8
1/1000 m2
or min 1
1/500 m or
min 2
1/250 m2 or
min 3
1/1000 m2
or min 1
1/500 m2 or
min 2
1/1000 m2
or min 1
1/500 m2 or
min 2
1/250 m or
min 3
See note d
1/500 m or
min 2
1/500 m2 or
min 2
1/250 m2 or
min 3
prEN 14488-4 a
EN 1542
1/2500 m
1/1250 m2
1/1000 m
or min 1
1/1000 m
or min 1
1/250 m2 or
min 3
1/250 m2 or
min 3
1/1250 m
1/500 m2
Min 1
1/2000 m
or min 2
1/500 m
or min 3
Min 1
1/500 m2
or min 3
prEN 14488-3
prEN 14488-3
Table 5.33 - Proposition for routine tests following the works function category as set out in pr EB 14487-1.
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1/2000 m2
or min 2
Works function categories are suggested by the norm EN 14487-1 as indicated in the following
reference tables:
Category
Structures with low durability requirements and without risk for users and local residents,
such as:
- Construction in un-urbanized zones and far-off traffic ways
- Temporary repairs in low risk situation
Structures and components with moderate durability requirements and with moderate risks
for users and local residents, such as:
- Small buildings, houses
- Sewers in medium sized urban areas
Structures and components with high durability requirements and with high risks for users
and local residents, such as:
- Rail or road tunnels with heavy traffic
- Factories classified as high risk, hospitals, schools
Table 5.34 - Functional characteristics of repair works or construction of structures with moderate loading requirements following EN 14487-1.
Category
Structures and components with normal design complexity regarding risk of instability or
funcional safety and with low risks for users and local residents such as:
- Sewers in small urban zones
- Tunnels, bridges and other structural light traffic circulation
- Permanent stabilisation os slopes
Structures and components with special design complexity regarding risk of structural
instability or functional safety as well as high durability requirements and with medium to high
level of risk for users and local residents, such as:
- Rail or road tunnels with medium traffic
- Aqueducts for drinking water
- Small dams, sewers in medium size urban areas, canals
- Hospitals, schools and high occupancy buildings
Table 5.35 - Functional characteristics of works with high loading requirements following EN 14487-1.
Category
Constructions with minor degree of risk in design and structural instability as well as low
durability requirements, usually constructions with short design life and low risk of structural
instability, such as:
- Small permanent constructions
- Stabilisation for small or temporary slopes or pits
Table 5.36 - Functional characteristics of constructions with high loading requirements for underground works following EN 14487-1.
133
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Constructions with minor degree of risk in design and structural instability as well as low
durability requirements, usually constructions with short design life and low risk of structural
instability, such as:
- Decorative imitation rock
- Surrounding walls
Table 5.37 - Functional characteristics of self-supporting constructions with high loading requirements following EN 14487-1.
It is important to clarify that the norm EN 14487-1 provides classifications not only for the use of
sprayed concretes to be applied for underground works; the norm describes as well other types of
works following their functionality.
By highlighting that most complete standards laid down up to now which include these concepts,
depart from the selection of materials, their characterization, and the consideration of structural
criteria for the design and control of the work, one can find:
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EN 14487-1 Sprayed Concrete Part 1: Definitions, Specifications and Conformity. This norm is
coherent with Eurocodes, managing to cover comprehensively criteria for the selection and quality
control of the material.
Referring to the level of criteria for structural design, one can find:
CNR - 25 - Istruzioni per la Progettazione, lEsecuzione ed il controllo di Strutture realizzate con
Calcestruzzo Fibrorinforzato. (Instructions for design, execution and control of structures made of
fiber-reinforced concrete) This being the most complete norm concerning the design of structures
made of fiber-reinforced concrete.
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The resistant capacity to determine the thickness of the plate is just committed to the Bending
resistance or Concrete Modulus of Cracking (MOR). The only exception is the PTI method, which
exploits the post-stretched and pre-stretched technology to increase its load capacity, as this is an
option for plates where soils have a poor and unstable bearing capacity, or for structural solutions.
Consequently there are plates which require bending reinforcement, for load reasons, in which the
design conventional criterium for reinforced concrete is applied.
The basic principle which differentiates the design criterium from the methods previously mentioned,
in which the responsibility to bending is only based on the concrete modulus of cracking, is based
on the applied safety factors.
In all methods its applied the concept of state in service of concrete as resistant material, minimizing
its risk, decreasing its capacity through a safety factor which may vary from a minimum of 1.7 up to
a maximum which may fluctuate from 3.9 to 4, according to the following effects:
Pmax
Load
CTOD0
CTOD
Graphic 6.1 - Exemplification of the minimum service level for design in simple concrete.
Bending test to determine the material MOR.
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6.
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Project method
Type of construction
PCA
WRI
COE
Type A.
Plates in plain concrete
Type B.
PTI
ACI
223
Thickness design
Thickness design
Type C.
Plates in concrete for
contraction compensated with
retraction shrinkageo
Type D.
Thickness design
Thickness design
Tipo F.
Thickness design
Thickness design
Table 6.1 - Types of design methods in function of the floor type. Reference ACI 360-R.
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6.
9 10
15
20
26
30
40
50
60
70
80 90
20
25
35
40
50
55
70
80
95
115
130
135
OL
MH
CH
OH
CH
OH
OL
GC
SU
SC
SP
GU
GP
GM
155
165
GW
SW
SM
CL
ML
Legend
Compacted densities
Natural densities
MH
NOTE: The value of k is extracted of the abacus for each type of soil, especially for groups L and H, would have to coincide with the inferior limit of the
interval of corresponding values.
Table 6.2 - Schedule of the types soil in function of CBR and Vertical Reaction Modulus. Reference ACI 360-R.
In all designs the improvement of the foundation which will have to hold the framework is recommended. For this improvement, its advisable to use at least a layer of granular selected material well
assorted of about 30 40 cm which, in combination with the foundation soil, may reach a modulus
of vertical reaction or CBR, which offers a good safety factor to the framework and minimizes the
risk. There are situations in which the improvement must be more severe, including the removal of
shims of the soil, which have to be replaced by selected material, and cases when reinforcement
geosyntethics are used, always with the aim of generating a stable value of the soil condition which
may be guaranteed during the framework usable life.
Definitions of loads for the design of plates resting on the soil.
The load conditions more commonly used in the design of plates resting on the soil, are the following:
They have to be considered all important and, under the ingegneristico point of view, in every design
itll be necessary to start the respective analysis to determine the most unfavourable case, which will
lead in the framework. In consequence of the experience, the concentred loads, shelves, equippings,
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vehicular loads, are the most demanding for these frameworks and the area on which they stand
affects substantially the effect that they produce in terms of plate stress.
Here are following as example some valid relations between the contact surfaces and the kinds of
concentred loads.
Type of load
Concentrated loads
Without
base plates
Distributed loads
Solid
Storage areas
Special
Special loads
Considerations of project
- Concrete bearing
- Punching shear
- Negative moment in
uloaded area
- Joint faulting
- Settement
10
20
Square inches
20
Safety factors.
The safety factors for the design of plates resting on the soil, as for all frameworks, are defined by
the national technical regulations and, in Europe, by the EuroCodes.
In various Countries, for instance in France and in Italy, there are specific regulations for the design,
construction and testing of industrial floors.
A distinction has to be made between the safety factors on loads and those on the material.
In the case of concrete, in Europe its used a safety factor equal to 1 for the control at SLS, and 1,5
for SLU. In the case of loads a distinction between cyclical and static loads has to be made: in every
Country there are different values. In any case, its necessary to provide more and more increasing
safety factors for more and more important numbers of load cycles.
The safety factors defined for the design may be of a minimum of 1.4 and may arrive at factors of
3.9 4.8 in function of the use.
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6.
ACI 360R suggests safety factors in function of the kind of analysed loads, and doesnt consider
further factors.
Load type
Commonly used
factors of safety
Occasionally used
factors of safety
1,7 to 2,0
1,4 to 2,0+
Concentrated (rack
and post) loads
1,7 to 2,0
Higher under
special circunstances
Uniforme loads
1,7 to 2,0
1,7
2,0 is a conservative
upper limit*
Constructive loads
1,4 to 2,0
Table 6.4 - Minimum safety factors for loads effects recommended by ACI 360-R.
Design methods.
As it has been mentioned before, the available plan methods assume that concrete doesnt have any
reinforcement and that its capacity resistant to bending (modulus of cracking), to be used for the
framework design. In most methods the use of reinforcement is required only to assure a joints wider
spacing and for checking the effects of shrinkage and thermic variations.
For the thickness measuring of a plate framework resting on the soil there are three of the methods
shown at the beginning of the chapter. There follows a description of some of the important differences between them.
Portland Cement Association Method (PCA).
This method has been developed on the basis of Picketts analyses, where there are included variables
such as the stressing tension due to loads, the capacity resistant to concrete bending, the contact area
and the loads spacing, and the modulus of reaction of soil. The method uses abacuses which include
the variables mentioned before for the definition of thicknesses. The work is always done considering
the not cracked condition of concrete. The cases of wheel loads, concentred loads, uniform loads are
considered. Temporary loads are not considered.
To continue there are shown some examples of the graphics used for the different kinds of loads, the
initial condition for all graphics is equivalent to the work strain, which will be determined in function
of the capacity to concrete bending, decreased by a safety factor which will have to be selected by
the designer, according to the regulations in force:
work
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where:
swork = work strain;
MR = concrete modulus of cracking;
fs = safety factor.
40
25
40
60
80
20
100
11
200
120
15
12
50
10
Effective contact
area (Sq. in.)
Wheel spacing
(In.)
10
9
8
7
8
7
7
30
13
30
4
3
Figure 6.1 - Graphic example for the measuring of thickness for the case of wheel loads with simple
axes, for different types of soil. PCA Method. Reference ACI 360-R.
0.90
50
Sd
40
35
0.85
S
Sd
Slab thickness
(In.)
0.80
14
12
10
8
0.75
5
0.70
30
25
20
200
100
50
Effective
contact area
(sq. in.)
0.65
45
0.60
15
0.55
10
0.50
Figure 6.2 - Graphic example for the measuring of thickness for the case of wheel loads with double
axes, for one type of soil. Several curves for different values of soil capacity exist. PCA Method.
Reference ACI 60-R.
For the case of distributed loads, the method PCA has got an abridgement of load capacities of
plates resting on the soil in function of its bearing capacity, the concrete quality and the provided
thickness of the plate.
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6.
Slab
Subgrade
thickness k(1) (pci)
(In.)
600
650
700
50
100
200
535
760
1075
585
830
1175
635
900
1270
685
965
1370
50
100
200
858
830
1175
640
905
1280
750
1055
1495
750
1055
1495
50
100
200
680
960
1355
740
1045
1480
865
1220
1725
865
1220
1725
10
50
100
200
760
1070
1515
830
1170
1655
865
1365
1930
965
1365
1930
12
50
100
200
830
1175
1660
905
1280
1810
1055
1495
2115
1055
1495
2115
14
50
100
200
895
1270
1795
980
1385
1960
1140
1615
2285
1140
1615
2285
Table 6.5 - Abridgement schedule of the PCA Method for strains available
in the plates design for several thickness, for the case of distributed loads.
Reference ACI 360-R.
For the case of concentrated loads, as shelves could be, the machines foundations, or any kind of
element which generates concentrated loads, the method has got some schedules for thickness
measurings, in function of the contact surface, of the support load and of its orthogonal distribution.
These schedules are generated for different levels of soil bearing capacity.
80
14
60
13
50
12
40
60
100
x. In.
30
40
40
60
100
y. In.
11
10
9
20
15
10
80
70
Subgrade K = 50 pci
40
20
10
100 40
60
6
5
The method has all the same produced an abridgement for the case of distributed loads, in which
limitations for joints spacing are mentioned.
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Working
Slab
thickness stress
(psi)
(In.)
Critical
aisle
width
(2)
(ft.)
5
6
8
10
12
14
(3)
5
6
8
10
12
14
Table 6.6 - Schedule of abridgement of the method PCA for strains available in the design of plates of different thickness.
For distributed loads, it provides for joints spacing. Reference ACI 360R.
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6.
Method Wire Reinforced Institute: This method, like PCA, assumes as condition concrete without
reinforcement, considering as resistant capacity the concrete modulus of cracking. Very similar to
PCA method, it proposes curves and schedules for the measuring of shims for the cases of loads of
wheel axes, uniformly distributed loads, it doesnt provide for concentrated loads, nor variable loads
in the constructive phase.
For the case of loads for wheel axes, starting from known conditions, as the concrete bending strength,
which is already reduced for the assumed safety factor, wheel loads and axes separation, concrete
modulus of elasticity and foundation strength, they are applied in consequent graphics that from a
given thickness, determine the parameter of relative strain. Once determined such parameter, this
is applied in other graphics, for the determination of the acting moment and, with it, its possible to
go on with the final check graphic as, in function of the work bending strength of the material and
of the design moment, the definitive thickness of the plate may be verified.
For the case of distributed loads the process is exactly alike, but, stating from the definition of the
relative strain parameter, there are particular curves for the condition of uniformly distributed loads
where in function of the preliminary joints spacing, the thickness can be determined.
The previously described graphics are shown below:
Figure 6.4 - Relation between plate thickness and relative strain parameter. Method WRI. Reference ACI 360-R.
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100
420
400
380
360
340
Influence of other
loaded wheel
80
60
200
100
50
20
10
2.5
40
20
0
40 45 50
320
60
70
80
90
100
300
110
120
280
260
240
D/k = 3.4
D/k
200
150
100
220
200
50
30
20
180
160
10
140
120
2.5
100
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 6.5 - Graphic of design for wheel loads, in function of the relative strain parameter. Method WRI. Reference ACI
360-R.
300
1.0
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2.3
D/K
10
1,500
2,000
20
3,000
4,000
5,000
D/K = 3.4
50
6,000
100
7,000
8,000
150
9,000
10,000
11,000
250
12,000
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Uniform load
(ksf)
10
7
5
4
3
2
1.5
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.10
0.07
0.05
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
400
500 400
300
200
3,000
100
2,000
50
1,500
1,000
900
800
700
600
500
400
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 6.6 - Graphic of design in function of the acting moment, definitive thickness measuring. Method WRI. Reference
ACI 360-R.
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6.
300
1.0
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2.3
D/K = 3.4
Uniform load = 2500 psf = 2,5 ksf
Uniform load
(ksf)
D/K
10
7
5
4
3
10
1,500
2,000
2
1.5
20
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
3,000
4,000
50
5,000
6,000
100
7,000
8,000
150
9,000
10,000
11,000
250
12,000
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0.2
0.15
0.10
0.07
0.05
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
400
500 400
300
200
3,000
100
2,000
50
1,500
1,000
900
800
700
600
500
400
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 6.7 - Graphic of design for distributed load, in function of the relative strain parameter and its relative design graphic of the definitive thickness. Method
WRI. Reference ACI 360-R.
Corps of Engineers (COE) Method: This method bases its analyses on the resistant characteristic of
not reinforced concrete, called Modulus of Cracking. The method determines relations for axis load
conditions per wheel, defining Design indexes in function of the kind of load.
The method considers the strain produced in the intrados of the concrete section.
There are proposed curves in function of the Design Index and of the material bending capacity,
in function of the bearing capacity of the supporting soil.
Category
Capacity (lb)
Design axle load (lb)
No, of tires
Type of tire
Tire contact area (sq. In.)
Effective contact pressure (psi)
Tire width (In.)
Wheel spacing (In.)
Aisle width (In.)
Spacing between dual wheel tires (In.)
II
III
IV
VI
4000
10000
4
Solid
27.0
125
6
31
90
--
6000
15000
4
Solid
36.1
208
7
33
90
--
10000
25000
6
Pneumatic
62.5
100
8
11.52.11
132
3
16000
36000
6
Pneumatic
100
90
9
13.58.13
144
4
20000
43000
6
Pneumatic
119
90
9
13.58.13
144
4
52000
120000
6
Pneumatic
316
95
16
20.79.20
192
4
Table 6.7 - Schedule of Design Index in function of the load for axis types. Method COE, Reference ACI 360-R.
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900
16
700
sig
in
K = 25 pci
De
200 50
400
300 100
500
100
14
9
8
7
6
5
12
4
3
600
615
10
2
500
Thickness (In.)
de
10
800
8
1
6
400
300
Figure 6.8 - Graphic of the thickness measuring in function of the Design Index, soil bearing
capacity and concrete banding strain. Method COE, Reference ACI 360-R.
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6.
As example the following cases of loads for plates resting on the soil are shown:
Here follow some cases of analysis of plates resting on the soil, with moulding to the finished elements:
Plate
Load
Maximum value:
Minimum value:
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Plate
Load
Maximum value:
Minimum value:
Plate
Load
Plate
Load
Maximum value:
Minimum value:
Maximum value:
Minimum value:
Figure 6.14 - Example of a plate model FE, case of load in the plate corner.
The design of joints in floors is a particularly important subject for the durability of such frameworks.
In various Countries there are Regulations or Recommendations of Good Practice, such as ACI 360R
(USA), TR34 (United Kingdom), NF P 11-213 (France), UNI 11146 (Italy), which classify the different
kinds of joints and establish the criteria for design and manifacture.
Here are listed the kinds of joints:
Shrinkage or control joints.
They are joints prepared for the control of concrete shrinkage, which are made by cutting the hardened
concrete some hours after the flooring casting, normally between 6 and 8 hours after the casting.
Its spacing will depend on the attic thickness and by the possible addition of a reinforcement. The
joints can provide or not elements of interconnection between the plates, that will depend on the
use destination.
Armor
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Congrol joint
6.
Insulation joints.
As their name mean, they are joints made to insulate constructive elements which for the different
rigidity may damage the plate. Such joints are provided before concrete casting.
Expanded poliestirene
Joint filling
Form
Construction joints.
Its the joint which delimits the floor plates cast in different phases of the construction. Such elements are to be planned so as to be compatible with the control joints modulation. This kind of
joints provides for the interconnection between plates with mobile elements which allow the sliding
of two adjacent plates.
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Armor
Construction joint
Photo 6.12 - Crossing between construction and control joints after casting.
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6.
In this kind of plates, already described at the beginning of this chapter, the control joints measuring
is based upon the behaviour of the plate subjected to plastic shrinkage. Its advisable that the plate,
rectangular or square, has similar dimensions, with ratio Lmax / Lmin 1.2. The basic rule in measuring
establishes:
where:
L = spacing length;
h = provided height of the plate.
The PCA (Portland Cement Association) recommends a very similar spacing the previous one, considering the maximum dimension of aggregates and the mixture slump.
Slab
thickness ''
Slump 4 to 6 inches
Aeggregat Aggregate
<3/4 ''.
>3/4 ''.
10
12
14
16
18
20
5 ''
6 ''
7 ''
8 ''
9 ''
10 ''
13
15
18
20
23
24
Slump
less
than 4''.
15
18
21
24
27
30
Table 6.8 - PCA recommendation for the control joints spacing for not reinforced
plates. Recommended measures in ft (Feet). References ACI 360-R.
Concrete
soil
Figure 6.19 - Example of plate reinforced for shrinkage and temperature.
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The codes traditionally used for the design of floors on the soil without bending reinforcement, such
as PCA (Portland Cement Association), WRI (Wire Reinforced Institute) and COE (Corp of Engineers),
use, for steel measuring for temperature and shrinkage, the formula Subgrade drag equation:
where:
As = Steel area in square inch per linear foot;
fs = Allowable strain of reinforcement steel in psi;
F = Friction factor;
L = Provided distance between joints;
w = Weight of the plate in psf, considering 12.5 psf per inch of thickness.
With this formula its possible to verify how much a good spacing without the presence of reinforcement can be exploited.
The dimension of the plate will be subordinated to its feasibility, according to the load levels, being
possible that the applied load can reduce its dimensions.
Compensated shrinkage concretes.
Compensated shrinkage concretes are the solution to the problem of control joints. These kinds of
concretes are described in ACI 223. Their work mechanism is based upon concrete expansion in the
first days, that later on will be compensated by shrinkage. Its necessary a minimum reinforcement
of 0.15%.
This technology allows to obtain control joints spacings wider than those previously explained.
Nowadays, thanks to this possibility, theres a trend towards solutions of floors with joints spacing
wider than 15 m.
Curling (or bending) and Warping of the plate resting on the soil.
The phenomenon of bending or curling is common in not reinforced plates and consists of the angular distortion of the angles surface. Normally this phenomenon affects a radium from 2 to 5 feet,
measured from the same edge. The phenomenon is due to the difference of water contents and
temperature between the external and internal surfaces of the plate.
The Warping phenomenon, very similar to curling, coincides with the distortion of the surface in
general, caused by internal strains generated by differences of steam or of temperature between the
framework surfaces
Both phenomena can be controlled with a combination of control and construction joints, and with
a suitable shrinkage reinforcement.
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6.
Zone 2
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 2
Zone 1
Zone 2
Figure 6.20 - Examples of bending of plates resting on the soil. Zone Nr.2 value is usually equivalent to a length from 2 to 5 feet.
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Plain concrete
Vf=0.38% (30 kg/m3)
Nominal stress N (M P a (
3.5
3
2.5
Curves SFRC
1.5
1
Plain concrete
curves
0.5
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
CTOD m (mm)
Graphic 6.2 - Example of bending test UNI 11039 to determine the bending capacity of the
concrete.
Pmax
LOAD
CTOD0
CTOD
Graphic 6.3 - Example of minimum service level for a plan concrete design. Bending test to
determine the material resistant moment.
As it can be noticed, on the basis of the norm ACI 360 R, there is a minimum reduction of 42% of
material resistant capacity, being a fragile material.
Using fiber reinforced concrete, its exploited the material last resistant characteristic as resistant
capacity and opposing increased loads to it.
The minimum requirement for fiber reinforced concrete structural use consists of a residual strength
50% of first crack strength. The fiber reinforced concrete, depending on the quantity of reinforcement it has got, will have the possibility of being more exploited at a structural level and offering a
resistant capacity equal or greater than the maximum one reached in service by plain concrete.
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Plain concrete
Vf=0.38% (30 kg/m3)
Nominal stress N (M P a (
3.5
3
2.5
Curves SFRC
1.5
1
Plain concrete
curves
0.5
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
CTOD m (mm)
Graphic 6.2 - Example of bending test UNI 11039 to determine the bending capacity of the
concrete.
Pmax
LOAD
CTOD0
CTOD
Graphic 6.3 - Example of minimum service level for a plan concrete design. Bending test to
determine the material resistant moment.
As it can be noticed, on the basis of the norm ACI 360 R, there is a minimum reduction of 42% of
material resistant capacity, being a fragile material.
Using fiber reinforced concrete, its exploited the material last resistant characteristic as resistant
capacity and opposing increased loads to it.
The minimum requirement for fiber reinforced concrete structural use consists of a residual strength
50% of first crack strength. The fiber reinforced concrete, depending on the quantity of reinforcement it has got, will have the possibility of being more exploited at a structural level and offering a
resistant capacity equal or greater than the maximum one reached in service by plain concrete.
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In this case the shrinkage control framework is placed in the third superior of the provided section,
letting concrete bear the stresses due to acting loads.
Heres an example with a typical section.
The initial conditions are:
- Floors with 15.00 cm of thickness in concrete fc = 25 MPa, Modulus of cracking of 3.2
MPa.
- Minimum steel quantity, for shrinkage and temperature, in welded wire mesh fy = 414 N/
2
mm , bars with diameter 6.00 mm spaced out of 15 cm in both ways.
- Soil modulus of reaction between 0.09 and 0.12 N/mm3.
- Maximum loads: goods lifts with capacity of 6 ton.
Armor
Concrete
soil
Figure 6.21 - Basic project of the concrete with reinforcement for temperature. Floor 15 cm of
thickness.
The aim is to prove that, with the same structural behaviour, fiber reinforced concrete has got for this
case mechanical characteristics equal or superior to those that could be obtained with a traditional
reinforced concrete.
The resistant moment of the reinforced section is equal to:
where:
Mres = Resistant moment;
fy = Steel resistant strain;
d = Usable height.
Its possibile to replace the traditional framework using fiber reinforced concrete with 20 kg/m3 of
steel fibers FF1 (MACCAFERRI), considering as bending strength of a fiber reinforced element of a
rectangular section:
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6.
f If
U1
U2
CTOD 0+3 mm
CTOD
Graphic 6.4 - Example of level of minimum performance for the structural use of the concrete reinforced
with fibers.
N (M P a (
8
7
Nominal stress
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
CTODm (mm)
Graphic 6.5 - Example of a concrete reinforced with fibers with elasto-plastic behavior.
Nowadays in the European environment there are normative proposals which underline these concepts:
- DESIGN , PRODUCTION AND CONTROL OF STEEL Fiber REINFORCED STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS - Standard UNI U73041440
- Rilem TC162-TDF Test and design methods for steel fiber reinforced concrete.
These regulations have the aim of determining the mechanical properties of fiber reinforced concrete,
that is the first crack strength and the post-crack residual strengths.
The increase of residual strength may vary from 50% up to more than 100%, depending on the quantity of fibers used, for measurings which may vary from a minimum of 20 kg/m3 up to 60 kg /m3.
Reinforced floorings and floors for shrinkage and temperature.
An applicatory example of fiber reinforced concrete is that of floors reinforced only for shrinkage
and temperature, in which the provided section has been designed according to the criteria stated
in ACI 360 R.
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In order to determine fiber reinforced concrete equivalent strength the results rising from bending
tests according to Norm UNI11039 have been considered; for strength C25 and for measurings of
20 kg/m3 the first crack strength is of 3.2 MPa and the minimum ductility of 50-55%.
Sample
FF150L25
D20A
FF150L25
D20B
FF150L25
D20C
FF150L25
D20D
FF150L25
D20E
FF150L25
D20F
FF150L25
D20G
FF150L25
D20H
V
(kg/m3)
L/d
CTOD0
(mm)
I
(MPa)
eq(0-0,6)
(MPa)
eq(0,6-3,0)
(MPa)
D0
D1
20
50
0,0178
3,208
2,128
1,913
0,663
0,899
20
50
0,0178
2,658
1,161
0,563
0,437
0,485
20
50
0,0178
2,725
2,023
1,667
0,742
0,824
20
50
0,0178
3,505
2,752
2,601
0,785
0,945
20
50
0,0178
3,484
1,694
1,574
0,486
0,929
20
50
0,0178
3,581
2,545
2,382
0,711
0,936
20
50
0,0178
3,114
1,560
1,396
0,501
0,894
20
50
0,0178
3,033
2,032
2,210
0,670
1,088
0,0178
3,164
1,987
1,788
0,624
0,875
Midium value
Table 6.10 - Schedule of UNI 11039 tests results.
Strenghtvs.
vs.
dosage
Resitencia
Dosificacin
Concrete C25
Hormignes
C25
Equivalent
strenght
(MPa)
Resistencia
en MPa
3,50
3,00
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
3
Dosificacin
en(kg/m
Kg/m3
Dosage fiber
)
The determination of fiber reinforced concrete equivalent strength can be obtained also according
to the regulations ASTM, RILEM, EFNARC, European.
The shown methodology is a sufficient subject to prove the equivalence of the technical solutions.
The solution in fiber reinforced concrete, besides being equivalent to the traditional one, offers additional advantages at the level of concrete performances as the better fatigue behaviour and the
better crack control.
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6.
Figure 6.23 - Constitutive law. Curve of Strain vs. Stress in phase of pre peak and
strain curves vs. crack aperture in the phase of post peak.
The constitutive connection (or law) has been determined through numerical simulations of UNI
11039 tests in which the connection s-w of the material has been varied until the numerical curve
has turned out to be in good accordance with experimental results. The following characteristics of
the
material are considered:
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Shift from ratio s-w to ratio s-e dividing w with the square root of the middle area of the
analysed element.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.24 - Mathematical description of a bending beam according to UNI11039, (a) Evident crack
model, (b) Spread crack model.
Its obtained a numerical expression which gauges the numerical behaviour with the experimental
one obtained in tests, adopting this matrix of behaviour as analysis model of different sections. Its
clear that, as this behaviour depends on the quantity of fibers and quality of concrete, its necessary
to check the constitutive law whenever one of the variables changes.
4.5
4.,0
3.5
3.0
2.5
FEA Diana Smeared
Experimental
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
CTODm (mm)
Graphic 6.7 - Numeric simulation of tests UNI11039 with Software DINA, the fine curves are experimental and the thick curve
represents the gauged curve in FE.
The University of Brescia has developed mathematical models and carried out experimental tests for
plates resting on the soil, generating matrixes of behaviour for plates for different soil conditions,
loads and concrete classes of strength.
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6.
(c)
Photo 6.15 - Steel springs to simulate an elastic foundation.
(d)
Photo 6.16 - Steel springs to simulate an elastic foundation.
The modelling has allowed to analyse the mechanism of cracking of a plate resting on the soil, marked
out by a crack according to the medians, confirming the experimental results.
300
SlabP4
P4 Experimental
Experimental
Slab
SlabP4
P4 NLFM
Analisys
Slab
analysis
250
150
Crack
Load (kN)
Load [kN]
200
100
50
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Displacement (mm)
Displacement
[mm]
3.5
Figure 6.25 - Comparison of numerical and experimental results for the plate.
165
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The research program, numerical and experimental, has got as result the generation of abacuses for
the thickness premeasuring of the plates in fiber reinforced concrete under punctual concentrated
loads, different soil carrying capacity conditions, concrete strength classes, type and measurings of
steel fibers.
800
Ultimate
Load [kN]
Load Failure
[kN]
700
600
500
400 (1)
(2)
Abacuses in function
of the kind of soil.
300
200
100
0
100
Slab
tickness (mm)
Slab
thickness
[mm]
(3)
150
200
250
300
350
400
Graphic 6.8 - Design abacuses for a plate resting on the soil with a volume fraction Vf = 0.38% of fibers 50/1.0 in a concrete
matrix C25/30.
The sequence of crack, with the help of a software to the finished elements, working in a not linear
environment, allows the modelling of any load condition. What is fundamental, its the characterization of the material for mixture strength class, according to its modulus of crack and the specific
measuring, for the determination of the connection s-w and for the characteristic curve of not linear
behaviour, which will become the basis for the analysis to the E.F.
Armor
Concrete
soil
Figure 6.26 - Diagram of base presented with traditional solution.
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6.
Concrete
soil
Figure 6.27 - Diagram of stresses owing to temperature in a fiber reinforced plate.
The addition of fibers may lead to an increase of joints spacing from 30% up to 100% out of the
one originally provided by the present codes.
The possibility of manifacturing plates with greater dimensions is a reality based upon two fundamental bonds:
- Plate thickness;
- Quantity of reinforcement.
ACI 360R, in the Sub Grade equation, previously shown, provides for these parameters and allows
to reach spacings wider than 10 metres, up to a maximum of 30 metres.
It turns out evident that the solution will be orientated towards high measurings of fibers, owing to
the necessity of reinforcement, and to remarkable thicknesses, in many cases greater than 18 cm, to
resist the effects of curling and warping.
Here is the description of a couple of examples of increase of joints spacing, one for a standard floor
and one for floors highly reinforced for shrinkage.
Example Nr.1 Attic 15 cm thick, minimum steel and shrinkage.
- Floor thickness 15.00 cm in concrete fc= 25 MPa;
- Minimum quantity for shrinkage and temperature, in welded wire mesh, fy = 414 N/mm2,
bars diameter 6.00 mm and with spacing of 15 cm in both ways. Placed in the third superior.
- Soil modulus of reaction between 0.09 and 0,12 N/mm3.
Armor
Concrete
soil
Figure 6.28 - Concrete slab with reinforcement for temperature. Floor 15 cm thick.
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Concrete
soil
Figure 6.29 - . Slab in fiber reinforced concrete. Floor 15 cm thick.
Characteristics
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
%
mm
55,50
6,00
150,00
mm
mm
mm
mm
3,20
Nmm
FF1 (1.00x50)
1,76
Fibers
kg/m
6/150
kg/m
Mesh
414,00
mm
Thickness = 15 mm
2,96
19,73
188,50
1.000,00
1.000,00
150,00
138,40
80,00
150,00
5.618.676
kg/m
Advised measuring
20
mm
150
Nmm
6.600.000
Its obtained the mechanical equivalence of a fiber reinforced concrete, measured with 20 kg/m3 of
Wirand FF1 fibers, for the section reinforced in a traditional way.
According to PCA advice on spacing between joints, ACI 360R, the plates must be provided with
joints with maximum distance of 4.95 m in case of floors without reinforcement for shrinkage and
temperature (15 feet).
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6.
Slab
thickness ''
5 ''
6 ''
7 ''
8 ''
9 ''
10 ''
Slump 4 to 6 inches
Aeggregat Aggregate
<3/4 ''.
>3/4''.
10
12
14
16
18
20
Slump
less
than 4''.
15
18
21
24
27
30
13
15
18
20
23
24
Table 6.12 - Reinforcement analysis according to ACI 360-R, Design Slabs on Grade.
where:
As = Steel area in square inches per linear foot;
fs = Allowable reinforcement steel strain in psi;
F = Factor of friction;
L = Provided distance between joints;
W = Plate weight in psf, considering 12.5 psf per inch of thickness.
That is:
Distance calculation between joints according to ACI 360R
Formula of resistance of the sub-base
(Subgrade Drag Equation)
Mesh 6/150
Unit of measure
Diameter
mm
Spacing2
mm
2
Steel area
Inch /pie linael
fs
psi
Plate thickness
Inch
w
psf
F
Adimensional
Minimum spacing suggested
for contraction joints
Value
6,00
150,00
0,07
30.000,00
5,91
73,82
2
26,72 ps
8,14 m
On the basis of what explained, by calculating the maximum spacing in case of traditional reinforcement, according to ACI 360 R, and considering the structural equivalence of the provided fiber reinforced section, the reachable maximum spacing can be of 8.00 x 8.00 m for control joints, obtaining
that way an increase of 60% in comparison with the traditional spacing.
Example Nr. 2. Attic 18 cm thick, with strong shrinkage reinforcement.
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- Floor thickness 18.00 cm in concrete fc = 25 MPa.
- Minimum quantity for shrinkage and temperature, in welded wire mesh, fy=414 N/mm2,
bars with diameter 12.5 mm, spaced out 150 mm in both ways.
- Soil modulus of reaction between 0.09 and 0.12 N/mm3
- Maximum load, unknown.
Armor
Concrete
soil
Figure 6.30 - Basic outline of concrete with temperature reinforcement. Thickness pavement 18 cm.
Concrete
soil
Figure 6.31 - Diagram of base presented with fiber reinforced solution. Floor 15 cm thick
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6.
N/mm
%
mm
12,7/150
4,00
3,92
98,00
12,40
mm
150,00
kg/m
kg/m
2
12,64
70,22
mm
mm
mm
mm
Nmm
Fibers
FF1 (1.00x50)
414,00
N/mm
Mesh
Characteristics
N/mm
Thickness = 15 mm
805,09
1.000,00
1.000,00
180,00
179,28
70,00
180,00
20.998.239
kg/m
Advised measuring
40
mm
180
Nmm
21.168.000
Table 6.14 - Comparison of a rectangular section with traditionally bending reinforcement vs. steel fibers reinforced section.
Its obtained the mechanical equivalence for a fiber reinforced concrete, measured with 40 Kg/m3 of
Wirand FF1 fibers, for the traditionally reinforced section.
Reinforcement analysis according to ACI 360 R-Design Slabs on Grade.
Distance calculation between joints according to ACI 360R
Formula of resistance of the sub-base
(Subgrade Drag Equation)
Mesh 12.70/150
Unit of measure
Diameter
mm
Spacing2
mm
2
Steel area
Inch /pie linael
fs
psi
Plate thickness
Inch
w
psf
F
Adimensional
Minimum spacing suggested
for contraction joints
Value
12,70
150,00
0,29
30.000,00
7,09
88,58
2
99,75 ps
30,40 m
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the attic minimum thickness of 18 cm, there could arise some phenomena of curling, which could
be avoided only by decreasing the spacing, or with the use of building edge joints such as Omega,
or Diamond Dowels, in the plate outline. Its important to underline that, in order to manifacture
floors with widely spaced out joints, its necessary to consider some important factors such as an
excellent quality of foundation such as the one recommended, minimum value 0.12 N/mm3 of vertical modulus of reaction, equivalent to a CBR of 40/45%, great care in concrete seasoning, perfect
mixture workability and its continuity during the whole process of the floor laying.
All these conditions make possible this kind of solution, which cant be put down just to the fact
of adding fibers in concrete. Any lack of control in the work concerning the mixture, workability,
seasoning, etc may generate problems in the aim of obtaining very spaced out joints without crack
troubles.
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6.
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Figure 7.1 - Bending test. Typical response of beams reinforced with steel fibers (a) and with traditional steel (b).
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The use of metal fibers as a partial or total substitute of traditional steel reinforcement in this application is especially advantageous when:
- The typical conditions of saturated cohesionless soils make difficult the predictions of the
stresses which operate in the tunnel cross and axial sections and, consequently, many of the hypotheses put forward in the design of the covering of tunnels built with integral excavation machines
(TBM) must be accepted although they have an important negative impact on the carrying out or on
the economical aspects.
Under this point of view, to be able to rely on the stiffness characteristics of a material as
concrete reinforced with steel fibers, is of fundamental importance as the combination of bending
moments and of the normal forces applied in tangential direction is particularly favourable for the
use of this material as substitute (at least partial) of the traditional reinforcement;
- SFRC offers a good ductility in relation with the splitting crack and good impact resistance;
- SFRC allows in general a better control of the possible local collapses of the covering portions.
Schntgen (2003) has investigated different kinds of load for the ring segments of the subway system
in Essen, Germany (Fig. 7.2) and has experimentally verified the positive contribution of steel fibers in
relation with splitting crack as, after the crack has come about, the applied load has kept increasing
until it has doubled the first crack one. The same author has verified the behaviour of key ring segments
and has proposed some design formulae based upon the RILEM TC 162-TDF (2000, 2002) work.
Further studies have been produced by Mashimo and others (2002) Kooiman and Walraven
(1999).
Bending test
(transportation state)
Hidraulic jacs
Plastic deformable
supporting pads
Shear test
Splitting test
Hidraulic
jacs
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Plastic deformable
supporting pads
The study of prefabricated ring segments in SFRC can be completed through numerical analyses with
programme to the finished elements in which the main load conditions to which they will be subjected
are studied. This section will present a methodology that can be used for this numerical study.
In order to carry out a study with a programme to the finished elements, it is necessary to define in
advance the framework detailed structure, the specific loads and the bonds, so as the equivalent
traction strength for fiber reinforced concrete bending besides its curve of behaviour.
As example, and to understand better the methodology to follow, here are described the analyses
achieved with the programme Abaqus 6.4.1 (2003) for one of the segments used in the liner rings
of the Barcelona underground.
Fig. 7.3 shows the geometrical characteristics of a typical ring segment for the Barcelona project. Fig
7.4 shows the typical loading conditions corresponding to the critical phase of thrust (TBM thrust); the
TBM must be able to push off against the last completed segment ring in order to move forward.
Support plates
Frontal view
Scale
Scale
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Analyzed segmented
ring panel A1
Jacking
application region
Fixed considered
ring lengthwise
Jacking
thrust
Direction of
the excavation
Soil thrust
Lateral friccion
TBM shield
Analyzed segmented ring A1
Fig. 7.5 shows a typical situation of voids in the annular space around the ring segments. This
situation will subject the ring segments to bending loads. This situation has been experimentally
modelled at the Universidad Politcnica de Catalua (UPC) with laboratory bending tests (Gettu et
al., 2003; Photo 7.1).
Inadequate
filling
Soil/rock
Tunnel
Segments
ring
Injected
filling
Figure 7.5 - Bending on the segment due to the insufficient filling of the annular space (overdigging)between
the covering ring and the digging perimeter (Gettu et al., 2004).
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Graphic 7.1 shows the experimental results (upper and lower limits) concerning the load as a function
of the displacement of the fiber reinforced ring segment and of the fiber reinforced ring segment
with traditional reinforcement (mixed reinforcement). A slightly declining behaviour of the segment
with just the fibers was observed. Hardening behaviour of the ashlar with mixed reinforcement was
also observed.
Load (kN)
In order to verify the ABAQUS 6.4.1 (2003) model, the experimental results have been afterwards
simulated with analyses to the finished elements, based on the crack mechanics, achieved with such
programme; obtaining a good approximation (Graphic 7.1), there has been a confirmation of the
used numerical model.
Deflection (mm)
Graphic 7.1 - Comparison between the experimental and numerical Load-Arrow curves.
Further numerical analyses have been carried out with the aim of considering the stresses that are
produced when there are especially meaningful situations of load that affect transitory phases, during
ashlars manipulation and during ring assembling.
In particular the critical phases analysed with simulation to the finished elements, have been the two
following:
1) Thrust on the arch central ashlar during TBM advancing;
2) Load on the ring segment that supports 6 other segments during storage.
In the thrust phase, the TBM hydraulic jacks apply loads on specific areas of the cross section of the
previously assembled ring, that are large enough to cause the concrete to crack, as the ring itself is
the contrast necessary to allow the extension of hydraulic jacks that provide the thrust to propel
the TBM forward during the excavation.
In the particular case of the Barcelona Underground, there are 4 hydraulic jacks for each ring segment and 2 for the key segment, for a total of 30 (7 x 4 + 2) jacks operating on the ring. The thrust
from each jack varies as a function of the soil characteristics and of the tunnel depth, reaching 3 MN
when the tunnel axis is placed at a depth of about 25 m.
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For the central segment of the inverted arch, the numerical model has been worked out with a mesh
of 3D elements of medium dimension equal to about 90 mm. The following situations have been
considered in the analyses (shown in Fig. 7.6):
Figura 7.6 - Schemes of loads and bonds of the ring segment subjected to the jacking thrust.
- The last completed ring receives the jacking stresses prior to completion of the filling of
the annular space between the ring and the soil (grouting), while at the same time, the filling of the
space between the immediately front ring and the soil has yet to solidify. The void corresponding to
the front ring has already been filled and the filling has set, therefore it can be considered as a rigid
support in the direction of the tunnel axis;
- The ring support is considered uniform as along there are polyethylene panels (pad) at the
contact locations between the rings. It is considered elastically capable of being deformed as its
necessary to contemplate the front ring axial changeability which in addition represents an unilateral
bond which doesnt resist to traction;
- The unilateral rigidity of the springs which simulate the changeability of the ring support, that
is the front rings changeability, has been suitably gauged through imposed displacements analyses;
- The interaction of the segment with the adjacent segments of the same ring is, too, always
unilateral, as the ring segments are simply in contact and assembled with pins;
- The lateral friction which can be generated between such lateral surfaces of the adjacent ring
segments is not considered and there are positioned springs which operate in compression normally
to surfaces. Also the rigidity of these springs has been suitably gauged to simulate the changeability
of the adjacent ashlars;
- The four jacks operate on the segment through metallic plates which can be considered
rigid, distributing the load uniformly on the respective contact areas.
Fig. 7.7 show the typical numerical results obtained by the simulation of the behaviour of a ring
segment with 45 kg/m3 of Wirand FF1fibers.
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From Graphic 7.2, both the presence of splitting cracks corresponding to the service load, and the
load increase (after the crack) made possible by fibers can be observed.
Fig. 7.7 shows the distribution of the radial strains in the four load zones (the four jacking plates)
corresponding to the service loads.
Graphic 7.3 show the distribution of radial stresses (sr) during the depth of the ring segment in
direction (z) of the tunnel axis, as a function of the service load.
It may be observed, under the load zone, a behaviour of the ring segment similar to that of a plate
subjected to concentrated loads of great intensity: as a matter of fact, after a tract of about 100 mm,
in which there are strains of compression, there show tractions along about 300-400 mm and these
tend to disappear to come back again later on the opposite side of the ashlar.
The fact that the traction radial stresses show also in the bottom of the ashlar is simply due to the
presence in that zone of the longitudinal springs (which simulate the axial changeability of the ring
already built on which the ring object of the analysis is resting) which, being uniformly distributed
on the whole rear cross section of the ashlar, generate compression longitudinal strains much more
limited and modest local radial tractions.
Maximum load
Splitting behavior:
First Crack
Load (kN)
Service Load
Second crack
Second
crack
Deflection (mm)
Graphic 7.2 - Load applied in function of the horizontal displacement.
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MPa
prefabricated elements.
Service load
Distance (mm)
Graphic 7.3 - Radial strains sr along the ring segment axis.
In order to analyse the solicitationswhich are caused by ring segments during the storage, it is
necessary to consider that, generally after the extraction of the form, the ring segments are placed
in groups of three after the first day and on the seventh day the stacks are completed with the
remaining segments of the ring (in total 7 + 1 key), always using wooden blocking as shown in Fig.
7.8.
Figure 7.8 - Arrangement of the stacked wedges with the critical segment highlighted.
The ring segment at the base of the stack is positioned on wooden support blocking consisting
of two wide surfaces of about 300 mm each, formed by great wooden supports that follow the
curvature of the segment placed with a wheelbase of about 2,80 m connected below by struts in
order to hold the blocking in position. The next segments are placed on small wooden beams, with
an approximate section of 100 mm x 100 mm and length equal to the one of the segments, that
will have to be positioned with a wheelbase of 2,80 m so as to remain lined up with the inferior
supports in order to remove or at least minimize the bending effects on the segments. In practice,
the blocking is typically out of location, resulting in loading eccentricities that may induce strong
bending strains in the segment.
In order to analyse in suitable way this phase of load, there have been considered especially
unfavourable arrangements of the segments small beams of support and one of these is the one
represented in Fig. 7.8, referred to the second segment (Gettu et al., 2004) which rests on some
small beams placed with a wheelbase of 2,80 m + 2ee (meaning with ee the external eccentricity),
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while the superior segment is arranged with small beams at a distance of 2,80 m 2ei (meaning
with ei the internal eccentricity). In this situation the weight of the segments, above the critical load,
operates at a distance from the supports equal to ee + ei. Once the stack is completed, the second
segment will turn out loaded for the total weight of 5 segments + 1 key. 438 kN correspond to
the weight of 6 whole ashlars. The numerical analyses have been developed by adopting for the
eccentricity the values (Gettu et aL., 2004), quoted in the same Fig. 7.9.
ei = ee = 250 mm
ei = ee = 500 mm
For the modelling with the programme to the finites elements Abaqus 6.4.1, the minimum 3D
elements of the thrust phase have been adopted, but with a medium dimension near to 90 mm.
The load zones correspond to those of the small beams support surfaces (about 100 x 1800 mm)
and on such surfaces there has been applied a uniform pressure in vertical direction with the aim
of simulating the weight of superior ashlars (Fig. 7.10). The lateral supports are modelled as rigid
supports operating in the vertical direction, arranged along the whole depth of the segment.
Figure 7.10 - Mesh bonds and loads for the analysis of the maximum weight of stacking.
The aim of the analyses carried out has been that of calculating how many ashlars can be stacked
without causing crack or collapse phenomena of the most stressed ashlars, as the crack control is
an aspect of basic importance for the covering ashlars of tunnels for which its necessary to assure
a perfect watertight seal being therefore essential to avoid the production of cracks also in the
transitory phases as for instance the storage one.
The numerical elaborations have been achieved under the hypothesis of presence of eccentricity and
letting progressively grow the load operating on the ashlar up to the forming of the first crack. The
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crack is discovered for the presence of plastic distortions, as code Abaqus is based on a spread crack
model.
In the condition of simulated load, after the crack forming there takes place also the collapse of the
segment being the framework of isostatic kind and the material is represented as homogeneous
along the depth of the segment (the crack forms immediately along the whole depth of the segment),
which prevents the redistribution of the internal actions.
The analyses have been carried out referring to the concrete mechanical characteristics after two
different periods of hardening, equal to 4 days and 28 days respectively. The first condition has the
aim of verifying the behaviour in conditions very similar to the real ones and, as the fresh concrete
characteristics after 4 days cant be directly determined, these are calculated on the basis of those
corresponding to concrete after 28 of hardening, using for this purpose the correlative expressions
provided by the Eurocodes. The second condition has the aim of obtaining numerical results by using
the characteristics of the material experimentally determined.
Load
Service load
Load)
Graphic 7.4 - Applied-Arrow load in the second ashlar with eccentricity of 250 mm.
In Fig. 7.4 there are represented diagrams in terms of applied load and of arrow valued in the half of
the second ashlar with ee = ei = 250 mm. It may be observed that, already with 4 days of hardening,
the second ashlar is in condition of supporting the exercise load of 6 superior ashlars. After 28 days
of hardening, the segment shows naturally a rigidity and a last load superior and is in condition of
supporting the weight of almost 10 ashlars stacked one on another.
In the end, the segment achieved with Wirand FF1 fibers, with measuring of 45 kg/m3, allows, in
presence of not excessive eccentricities and anyway within a limit of 250 mm, to stack the 6 ashlars
necessary for the forming of a ring.
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CONCLUSIONS
From the numerical analysis carried out for the ring segments of the Barcelona Underground, it is
possible to conclude that for these types of structures, it is possible to partially replace the traditional
steel bar reinforcement with steel fibers.
Given the high stresses which can be reached in the thrusting phase of the jacking operation around
the perimeter of the precast segments (the first 400 mm), and the guarantee that in the intermediate
part of the precast segment the reinforcement with fibers is in conditions of facing the strains which
can be reached, it can be concluded that the segment need only be reinforced with traditional bars
at the perimeter of the segment.
TRF
RCO
TR
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10
20
Photo 7.2 - Horizontally placed panels.
Polystyrene
3 2
Concret
Concret
Finishing gravel
The tests have been carried out on full scale panels (dimensions of 11.2 m by 2.5 m (L x H)). The
results of these tests show that in the panel reinforced with steel fibers its obtained a ultimed load
similar to the panel reinforced with welded wire mesh and moreover its possible to control in a more
effective way the generated cracks.
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Load (kN)
(b)
FRC
(a)
(c)
Deflection (mm)
Figura 7.13 - Double T prestressed beam simply leaned and subjected to distributed load. Load-Displacement Curve in an element reinforced with traditional
steel (a), distribution of cracks in the element reinforced with traditional steel (b) and with steel fibers (c).
Strands
Head web-reinforcement
stirrups
Prestressing
strands
Current web-reinforcement
stirrups
Head web-reinforcement
stirrups
Prestressing
strands
Figura 7.14 - Double T section element. Cross section (a), traditional reinforcement (b) and reinforcement with fibers (c) on supports.
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(c)
(a)
(d)
(b)
Deflection (mm)
(e)
Figura 7.15 - Cutting test. Load model (a); Load-Cutting Behaviour (b); crack mode with not reinforced concrete (c); with traditional steel (d)
and with steel fibers (e).
Besides studying which would be the distributed loads to which the framework will be subjected, it
has been studied the way of simulating them in laboratory. Some tests have also been carried out
on the element without any kind of framework (in the matrix there have been inserted no fibers or
welded wire mesh).
The comparison shows the interaction of various kinds of loads, besides those which generally are
considered (punctual loads, cross bending strains, distributed loads).
In this way the ductile behaviour to the framework cutting has been assured when the framework
corners have given way.
Due to the dynamic parameters selected , on the other hand, expressed by the results that refer
toed the vertical displacements, they were obtained fragile results, except for the concrete element
without armor that was broken before, due to inflection.
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The tests have been carried out on three different models with the same structure: the former two
models have been reinforced with steel fibers, one with low carbon contents fibers with 30 mm of
length and 0.7 mm of diameter, the other with high carbon contents fibers with 30 mm of length
and 0.4 mm of diameter, while the third one has been reinforced in traditional way with welded
wire mesh (1F5/25/20).
The elements reinforced with steel fibers have shown a greater ductility and a greater service last
load in comparison with the model reinforced with traditional steel (Fig. 7.18a). The breaking, in any
case, has been caused by longitudinal bending moments with cracks on the framework flanges (Fig.
7.18b, c, d).
It can be inferred, after the tests carried out, that steel fibers represent a reinforcement homogeneously
distributed in the matrix which can compete with the traditional steel mesh, and moreover allow to
reinforce in effective way frameworks of complex sections which have stresses both in two and in
three directions.
The behaviour of the frameworks of prefabricated flat coverings in concrete reinforced with metal
fibers is comparable with the one of frameworks reinforced with welded wire mesh and, as the
results obtained show, with an increase of ductility.
Strands
(b)
(a)
Figura 7.16 - Cross section (a), displacement of the structural element (b).
Load
(a)
(d)
(b)
Displacement (mm)
(c)
Figure 7.17 - Bending behaviour of the structural element (a); Load-displacement curve of the element under distributed loads
(b): Horizontal attic (c); flange inclination (d).
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(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 7.18 - Test in real scale: system of loads (a); simulation of loads (b); measurement equipment (c); behaviour of cracks in the element (d).
(a)
Figure 7.19 - Test of the framework reinforced with steel fibers. Symmetrical (a) and asymmetrical (b) section.
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(b)
Comparison - Section C
Load (kN)
First cracks
Elastic limit
(b)
(c)
(a)
(d)
Figura 7.20 - Global behaviour in real scale of the structural element. Last load Vs Deflection (a); Crisis of the structural element reinforced with traditional
steel and with steel fibers (b, c, d).
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Shear (kN)
Model
Ultimate shear
Beam 1
Beam 2
Sericeability shear
Beam 3
Beam 4
Displacement (mm)
Ultimate shear
Figura 7.21 - Cutting test. Test in laboratory (a); load-displacement curve in beams reinforced with minimum cross steel (b).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
193
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(e)
(f)
Figura 7.22 - Example of different prefabricated elements reinforced with steel fibers.
Photo 7.4 - Foundation Slabs SFRC for residential building foundations (private houses), Germany.
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Nevertheless, it is possible to introduce project for the general approval of such systems. In Germany,
for example, the general approval can be asked to the German Institute of Technique of the
Construction (DIBT) in Berlim.
Photo 7.5 - Concrete foundation slab (diameter: 39 m) for an agricultural silo with combined reinforcement (mesh reinforcement + steel fibers + PP fibers),
Germany, 2005.
Vertical armor.
Anchorage length
Fundation.
Self weight.
Horizontal armor.
Figure 7.23 - Cross section of foundations in SFRC for aerial electricity posts (left) and strut-and-tie model for the analysis of internal stability (right).
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The advantage of steel fibers over conventional reinforcement is the decreased installation time and
the ease of installation of ancillary services (cable ducts, etc.).
Photo 7.6 - Field with concrete posts drilled and set up.
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- The concrete softening capacity of concrete can be improved in meaningful way with the
development of new building materials.
- The attenuation of reinforced concrete frequency can be increased up to 10 times with the
addition of steel fibers.
- The capacity of dissipation under impact and the stationary cyclical load can be clearly increased.
These beneficial effects of steel fibers on softening and deterioration can improve in meaningful way
the stability of the framework subjected to dynamic loads during earthquakes.
A research to measure the ductility in Column-Beam union has proved that the ACI method of calculation together with SFRC, can increase ductility and the union (column-beam) performance, which
gives the opportunity of revaluing the global ductility of the framework.
Joint # 6
Conventional
Joint # 1
SRFC 6-in (15.2 cm)
spacing
Joint # 4
SFRC 8-in (20.3 cm)
spacing
Foto 7.8 - Of steel fiber reinforced concrete in beam-column unions. Thesis presented at the Faculty of the San Diego State University, by Michael Gebman.
Year 2002.
7.4.3 - Flooring covering with metal shaped sheets or precast metal deck.
The fiber reinforced concrete application can be technically justified in case of covering, both the
metallic one to cover the collaborating formwork, and that of prefabricated attics systems. In both
cases the welded wire mesh is commonly used.
Here follows the technical argument which exemplifies that the fiber reinforced solution at the
minimum succeeds in equalling and improving the alternative mechanical conditions, which is
provided to be reinforced just to check effects of thermal shrinkage.
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Both direction
Concrete C21
Concrete thickness
over the crest
Specification of
the mesh
Minimum ast.
2
(cm /m)
5-6 cm
15 x 15 - 4,2
0.92
0.91
8-10 cm
15 x 15 - 6
1.88
1.52
12 cm
15 x 15 - 6
1.88
1.82
Table 7.1 - Recommendation of reinforcement for Steel Deck shrinkage (Source www.alcor.com.ar).
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Initially the resistant maximum characteristic in the simply reinforced traditional section is obtained
with the following:
Where:
Mres = Resistant moment.
fy = Steel resistant strain.
d = Usable height.
By using the bending strength conventional equivalence of the section traditionally considered by the
regulations which include the use of fiber reinforced concrete, its obtained the total replacement
of the reinforcement provided for 20 kg/m3 of FF1 steel fibers, in which its considered as fiber
reinforced element bending resistance of a rectangular section:
Mr = Resistant moment.
Req = Fiber reinforced concrete equivalent strength, considered that the section is homogeneously
distributed and reinforced.
Sx = b.h2 = Modulus of strength of the provided rectangular section.
6
Here follows the comparison:
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Characteristics
Thickness = 80 mm
Mesh
Fibers
12,7/150
FF1 (1.00x50)
414,00
3,00
N/mm
1,85
61,50
mm
mm
kg/m2
2,06
kg/m3
25,69
mm2
130,90
mm
mm
N/mm
N/mm
5,00
150,00
1.000,00
1.000,00
80,00
79,65
mm
40,00
80,00
Nmm
kg/m3
Advised measuring
25
mm
80
Nmm
1.950.929
1.968.000
Table 7.2 - Mechanical comparison between rectangular section with traditional armor vs. rectangular section reinforced with fibers.
To determine the equivalent resistance of fiber reinforced concrete there have been considered
the results deriving from the Norm UNI11039, having as results of concrete characterization for
resistance C25 and measurings 25 kg/m3 the parameters shown in the schedule above. Using as
suggested value for a concrete C21, a first crack strength of 3,00 MPa, and maintaining a minimum
of ductility of 61.5% for this measuring of fibers, being these data based on the characterizations
of concretes according to RILEM.
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Equivalent resistance
Fibers measuring
Graphic 7.5 - Residual resistence vs. fibers measuring for concrete fck = 21 MPa.
The methodology previously shown, being based on the equivalence of resistant moments, would
be a sufficient argument to prove the equivalence of the soultions, succeeding this way to obtain
the ratification of the design.
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Format BIG BAGS or Sacks. Big Bags are big sacks which can weigh between 500 and 1000 kg, depending on the product used. This format is of exclusive use for circular batchers like SF-500, DOSO
1.6 or DOSO 2.0, which have a maximum capacity of 1600 kg. This kind of equipment is used in
fixed concrete mixing installations, where the time per cycle of concrete preparation is very strict and
demands a greater autonomy.
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Photo 8.12 - Doso Box in operation, dosing the fibers in the mixing
truck.
SF500; DOSO 1.6; DOSO 2.0. They are fixed equipments for concrete mixing plants, they have a
maximum capacity of 1600 kg. They are of exclusive use for BIG BAGS. They offer an efficiency up
to 200 kg/min and can batch fibers in different ways:
- Directly to the mixing truck. In this case its necessary the construction of a framework to place the
batcher at the height suitable for the unloading. This framework must be protected with a small roof
under which its placed a stock of big bags to feed the equipment. The framework may be equipped
with an electric or manual crane to lift the Big Bags and fill the batcher. In this case the equipment
can be released by the concrete mixing plant, as the measuring will be carried out in the truck mixer
after the other ingredients of the mixture.
- Unloading on aggregates conveyer belt. In this case the equipment is inside the concrete mixing
plant and is placed so as to unload fibers on the conveyer belt of the aggregates of the plant. In this
case, too, its necessary to protect the machine from bad weather and to equip it with lifting devices
for Big Bags.
- Unloading on the hopper for mixer feeding (prefabricated). In this case the equipment is placed in
the hopper load zone of the aggregates, which is at the end of the installation, so allowing to unload
fibers together with aggregates. In this case, having light measuring, for volumes from 1 to 2 m3,
other reserve equipments are used to guarantee the precision and homogeneity of the unloading.
For the protection and lifting of big bags are valid the remarks previously expressed.
Figure 8.1 - Schematic example of Doso Box ready to load mixing trucks.
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Figure 8.2 - Schematic example of Doso Box ready to load in aggregates conveyer belt.
Figure 8.3 - Schematic example of Doso Box ready to load in the hopper for mixer feeding
(precast).
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Photo 8.16 - Dosage machine DOSO SF-500 with crane for Big Bags shipment.
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Photo 8.23 - Mixing truck during the discharge of the mix in the
concrete bomb.
Industrial alternative. In this case, depending on the investment available for the work, all machines
offered by MACCAFERRI will be usable and the choice of the equipment will depend on the effective
advantage of the customer. In this case its possible the use both of DOSO BOX and of the equipments DOSO 1.6 / DOSO 2.0 and SF-500.
Photo 8.25 - Mixing truck in approach of Doso, after the mix slump
verification without fibers.
Photo 8.26 - Mixing truck in approach of Doso, after the slump mix
verification without fibers.
Photo 8.28 - Slump mix verification with fibers. The mix is ready in
few minutes of rotation in high speed by the mixing truck after the
fibers incorporation.
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Photo 8.30 - Discharge of the mix about the equipment for shot
concrete.
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Photo 8.34 - Doso and vibrator during the load of fibers in the
conveyer belt.
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Photo 8.49 - Exit of the Doso Box feeder tube placed in the entrance
of the mixing truck.
Photo 8.53 - Fibers loading in the Doso Box entrance of where will
be blower until the mixing truck.
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Information techniques detailed on equipment and systems of dosage displayed here could be found
to follow.
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8.6.2 - Aim.
The batcher helps to feed, in automatic way, with a flow of Wirand fibers, other machines or equipments, for instance the aggregates belt, batching a prearranged quantity of it measured in kg.
The batcher is connected and handled by the concrete mixing plant automizing the production of
fiber reinforced concrete
8.6.3 - Typology.
There are three available models of circular batchers which are essentially distinguishable for the
hopper diameter; moreover there may be different performances in relation to the motovibrators
equipment:
Name
DOSO 1.6
SF500-S
DOSO 2.0
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Nominal diameter
SF500-S
1800
Standard Rotated
Overall height
Overall dimension
Overall dimension
Weight
Pipe inferior height
Pipe protrusion
Pipe height
Pipe width
Pipe wheelbase
Track external diameter
Track internal diameter
Track width
Feet wheelbase diameter
Approximate maximum load
Strain
Frequency
Installed power
Total current
H
A
B
(Kg)
C
Sc
Hc
Lc
Ic
Dep
Dip
Lp
DP
2050
2300 2300 2300
1850
2000-1700 1750
2350
2450-2500 2300
2200 2200
1400
2065 2065
1737-1787
1410 1410
1400
235 235
235
245
370 370
370
375
675 675
675
810
1600 1600
1800
1100
- 1000
1100
- 1100
1000 - 1000 1200
250
- 300
250
- 300
250 - 300
250
1360 1360
1840
(1000
Kg)Kg)
* * Kg) * (1000 Kg) *
(1000
(1000
400
400 V
V 400 V
400 V
50
50 Hz
Hz 50 Hz
50 Hz
6,75
6,75Kw
Kw
6,75 Kw
13,8
13,8AA 13,8 A
10 A
DOSO 2.0
2000
Standard
Rotated
The pipe may be in a position mismatched of 45 to make easier the conveyance or the positioning
in positions which otherwise wouldnt be possible with the standard version.
The total bulks may then vary in function of the kind chosen.
The positioning of the standard batcher inside a container may take place in two different ways
obtaining therefore different bulks.
8.6.7 - Moving/conveyance.
Before moving the batcher, its necessary to block the weighing devices.
Before using the batcher, its necessary to unblock the weighing devices.
For the details on blocking and unblocking operations see the machines use and maintenance handbooks
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1 - Strain: 400 V
2 - Frequency: 50 Hz
3 - Installed power: 6,75 kW
4 - Total current: 13,8 A
N.
2
2
1
1
1
1
-
Denomination
Open spanner
Open spanner
Open spanner
Open spanner
Hexagonal male spanner
*Hexagonal male torquemetrical spanner
Edge/Cruciform Screwdrivers
Measure
32
30
17
13
8
10
-
Use
Hangers removal and feet adjusting
Feet adjusting
Electric board removal
Control board removal
Motovibrators lids removal
Motovibrators masses adjusting
-
* Torquemetrical spanner calibration = 130 N.m (see schedule of the specific MOTOVIBRATORS handbook container in the section enclosures of the USE
and MAINTENANCE handbook).
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8.6.10 - Positioning.
The batcher is normally placed near the aggregates belt of the concrete mixing plant, so that the
protruding pipe of the machine from which fibers come out is placed above the belt, possibly in a
central position.
Its better to have a certain vertical distance between the pipe and the point of the belt where fibers
will fall (1m.); considering that the pipe is at about 2m from the plane of support of the batcher itself,
the considered point of the belt must be at about 1m. from the plane of support itself.
Often in the yard such position of the belt isnt available, in these cases its advisable the building
of frameworks in reinforced cement (plinths) or raised platforms, which can house the batcher. The
exact position of the machine is then variable on the basis of the real yard configuration.
The batcher location is chosen by the person responsible of the plant, he will have also to arrange
the building of possible platforms, necessary to the machine load operations, respecting all the safety
regulations in force.
The machine must work under cover: then its also necessary to build roofing, if not present, to protect the batcher from bad weather
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8.7.5 - DOSOBOX.
DOSOBOX conveys the fibers inside the mixer through pneumatic conveyance; the disentangling
takes place through a vibrant pipe.
By increasing with a provided number of fibers boxes the required measuring will be obtained.
The superior safety level of the machine implies a minor velocity of installation and use in comparison
with SC99.
Technical data
Conveyance bulk dimension:
1600 x 1200 x 1500 (h) mm.
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8.7.6 - SC99/2.
The machine SC 99 too uses pneumatic conveyance to convey fibers inside the mixer; unlike DOSOBOX, the disentangling takes place through a revolving drum.
The minor safety level of the machine implies a greater velocity of installation and use in comparison
with DOSOBOX.
Technical data
Conveyance bulk dimension:
2300 x 1100 x 1400 (h) mm.
Bulk dimension with assembled pipe:
8000 x 1000 x 5000 (h) mm.
Weight: 750 kg.
Use strain: 400 V.
Frequency: 50 Hz.
Installed nominal power: 8 kW.
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The pipe carries out the weighing of the pre-load statically and, differently from the defibrator, doesnt
carry out the further disentangling during the cycle of fiber introduction.
BIDIRECTIONAL PIPE WITH LOAD CELLS
With this machine its possible to feed with a prearranged pre-load two different points of fibers
introduction.
The superior pipe carried out the pre-load weighing and during the introduction of fiber the switch
and the inferior pipe will activate or not in order to feed the load mouth in which its necessary to
convey the fibers in function of the controls set up in the control cab.
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9. Authors
HOME
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Authors:
Eng. Antonio Gallovich Sarzalejo
Eng. Bruno Rossi
Eng. Gianfranco Perri
Eng. Ralf Winterberg
Eng. Roberto Eduardo Perri Aristeguieta
Co-authors:
Eng. Bruno Marson
Eng. Gerardo Fracassi
Eng. Ivan Masiero