2011

NDI & ITS ROLE IN MODERN

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

UMESH KUMAR
AE09B026
11/15/2011

NDI & ITS ROLE IN MODERN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

November 15, 2011

CONTENTS
1.

INTRODUCTION OF NDI

2.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF NDI

3.

USES OF NDI METHODS

4.

VISUAL INSPECTION

5.

LIQUID PENETRATION INSPECTION

6.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

7.

EDDY CURRENT METHODS

8.

ULTRASONIC TESTING

9.

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

10.

ROLE OF NDI

11.

APPLICATIONS IN AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

12.

CONCLUSION

13.

REFERENCES

NDI & ITS ROLE IN MODERN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

November 15, 2011

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (INSPECTION) (NDT or NDI)

INTRODUCTION
N.D.T (Non-Destructive Testing) is the technology of assessing the soundness and acceptability
of an actual component without affecting its functional properties. Non-Destructive Testing is
exactly what its name implies i.e. testing without destroying. Therefore, N.D.T. is an
examination of an object or material in a way which will not impair its future usefulness. N.D.T.
is the use of technology for inspecting the materials to known standard. Since Non-Destructive
Testing do not in any way impair the serviceability, therefore these can be applied, if desired, on
all the units produced. Consequently, there is great reliability in the production.

NDI provides an excellent balance between quality control and cost-effectiveness. The term
"NDI" includes many methods that can:

Detect internal or external imperfections

Determine structure, composition, or material properties

Measure geometric characteristics

NDI can and should be used in any phase of a product's design and manufacturing process,
including materials selection, research and development, assembly, quality control and
maintenance.

The reliability of service of a civil passenger aircraft is of great importance. This importance is
reflected also in the expense for quality assurance and therefore in the application of nondestructive testing during technology development, production and operation of an aircraft
structure.

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DIFFERENT METHODS OF NDI

(Most common methods)

Visual Inspection

Liquid Penetration Method

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Eddy Current Method

Ultrasonic Testing

Radiographic testing

USES OF NDI METHODS

Flaw Detection and Evaluation

Leak Detection

Location Determination

Dimensional Measurements

Structure and Microstructure Characterization

Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties

Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements

Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

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VISUAL INSPECTION
Visual inspection is an essential part of airplane maintenance. The visual inspection component
of NDI requires trained and experienced inspection personnel, using validated procedures and
appropriate calibration standards with effective, well-maintained equipment in a well-managed
maintenance environment.

It is defined as the process of using the eye, alone or in conjunction with various aids, as the
sensing mechanism from which the judgments may be made about the condition of a unit to be
inspected. Imaging devices are playing an increasing part in the inspection process, (e.g.,
ultrasonic C-scan, eddy current imaging, real time X-ray). Analysis of such displays is not
considered visual inspection and will be covered under image analysis in the AC 43-X,
Nondestructive Inspection for Aircraft.

Over 80% of the inspections on large transport category aircraft are visual inspections. On small
transport aircraft the ratio is even greater and on general aviation aircraft, virtually all inspection
is visual. Visual inspection is usually the most economic and fastest ways to obtain an early
assessment of the defects found on aircraft are found by visual inspections, and the airframe
manufacturers and users depend on the regular visual inspection to ensure the continued
airworthiness of their aircraft. Consequently it is important that visual inspection method be
understood and properly applied by those responsible for the continued airworthiness of aircraft.
Proficiency in visual inspection is crucial to the safe operation of aircraft. Such proficiency is
gotten from experience, but also by learning the methods developed by others.

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Purpose of Visual Inspection

Visual inspection is used to:

Provide an overall assessment of the condition of a structure, component, or system.

Provide early detection of the defects before they reach critical size.

Detect errors in manufacturing process.

Obtain more information about the condition of a component showing evidence of a

defect.

In many situations, no reliable alternative exists to visual inspection. Visual procedures are
mandated by the FAA for structural inspections to support Supplementary Structure Inspection
Documents (SSIDs), Service Bulletins (SBs), and Airworthiness Directives (Ads).

Advantage

Cheapness

Portability

Immediate result

Minimum special skills

Minimum part preparation

Disadvantage

Suitable only for surface which can be viewed

Generally detect only larger defects

Misinterpretation of cracks and scratches

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LIQUID PENETRATION INSPECTION

Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI), also called Dye penetrant inspection (DPI) or penetrant
testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface-breaking
defects in all non-porous materials. It test is one of the oldest methods of nondestructive testing.
The method relies on a penetrant seeping into a discontinuity. It is applicable only to surface
defects or to subsurface defects with surface openings. It is applicable to all homogeneous
materials except those of a generally porous nature where penetrant would seep into and leak
from the entire surface. Penetrant testing is therefore best adapted to inspection of all types of
surface cracks, porosity, laminations, and lack
of bond at exposed edges of joined materials,
and of leaks in tubing, tanks, welds and the
like. It has been used with excellent success
on ferrous and nonferrous metals although for
ferrous

components

magnetic-particle

inspection is often used instead for its

subsurface detection capability, ceramics,
powdered metal products, ceramics and glass,
as well as on some plastic and synthetic
materials. LPI is used to detect casting,
forging and welding surface defects such as
hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new
products, and fatigue cracks on in-service
components.

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November 15, 2011

Penetration inspection is basically a very simple process. It is based upon capillary action, where
low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. First a
liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of a part. It may be applied to the test component by
dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess
penetrant is removed, and then an absorbent, light colored, powdered material called a developer
is applied to the surface. This developer acts as a blotter and draws out a portion of the penetrant
which has previously seeped into the surface openings. As the penetrant is drawn out, it diffuse
into the coating of the developer, forming indications that are much wider than the surface
openings with which they are associated. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white
light, depending upon the type of dye used - fluorescent or non-fluorescent (visible).

ADVANTAGES

The main advantages of this method are the speed of the test and the low cost.

This method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.

Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be tested.

Parts with complex geometric shapes can be routinely inspected.

Indications are directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation of
the flaw.

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DISADVANTAGES

It only detects surface flaws and it does not work on very rough surfaces.

As the inspection is manual human error may creep in.

On certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot be achieved or the dye will stain
the workpiece.

CRASH OF UNITED FLIGHT 232

Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went undetected in an engine
disk was responsible for the crash of United
Flight 232. . Post-crash analysis of the crack
surfaces showed the presence of a penetrating
fluorescent dye used to detect cracks during
maintenance. The presence of the dye
indicated that the crack was present and
should have been detected at a prior
inspection. The detection failure arose from
poor attention to human factors in United
Airlines' specification of maintenance
processes.

NDI & ITS ROLE IN MODERN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

November 15, 2011

MAGNATIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a nondestructive testing method used for detecting
surface and subsurface discontinuities. MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface
preparation is not as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics make
MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e. Iron filings) to detect flaws in
components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component being
inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their
alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the
inspection to be effective.
The method is used to inspect a
variety of product forms including
casting, forging, and weldment.
Many different industries use
magnetic particle inspection for
determining a component's fitnessfor-use. Some examples of industries
that use magnetic particle inspection
are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic flux to
leak. Ferrous iron particles are applied to the part. The particles may be dry or in a wet
suspension. If an area of flux leakage is present the particles will be attracted to this area. The
particles will build up at the area of leakage and form what is known as an indication. The
indication can then be evaluated to determine what it is, what may have caused it, and what
action should be taken, if any.
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be considered
as a combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual

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testing. Consider the case of a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any
place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a
magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a line of force
enters the magnet is called a south pole.
When a bar magnet is broken in the
center of its length, two complete bar
magnets with magnetic poles on each
end of each piece will result. If the
magnet is just cracked but not broken
completely in two, a north and south
pole will form at each edge of the
crack. The magnetic field exits the
North Pole and reenters at the South
Pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the small air gap created by the crack
because the air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When
the field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus is called a flux leakage field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster
not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the edges of the crack.
This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis for
magnetic particle inspection.

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The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage field.
After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form,
are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the
flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the inspector can detect.

Advantages

Complex shapes can be tested.

Cracks filled with paint or other foreign material can be detected.

Large numbers of similar parts can be rapidly tested/automated.

Small fine cracks can be detected.

Subsurface discontinuities can be located.

Cracks can be located through thin nonmetallic coatings.

Estimate crack depth.

Easily learned.

Relatively low cost.

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Disadvantages

Only ferromagnetic materials can be tested.

High electric current required to magnetize.

Demagnetization required in some instances.

Extreme care to avoid burn spots.

Difficult to detect small defects below the surface.

Cleaning required after test.

Complex shapes may require more than two magnetizations.

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EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
electromagnetism as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods such as
Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use this principle. It is
widely used in the aerospace industry and in other manufacturing and service environments that
require inspection of thin metal for potential safety-related or quality-related problems. In
addition to crack detection in metal sheets and tubing, eddy current can be used for certain metal
thickness measurements such as identifying corrosion under aircraft skin, to measure
conductivity and monitor the effects of heat treatment, and to determine the thickness of
nonconductive coatings over conductive substrates
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating
current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around
the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and
collapses as the current is reduced
to zero. If another electrical
conductor is brought into the close
proximity to this changing
magnetic field, current will be
induced in this second conductor.
Eddy currents are induced
electrical currents that flow in a
circular path. They get their name
from eddies that are formed
when a liquid or gas flows in a
circular path around obstacles
when conditions are right.

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In this method, a coil of wire is wrapped around a piece of iron to generate the magnetic field
that caused the eddy currents to form in the metal. In the field of NDT the coil is called the
inspection probe. The magnetic field that is generated by the eddy currents can be detected
using this same probe. The magnetic field being produced by these eddy currents can be
monitored with an instrument called an eddyscope. If there is a change in the magnetic field
from the eddy currents, this implies there is some sort of defect in the material that is being
tested. When the instrument sees a change in the magnetic field generated by the eddy currents, it
displays a change in the signal on the screen. As long as the material being tested is very uniform
in every way, the eddy currents will be uniform and consistent. If there is some defect in the
material such as a crack, the eddy currents will be disturbed from their normal circular shapes.
However, eddy-current testing can detect very small cracks in or near the surface of the material,
the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically complex geometries can be investigated. It
is also useful for making electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements.

One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections and
measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

Crack detection

Material thickness measurements

Coating thickness measurements

Conductivity measurements for:

Material identification

Heat damage detection

Case depth determination

Heat treatment monitoring

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Advantages

Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

Detects surface and near surface defects

Inspection gives immediate results

Equipment is very portable

Method can be used for much more than flaw detection

Minimum part preparation is required

Test probe does not need to contact the part

Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Limitations

Only conductive materials can be inspected

Surface must be accessible to the probe

Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques

Surface finish and roughness may interfere

Reference standards needed for setup

Depth of penetration is limited

Flaws such as delamination that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan
direction are undetectable

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ULTRASONIC TESTING
It is a form of non-destructive testing used in many industries including aerospace,
automotive and other transportation sectors. In ultrasonic testing (UT), High frequency sound
waves are sent into a material by use of a transducer. The sound waves travel through the
material and are received by the same transducer or a second transducer. The amount of energy
transmitted or received and the time the energy is received are analyzed to determine the
presence of flaws.
A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver,
transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high
voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic
energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of
waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will
be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an
electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected
signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when an echo was received.
Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal,
information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be
gained.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be
used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution.

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Advantages

High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.

High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.

Only one surface need be accessible.

Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of internal
flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.

Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.

Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment and

materials in the vicinity.

Capable of portable or highly automated operation.

Disadvantages

Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians

Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures.

Parts those are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.

Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although
paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.

Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Non-contact
techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT).

Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not
contain rust inhibitors.

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RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Radiographic Testing (RT), is a nondestructive testing method of inspecting materials for
hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high
energy photons) to penetrate various materials. Unlike most other nondestructive testing
methods, radiographic testing provides a permanent visual record of the defects for possible
future use. It can also be used to determine crack growth for use in fracture mechanics to
determine critical flaw size in a particular component.

In this method, a piece of radiographic film is

placed on the remote side of the material under
inspection and radiation is then transmitted through
from one side of the material to the remote side
where the radiographic film is placed. The
radiographic film detects the radiation and
measures the various quantities of received over
the entire surface of the film.
This film is then processed under dark room
conditions and the various degrees of radiation
received by the film are imaged by the display of
different degrees of black and white, this is termed
the film density and is viewed on a special light emitting device.
Discontinuities in the material affect the amount of radiation being received by the film through
that particular plain of the material. Qualified inspectors can interpret the resultant images and
record the location and type of defect present in the material.

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Advantages

A radiograph will detect volumetric discontinuities such as porosity, inclusions, and even
cracks if the crack opening runs parallel to the radiation beam.

The radiogram or film provides a 'visual' indication of flaws

A radiograph is an excellent and permanent record of the testing, with built-in evidence
(penetrometer) to verify the sensitivity of the film.

Well established standards and codes of practice

Can be used on almost any material

A radiograph will show surface discontinuities such as undercut, in-adequate penetration,

excessive penetration and burn through. These defects can also be detected visually.

For visible testing of materials or processes, the film may be substituted by a fluorescent
screen. This enables the operator to see defects in materials, unwanted particles in a
substance etc.

Disadvantage

Requires access to sides.

Cracks must be nearly parallel to x-ray beam.

Expensive in time, labor, & facilities.

Delay of results.

Delamination undetectable.

Health hazard.

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ROLE OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION

IN MODERN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

NDT plays a major role in all life phases of an aircraft structure in order to ensure the defined
quality level in components production and also of structural integrity in the service phase. Even
the requirement of increasing economic efficiency in the operation of commercial aircraft at an
acceptable price level for a new acquisition can be met by means of specially developed NDT
inspection procedures. In aircraft maintenance program it is important to inspect the mechanical
damage and assess the extent of the repair work. But in schedule maintenance it is a difficult to
finding the defects rapidly, as the maintenance of aircraft must be accomplished within
scheduled time and same to be released in time for commercial operation.

During aircraft maintenance Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is the most economical way of
performing inspection and this is the only way of discovering defects. In simply we can say NDT
can detect cracks or any other irregularities in the airframe structure and engine components
which are obviously not visible to the naked eye. Experience has shown that the number of NDT
inspections in the aeronautic industry has increased constantly. This trend will also continue in
the third millennium, as securing of the operational safety of old aircraft and the manufacture of
larger and larger aircraft can only be realized by using selected and appropriate inspection
techniques. In the present trend of NDT application on aircraft 70-80% of NDT is performed on
the airframe, structure, landing gears and the rest carried out on engine & related components.

All these aeronautic requirements have led to the development of branch-specific inspection
techniques for extremely lightweight structures with selected new materials and material
combinations. These are demanding economic inspection techniques with a coherent inspection
philosophy and proven reliability.

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Structures & different assemblies of aircraft are made from various materials, such as aluminum
alloy, steel, titanium and composite materials. To dismantle the aircraft in pieces and then
examine each component would take a long time, so the NDT method and equipment selection
must be fast and effective.

APPLICATIONS OF NDI METHODS IN AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

Visual Inspection Method is generally used for detection of surface defects or structural damage
in all materials. Optical instruments are used for visual checks of internal areas and for deep
holes and bores of aircraft structure, landing gears etc. it is widely used to monitor engine
components, such as, turbine wheels and nozzles, compressor vanes and blades combustion cans
without opening the engine while Liquid Penetration Inspection is mostly used to detect surface
defects or structural damage in all materials of aircraft. Fluorescent penetrants are used in critical
areas for more sensitive evaluation.

Magnetic Particle Inspection is widely used for bolt inspection. This process is simple in process
and easily portable. It is fast and effective for surface & subsurface defects in ferromagnetic
materials of any shape, removed from engines, pumps, landing gear, gear boxes, shafts, shock
struts etc.

Eddy current test is used to detect surface & subsurface defects, corrosion in aircraft structures,
fastener holes and bolt holes. Surface detects and conductivity testing by high frequency and
sub-surface detects by low frequency methods. Routine eddy current inspection is carried out on
aircraft under carriage wheel hubs for cracks also used to detect cracks in different tubes, tubular
components of aircraft & engine.

Ultrasonic Method is used for detection of surface & subsurface defects in welds, forging,
casting main structural fittings of landing gear legs & engine attachments. Bolts in critical areas,
aircraft structure joints & pylon can be also inspected. It is also helpful in checking adhesive

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bond quality of lap joints & composite structure. This method can be used for thickness
measurement after damage or corrosion removal.

Considering the penetration and absorption capability of x-radiation, Radiography is used to

inspect a variety of nonmetallic parts; for porosity, water entrapment, crushed core, cracks and
resin rich/starved conditions; and metallic products; such as welds, castings and forging as well
as locating discontinuities in fabricated structural assemblies such as cracks, corrosion,
inclusions, debris, loose fittings, rivets, out of round holes and thickness variations. Gamma ray
radiography is usually used for detection of internal flaws of aircraft structure (steel & titanium)
and engine components which require higher energy levels or other assemblies where access is
difficult.

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CONCLUSION
Probably the aerospace industry is leading in the world for innovation of new materials and
fabrication technique regularly to improve safety, efficiency & reduce cost. At the same time
inspection techniques are also being developed to monitor their integrity. For instance, with
increasing use of composites in latest commercial aircraft construction has motivated rapid
development in ultrasonic technique C scan presentation. It can detect defects deep inside
composites producing 3 dimensional images of the structures & any irregularities within the test
item.

Only with appropriate applications of nondestructive testing techniques can bring the benefits of
advanced materials science be fully utilized.

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REFERENCES

Design of Modern Aircraft Structure and the Role of NDI

H.-J. Schmidt, B. Schmidt-Brandecker, G. Tober
Daimler-Benz Aerospace Airbus

NDT in Aerospace - State of Art

G. Tober, D. Schiller, EADS Airbus GmbH, Bremen, Germany

Non-destructive Testing Applications in Commercial Aircraft Maintenance.

Md. Alahi Uddin Khan - Biman Bangladesh Airlines, Bangladesh.

http://www.ndt-ed.org

http://www.nasa.org

http://en.wikipedia.org

http://www.ndt.net/

http://www.asnt.org

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