Académique Documents
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Methods of Petroleum
exploration
TR
Cen.
K
Rock
Unit
Thick
Fm
Overburden
Mesozoic
Seal
Paleozoic
100
Reservoir
200
Source
300
Depth (Km)
400
Lithology
Generation
2
Placer Fm
George Sh
Top oil window
Boar Ss
Deer Sh
Elk Fm
Critical Moment
300
Paleozoic
M P P TR
200
Geologic
Time-Scale
100
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
P N
Petroleum
System Events
Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden
Trap Formation
Generation, Migration,
and Accumulation
Timing is critical
Preservation
Critical Moment
Interpret
Geological (eg
logs) &
Seismic Data
Capture
Prime Areas
Assess
Prospects
Economic
Analysis
L 5 Seismic Method
Drill
Wildcats
Process
Seismic Data
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Failure
Success
Confirmation
Well
Uneconomic
Drop
Prospect
Success
To D/P
1. Regional scale:
Tools (surveys) for establishing the
presence of sedimentary basins and
regional structure
Geomagnetic Surveys
Gravimetric surveys
Seismic Surveys
Geomagnetic
Gradiometer (gravity) system
Total magnetic
intensity
contours over
large
basement fault
Variations in
gravity due to
geological
structure
(a) High values
due to dense
rocks near
surface
(b) Low values
due to light rocks
near surface
8
Outcrop
Satellite image
An Explosion!
(or vibrators)
.4 s
Listening Devices
.1
.2
.8
.4
.6
.5
.7
.3
0
0 sss
L 5 Seismic Method
.8 s
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Device
#1
0.0
Device
#2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Shot
Receiver
Layer 1
Layer 2
Boundary
L 6 Seismic Reflections
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Receiver
Seismic Record
Trough
Peak
Layer 1
Layer 1
Layer 2
Impedance
Increase
Layer 2
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 3
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 4
Impedance
Decrease
Impedance
Increase
L 6 Seismic Reflections
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Maps of other seismic attributes such as the amplitude (signal strength) of the
reflector can be created and interpreted, as these sometimes yield valuable
information
NW
SE
Structure
map of
horizon
Two way
Time
Miocene reef
Carbonate reservoir target
Mapped
horizon
Secondary Objective
GAS
Nam Con Son Fm
Carbonates
1500 mSS
Primary Objective
OIL
Dua Marginal Marine
Sandstones
1950 mSS
Top
Carbonate
Secondary Objective
OIL
Cau Fluvial Sandstones
2250 mSS
Top Dua
Reservoir
2.5km
Oligocene/E Miocene
Clastics Primary Oil
Target
Basement
Top Cau
Seismic Acquisition
A 3D survey is designed based on:
Imaging Objectives: define image area, target depth,
dips, velocity, size/thickness of bodies to be imaged, etc.
Survey Parameters: survey area, fold, offsets,
sampling, shooting direction, etc.
Balance between Data Quality & $$$$$
Land Operations
Marine Operations
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
The survey vessel tows the seismic source and receiving system (hydrophone array). Seismic waves
travel through the water column into the seafloor and are reflected from layers that have relatively
rapid changes in physical (acoustic) properties. The position of the seismic reflectors is measured as a
function of the time it takes the seismic (sound) wave to travel from the source to the reflector and
back (seismic travel time).
Regular airgun pops and continuous recording while accurately measuring location data allow rapid
collection of data
- an example
Several lines
shot simultaneously
- Gives Acquisition sampling
6.25 m x 25 m
L 5 Seismic Method
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Seismic Processing
Data Processing
Stream
Field Record
(marine)
L 5 Seismic Method
Subsurface Image
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Shot Gather
Source
S1
For Shot 1
Receivers
Direct Arrival
R1
R2
R3
R4
Offset (Distance)
R5
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
1
2
Reflections
3
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Direct Arrival
Reflection
For Point A
Receivers
CMP Gather
S5
S4
S3
S2
S1
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
A
We sort the shot-receiver pairs so that data
from the same bounce point (e.g., at A) is
captured
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Offset Distance
CMP Gather
CMP Gather
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Moveout Corrected
Midpoint Gather
Stacked
Trace
Offset Distance
L 5 Seismic Method
10 Fold
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
0.4 s -
Seismic Migration
Unmigrated Image
Positioning
Problems Blur
the Image
Migrated Image
Migration reduces
positioning
problems, which
improves the
image
L 5 Seismic Method
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Vertical Section
Salt
Sediments
Seismic Interpretation
Mitchum et al., 1977
L 5 Seismic Method
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Shale
Predominantly
Sand
Predominantly
Shale
10 m
L 6 Seismic Reflections
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Shot
Receiver
Layer 1
Layer 2
Boundary
L 6 Seismic Reflections
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Stratal Surfaces
Unconformities
Facies Changes
Fluvial Incised Valley Fill
Coastal Plain
Foreshore/Upper Shoreface
Slope - Basin
Submarine Fan
Estuarine
Condensed Interval
L 6 Seismic Reflections
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Reservoir
facies
50 km
Interpretation of logs
Interpret lithology
Identify objective reservoir seal pairs
Use to evaluate potential source intervals
Correlate logs to interpret sequence stratigraphy to give
sedimentary facies of important intervals
Interpret rock properties (porosity etc) and fluid saturations
Interpret fluid systems, OWC, GWC, GOC etc
Tie to seismic data
Use to model seismic response for possible rock properties and
fluid types to understand seismic data
Remember the best interpretation is achieved by calibrating to
core
Log analysis
Calculation of Water Saturation Sw (Oil and Gas Saturation = 1-Sw) is an
essential part of defining OOIP and OGIP
The basic relationship used in fluid saturation estimations from logs is the empirical
Archies Law, although many variations and refinements have been developed to
better account for things such as shaley sands.
Archies Law: Sw = n Rw/(Rt.m)
Rw is resistivity of formation water, from sample or calculated from logs
Rt is true formation resistivity (of rocks and fluids)
m is the cementation exponent and is derived from core analysis (commonly ~
2). Related to pore geometry
n is the saturation exponent and is derived from core analysis (commonly ~ 2).
Related to wettability
The Law enables Sw to be calculated from resistivity measured from logs.
(Sw decreases ie) So increases with increasing formation resistivity at any
given/constant
4. Interpretation
Geological description
Depositional facies
The observable attributes of a sedimentary rock body that reflect the depositional
processes or environments that formed it.
Facies
Sedimentary structures.
Bed forms are a product of the type and energy of the depositional environment and
these recognised in core or outcrop or interpreted from some logs are used to
interpret facies
Facies
Beach-Foreshore
1ST
ANGLE_OF_REPOSE
CROSS BEDDING
Grainsize increasing
Upper Offshore:
Turbidites
Lower Offshore
59
Muds, shales
A Typical vertical
Shoreface
Sequence
- formed as the beach
progrades (moves
laterally) into the basin
due to continued
sediment supply
GRay
GRay
GRay
Datum: KA-00
TVD
MD
MD
MD
MD
Flooding or
drowning event
Upper shoreface
Lower shoreface
Lagoon/coastal plain
Yolla field.
Correlation of high net/gross
fluvial to nearshore sand
packages deposited during
drops in base water levels
in large scale lacustrine
(lake) environment
Interpretation will affect
sand distribution model
OOIP = trap Volume x Net/Gross (N/G) x Porosity () x Oil Saturation (S ) x Oil shrinkage (1/B )
o
Then
-Prepare well prognosis (predicted tops of formations etc)
-Prepare Drilling and evaluation Programme
-Tender for and award contracts for rigs and services etc
.Drill
Petroleum Economics
Company perspectives
Fiscal
Regime
Corporate
strategy
Macro-economic
Risks
Prospectivity
Investment
Decision
Business
Environment
Political
Risks
Investment
Decisions
Politics
Economics
Strategy
Geophysics
Engineering
Geology
Accounting
Petrophysics
Cash Spent
equals
Cash flow
Operating Costs
Country/State
Take
Abandonment
Costs
Net Cash
Flow
Capital Expenditure
Years
Finding Net Present Value (NPV) Note Disc. Pres. V=Future V/(1+i)n
Time
= 0
-200
End Yr (n):
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
100
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10% 10%-
1.000
0.91
0.83
0.75
0.68
0.62
0.56
0.51 0.47
-200
91
74
60
48
37
28
21
-47
+112
Risk
Not all endeavours have the same level of risk (ie chance of losing all or
part of your investment)
It is therefore important to try to quantify the level of risk
We can then rate the risked monetary outcomes of individual opportunities
to judge the best or worthwhile ones, using tools such as EMV, discussed
next
Eg risking an exploration well multiply independent variables to get overall
risk or chance of success. Watch for high individual risk factors game
breakers
risk factor
chance of adequacy
reservoir
source
seal
trap
migration
Chance of success
0.8 (80%)
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.25 (ie 0.8x0.7x0.7x0.8x0.8)
Expected Monetary Value a tool to quantify risk in $ mostly used to rank opportunities
- Is the Total of the weighted outcomes (payoffs) associated with
a decision, the weights reflecting the probabilities of the
alternative events that produce the possible payoff
= ( an event's probability of occurrence * gain or loss that will result).
a positive result is good
An example case. An exploration well is estimated to cost $20 million
and have a chance of success of 25%. Economic analysis shows that the
NPV of a development of a successful discovery is $112 million. Estimate
EMV
well
Success 0.25
Often surprises