Ken Alibek

Kazakhstan), to a Kazakh family. He grew up in Almaty,

the republics former capital.
His exceptional academic performance while studying
military medicine at the Tomsk Medical Institute and
his familys noted patriotism led to his selection to work
for Biopreparat, the secret biological weapons program
overseen by the Soviet Unions Council of Ministers.
His rst assignment (1975) was to the Eastern European
Branch of the Institute of Applied Biochemistry (IAB)
near Omutninsk, a combined pesticide production facility and reserve biological weapons production plant intended for activation in a time of war. At Omutninsk,
Alibekov mastered the art and science of formulating and
evaluating nutrient media and cultivation conditions for
the optimization of microbial growth. It was here that
he expanded his medical school laboratory skills into the
complex skill set required for industrial level production
of microorganisms and their toxins.[2]
After less than a year at Omutninsk, Alibekov was transferred to the Siberian Branch of the IAB near Berdsk
(another name of the branch was the Berdsk scientic
and production base). With the assistance of a colleague,
Colonel Kanatzhan (Kanat) Alibekov (Kazakh: he designed and constructed a microbiology research and
;Russian: ; development laboratory that worked on techniques to opborn 1950) known as Ken Alibek since 1992 is timize production of biological formulations.
a former Soviet physician, microbiologist and biological
warfare (BW) expert. He rose rapidly in the ranks of After several promotions over a short period of time,
the Soviet Army to become the First Deputy Director of Alibekov was transferred back to Omutninsk, where he
Biopreparat, where he oversaw a vast program of BW quickly rose to the position of Deputy Director. He was
soon transferred to the Kazakhstan Scientic and Producfacilities.
tion Base in Stepnogorsk (another reserve BW facility)
In 1992, he defected to the United States; he has since to become the new Director of that facility. Ocially,
become an American citizen and makes his living as a he was Deputy Director of the Progress Scientic and
biodefense consultant, speaker, and entrepreneur. He has Production Association, a manufacturer of fertilizer and
actively participated in the development of biodefense pesticide.
strategy for the U.S. government, and between 1998 and
2005 he testied several times before the U.S. Congress At Stepnogorsk, Alibekov created an ecient industrial
scale assembly line for biological formulations. In a
and other governments on biotechnology issues.
time of war, the assembly line could be used to produce
He is currently Chief Executive Ocer of AFG Biosolu- weaponized anthrax. Continued successes in science and
tions Inc. (USA) and President and Chief Scientic O- biotechnology led to more promotions, which resulted in
cer of MaxWell Biocorporation, LLC (USA/Ukraine).[1] a transfer to Moscow.[3]
Ken Alibek in 2003.

1.2 Work at Biopreparat-Moscow

Biography

In Moscow, Alibekov began his service as Deputy Chief

of the Biosafety Directorate at Biopreparat. He was
later promoted (1988) to First Deputy Director of BioKenneth Alibek was born Kanat Alibekov in Kauchuk, preparat, where he not only oversaw the biological
in the Kazakh SSR of the Soviet Union (in present-day weapons facilities but also the signicant number of phar-

1.1

Youth and early career

2
maceutical facilities that produced antibiotics, vaccines,
sera, and interferon for the public. Though he had limited time, he took this additional responsibility for public
health seriously.
In response to a Spring 1990 announcement that the Ministry of Medical and Microbiological Industry was to be
reorganized, Alibekov drafted and forwarded a memo to
General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev proposing the cessation of Biopreparats BW work. Though Gorbachev approved the proposal, an additional paragraph had been
secretly inserted into Alibekovs draft, resulting in a presidential decree that ordered the end of Biopreparats BW
work but also required them to remain prepared for future
production.

1 BIOGRAPHY
Since moving to the US, Alibekov who simplied his
name to Kenneth (Ken) Alibek has provided the government with a detailed accounting of the former Soviet
BW program and has testied before the US Congress on
numerous occasions (see also Sverdlovsk anthrax leak).
He has provided guidance to the intelligence, policy, national security, and medical communities and has returned to the pure biomedical research that captured his
interest as a medical student.
He was the impetus behind the creation of an innovative
biodefense graduate education program at George Mason University (GMU) that drew students from across the
country and has served in the program as both a Distinguished Professor of Medical Microbiology and as the
Director of Education. He also developed the plans for
GMUs biosafety level three (BSL-3) research facility and
was instrumental in obtaining $40 million of grants from
the federal and state governments for construction of the
facility.[3]

Though disappointed by the double dealing, Alibekov

used his position at Biopreparat and the authority granted
to him by the rst part of the decree to begin destruction of the BW program. Specically, he ordered the
dismantling of BW production and testing capabilities at
a number of research and development facilities, includ- In 1999, Alibek published an autobiographical account of
ing Stepnogorsk, Koltsovo, Obolensk and a number of his work in the Soviet Union and his defection.[4]
others. He also negotiated a concurrent appointment to
a Biopreparat facility called Biomash. Biomash designed
and produced technical equipment for microbial cultiva- 1.4 Pharmaceutical entrepreneur and retion and testing. He planned to increase the proportion of
searcher
its products sent to hospitals and civilian medical laboratories beyond the 40% allocated at the time.[3]
On 11 March 2006, Alibek announced that, owing to substantive dierences between himself and GMU over the
future of the Graduate Programs in Biodefense, he would
1.3 Life in the United States
not be teaching classes beyond the Spring semester and
was resigning from GMU eective 27 August 2006. In
Kanatzhan Alibekov was subsequently placed in charge an agreement with his students, he volunteered his time
of intensive preparations for inspections of Soviet bio- from Spring 2006 through Spring 2007 to help them earn
logical facilities by a joint American and British dele- their doctoral degrees.
gation. When he participated in the subsequent Soviet
inspection of American facilities, his growing suspicion Kenneth Alibek is the President, Chief Scientic Ocer and Chief Executive Ocer at AFG Biosolutions, Inc
that the United States did not have an oensive BW pro[5]
gram was conrmed before his return to Russia (the So- in Gaithersburg, Maryland, where he and his scientic
team continue their development of advanced solutions
viet Union dissolved while he was in the US). In January
1992, not long after his return from the US, Kenneth Al- for antimicrobial immunity. Motivated by the lack of affordable anti-cancer therapies available in Eastern Europe
ibek, protesting against the continuation of BW work, resigned from both the Soviet Army and Biopreparat and and Central Asia, AFG is using Alibeks biotechnology
experience to plan, build, and manage a new pharmaceubecame jobless. In October 1992 he emigrated with his
family to the US, despite being forbidden to do so by the tical production facility designed specically to address
this problem.
KGB.[3]
Dr. Kenneth Alibek adds: Long before my emigration, Alibek created this new pharmaceutical production comI resigned from the Soviet Army, left my administrative pany, MaxWell Biocorporation (MWB), in 2006 and
and scientic positions in Moscow, refused to accept a serves as its CEO and President. Based in WashingRussian citizenship, informed Russian security ocials ton, D.C., with several subsidiaries and aliates in the
that I would be leaving for the United States, became job- United States and Ukraine, MWBs main goal is said to
less for more than 9 months and, after I got my parents be the creation of a new, large-scale, high-technology,
blessing, I left the former Soviet Union (it was not Rus- ultra-modern pharmaceutical 'll-and-nish' facility in
sia). I do not think it can be considered defection even Ukraine. O-patent generic pharmaceuticals produced at
though Russian physicians did not want me to go over- this site are supposed to target severe oncological, cardiseas. But it was a dierent time, I was not a Russian ological, immunological, and chronic infectious diseases.
citizen and they could not have done anything ocially. MWB is said to be the biggest and most modern pharOnly after that I emigrated with all my family.
maceutical production facility in all of the former Soviet

3
Union. It is intended to serve as the agship of a larger
healthcare complex at a campus in the town of Boryspil,
just outside the Ukrainian capital city of Kiev. Construction of the Boryspil facility began in April 2007 and was
completed in March 2008; initial production is scheduled
to begin in 2008. The stated intention is that high quality pharmaceuticals will be produced and become an affordable source of therapy for millions of underprivileged
who currently have no therapeutic options.[6]
The main focus of Dr. Alibeks current research is to
develop novel forms of therapy for late stage oncological diseases and other chronic degenerative pathologies
and disorders. He focuses on the role of chronic viral
and bacterial infections in causing age-related diseases
and premature aging. Additionally, he develops and implements novel systemic immunotherapy methods for late
stage cancer patients.[6]

Criticism

Some observers have questioned the scientic credibility

of Alibeks recent work and his motivations:[7]
In a September 2003 news release, Alibek and another professor suggested, based on their laboratory
research, that smallpox vaccination might increase
a persons immunity to HIV. The work was touted
by GMU but was rejected after peer-review by the
Journal of the American Medical Association and
The Lancet and is no longer being pursued. According to smallpox expert and former White House science advisor Donald A. Henderson, This is a theory
that does not hold up at all, and it does not make
any sense from a biologic point of viewThis idea
... was straight o the wall. I would put no credence
in it at all.
Alibek and colleagues have sought to develop a
product that would protect against an array of deadly
viruses and bacteria, rather than just a single organism. In his lab, mice had survived doses of smallpox and anthrax. His cocktail approachmixing
more than one drug with other ingredientswas
touted at news conferences in 2002 and 2004 by U.S.
Representative H. James Saxton (R-N.J.), perhaps
Alibeks principal government benefactor, as a potential new defense against bioterrorism. But this
unconventional scientic approach is very dicult
to assess accurately and has not withstood scientic
peer review.
Alibek has used his notoriety to promote Dr.
Ken Alibeks Immune System Support Formula, a
dietary supplement sold over the Internet. This concoction of vitamins, minerals, and a proprietary bacterial mix a months supply of which costs $59.95

plus tax and shipping will purportedly bolster

the immune system.[8]
Alibek resigned as executive director of GMUs
National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases in September 2006, despite his position as
a tenured Distinguished Professor. A University
spokeswoman conrmed his resignation, but declined to comment on the circumstances surrounding his departure. According to a 2007 Los Angeles Times article, Alibek said the college administration had grown displeased with his companys
role in sharing grant-funded research. The university, he said, requested that he dismantle or leave
AFG Biosolutions. He chose to resign from George
Mason.[9]
Some experts question Alibeks characterizations of
bioterrorism threats. Some have asserted that Alibek has a vested interest in raising fears, since he
prots from government contracts related to countering bioterrorism. Retired Army major general
and physician Philip K. Russell, while impressed
by Alibeks knowledge of the former Soviet Unions
production of anthrax, began to think that Ken was
more fanciful than precise in some of his recollections where genetically engineered smallpox was
concerned. Russell also remarked on the issue
of putting Ebola genes into smallpox virus. That was
viewed, at least in many of our minds, as somewhat
fanciful. And probably not true.[10]

3 Biographical chronology
2009 Founder, International Medical Research Center Maxwell (US) for therapy of late stage onclological and other chronic diseases
2008 Chairman, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Immunotherapy, the Institute of Ecology
and Medicine
2007 Professor of the Institute of Ecology and
Medicine, Ukraine and Lecturer for the National
University of Ukraine
2006 CEO and President of MaxWell Biocorporation LLC (US/Ukraine)
Served on over 35 doctoral committees (PhD) and
two Doctor of Sciences committees both in Russia
and the United States
From 2000 to 2006 among BBCs Historic Figures
2005 Lecturer for Russian-American Security Program of Harvard Universitys John Kennedy Center
for Government Studies

4 PUBLICATIONS
2005 Senior Fellow, Center for Advanced Defense
Studies, Washington DC
2004 Outstanding faculty member, George Mason
University

4 Publications
4.1 Pre-defection

Alibek published more than 80 articles in classied jour 2003 Consultant to the government of Singapore on nals on the development of new types of biological
weapons and on medical aspects of biodefense prior to
BW threats and defense
his defection to the United States.
2002 Distinguished and tenured Professor of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, George Mason
4.2 Post-defection
University
Multiple written appreciations from various Books
branches of the United States government for
continued work in the eld of national security
Alibek, Ken and Steven Handelman (1999),
Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest
Multiple invitations to speak for national and interCovert Biological Weapons Program in the World national symposia and conferences
Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random
House, ISBN 0-385-33496-6.
2002 Business Forward Magazine Award: Deals of
The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It safe? Does it Work?"
the Year, for one of the biggest federal contracts for
(2002), Reviewer. National Academy Press, Washsmall businesses
ington, D.C., Institute of Medicine.
2001 President of AFG Biosolutions, Inc. (formerly
Biological Threats and Terrorism: Assessing the SciAdvanced Biosystems, Inc)
ence and Response Capabilities (2002), Workshop
Summary, Contributor. National Academy Press,
2000 Corporate vice president of Analex CorporaWashington, D.C., Institute of Medicine.
tion
2000 Authored the Biohazard book published in
more than 20 countries, including US, UK, Canada,
Australia, Germany, France, Russia, Japan, Poland,
Hungary, Czech Republic, Taiwan, etc.
1999 Chief Scientist of Analex Corporation (formerly Hadron, Inc)
1994 Barkley Medal - awarded by the US government in recognition of distinguished public service
and contribution to world peace
1990 Colonel of Soviet Armed Forces (May 5)
1990 Doctor of Sciences in Biotechnology
1988 First Deputy Director of Main Directorate
Biopreparat chief scientist of BW threat program
1987 Director of Scientic Directorate of Main Directorate Biopreparat
1984 Medal For Battleeld Services to Soviet
Armed Forces
1984 PhD in Medical Microbiology
1983 Military commander of BW threat research
and development base, USSR
1975 Doctor of Medicine Military Medicine.

Weinstein, R.S. and K. Alibek (2003), Biological

and Chemical Terrorism: A Guide for Healthcare
Providers and First Responders, Thieme Medical
Publishing, New York.
Alibek, K., et al. (2003), Biological Weapons, BioPrep, Louisiana.
Fong, I. and K. Alibek (2005), Bioterrorism and Infectious Agents: A New Dilemma for the 21st Century, Springer.
Fong, I. and K. Alibek (2006), New and Evolving
Infections of the 21st Century, Springer.
Book chapters
Firepower in the Lab: Automation in the
Fight Against Infectious Diseases and Bioterrorism (2001), Chapter 15 of Biological Weapons:
Past, Present, and Future, National Academy Press,
Washington, D.C., Institute of Medicine.
Janes Chem-Bio Handbook (2002), Second Edition,
F. R. Sidell, W. C. Patrick, T. R. Dashiell, K. Alibek, Janes Information Group, Alexandria, VA.
K. Alibek, C. Lobanova, Modulation of Innate
Immunity to Protect Against Biological Weapon
Threat (2006). In: Microorganisms and Bioterrorism, Springer.

4.2

Post-defection

Monographs
Weinstein R, Weinstein M, Alibek K et al., Signicantly reduced CCR5-tropic HIV-1 replication
in vitro in cells from subjects previously immunized
with Vaccinia Virus, BMC Immunology 2010 May
18;11(1):23.
Alibek K, Grechaniy L, Klimenko T, Kucheryavenko E., Use of endogenous modulators of
nonspecic immunity for the treatment or prevention of a wide range of infectious diseases. International Conference: 21st Century pharmaceutical production and health care research and delivery in the
CIS, Washington, DC (US), May 28, 2009, pp 212
229
Tan Y, Kusuma C, St John L, Vu H, Alibek K,
Wu A., Induction of authography by anthrax lethal
toxin, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 2009 Feb
6;379(2):293-7
Alibek K, Grechaniy L, Klymenko T, Pashkova A.
(2008), Fifth Revolution in Medicine: On the Role
of Infections in Pathogenesis of Aging and Chronic
Diseases, Lik Sprava, Jan-March issue
Alibek K, Grechana T, Grechanyiy L, et al. (2008),
Link Between Intestinal Microora and Gut Immune System: Changes Related to Age, Fiziol
ZurJune;3 (54).
Alibek K, Klimenko T, et al. (2007), Viral Cancerogenesis: Current Point of View, Lik Sprava,
Jun-Aug issue.
Alibek K and A Pashkova (2007), Infection
as a risk factor in the atherosclerosis development: current concepts and treatment opportunities, Lik Sprava, Apr-May;(3):3-13 [In Russian]
PMID 18273960.
Alibek K, NV Osipov and SA Nazarenko (2007),
Role of microorganisms in etiology and pathogenesis of aging, Lik Sprava Jan-Mar;(1-2):10-7. [In
Russian]
Dan Richards, Kenneth Alibek, Michael G Katze,
Mark A Wainberg, Richard J Webby Controversies in 21st century virology Future Virology, May
2006, Vol. 1, No. 3, Pages 263268
Alibek K and G Liu (2006), Biodefense shield and
avian inuenza, Emerg Infect Dis May;12(5):873-5.
PMID 16710964.
Karginov VA, A Yohannes, TM Robinson, K Alibek, et al. (2006), Beta-cyclodextrin derivatives
that inhibit anthrax lethal toxin, Bioorg Med Chem
Jan 1;14(1):33-40. Epub 2005 Sep 19; PMID
16169738.

5
Forino M, S Johnson, TY Wong, K. Alibek, et
al. (2005), Ecient synthetic inhibitors of anthrax lethal factor, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A Jul
5;102(27):9499-504. Epub 2005 Jun 27; PMID
15983377.
Popov SG, Popova TG, Hopkins S, K Alibek, et
al. (2005), Eective antiprotease-antibiotic treatment of experimental anthrax, BMC Infect Dis Apr
8;5(1):25. PMID 15819985
Alibek K (2004), Smallpox: a disease and a
weapon, Int J Infect Dis Oct;8 Suppl 2:S3-8. PMID
15491869
Liu G, Q Zhai, D Schaner, K Alibek, et al.
(2004), "Bacillus alcalophilus peptidoglycan induces IFN-alpha-mediated inhibition of vaccinia
virus replication FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol;
Oct 1;42(2):197-204; PMID 15364104.
Alibek K, and C Bailey (2004), BioShield or
biogap?", Biosecur Bioterror; 2(2):132-3. PMID
15225408.
Liu G, Q Zhai, DJ Schaner, K Alibek, et
al. (2004), Prevention of lethal respiratory vaccinia infections in mice with interferon-alpha and
interferon-gamma, FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol,
Apr 9;40(3):201-6; PMID 15039095.
Liu G, Zhai Q, Schaner D, K Alibek, et al. (2004),
IL-15 induces IFN-beta and iNOS gene expression,
and antiviral activity of murine macrophage RAW
264.7 cells, Immunol Lett, Feb 15;91(2-3):171-8;
PMID 15019287.
Popov SG, TG Popova, E Grene, K Alibek, et
al. (2004), Systemic cytokine response in murine
anthrax, Cell Microbiol Mar;6(3):225-33; PMID
14764106.
Karginov VA, Robinson TM, Riemenschneider J, K
Alibek, et al. (2004), Treatment of anthrax infection with combination of ciprooxacin and antibodies to protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis",
FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol, Jan 15;40(1):71-4;
PMID 14734189.
Wu AG, Alibek D, Li YL, K Alibek, et al. (2003),
Anthrax toxin induces hemolysis: an indirect effect through polymorphonuclear cells, J Infect Dis
Oct 15;188(8):1138-41. Epub 2003 Sep 30; PMID
14551883.
Radyuk SN, PA Mericko, TG Popova, K Alibek et
al. (2003), In vitro-generated respiratory mucosa:
a new tool to study inhalational anthrax, Biochem
Biophys Res Commun Jun 6;305(3):624-32.
Klichko VI, J Miller, A Wu, K Alibek, et al.
(2003), Anaerobic induction of Bacillus anthracis

REFERENCES

hemolytic activity, Biochem Biophys Res Commun

Apr 11;303(3):855-62, PMID 12670489.

Testimony before the House Armed Services Committee, October, 1999

Popov SG, Villasmil R, Bernardi J, K Alibek, et al.

(2002), Eect of Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin on
human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, FEBS
Lett Sep 11;527(1-3):211-5, PMID 12220662.

Testimony before the House Armed Services Committee, May, 2000

Popov SG, Villasmil R, Bernardi J, K Alibek, et al.

(2002), Lethal toxin of Bacillus anthracis causes
apoptosis of macrophages, Biochem Biophys Res
Commun Apr 26;293(1):349-55, PMID 12054607.
K. Alibek, Bioterrorism Threat in Modern World,
Abstract of presentation to the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting, New York, 2002.
K. Alibek, Mighty Microbe, Defense Review, Pg.
44, Autumn, 2001.
K. Alibek, Biological Weapons: Threat and Defense. Abstract of presentation to the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting, Davos, Switzerland,
2000.
Alibek K (1999), The Soviet Unions antiagricultural biological weapons, Ann N Y Acad Sci
894:18-9, PMID 10681964.
K. Alibek, Behind the mask: biological warfare,
Perspective, Volume IX, Number 1, September
October 1998.
Op-Eds
The New York Times

Testimony before the House Subcommittee on National Security, Veterans Aairs, and International
Relations of the Committee on Government Reform,
October, 2001: Combating Terrorism: Assessing
the Threat of a Biological Weapons Attack, House
Serial No. 107-103
Testimony before the House Committee on International Relations, December, 2001: Russia, Iraq,
and Other Potential Sources of Anthrax, Smallpox,
and Other Bioterrorist Weapons
Testimony before the Senate Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies of the Committee on Appropriations,
November, 2001
Testimony before the Subcommittee on Prevention of
Nuclear and Biological Attack, Committee on Homeland Security, US House of Representatives, July 28,
2005: Implementing a National Biodefense Strategy
House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence,
March 1999 Biological Warfare Threats
Testimony before the House Subcommittee on Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack, July, 2005:
Engineering Bio-terror Agents: Lessons Learned
from the Oensive US and Russian Biological
Weapons Programs

Russias Deadly Expertise, March 27, 1998.

Smallpox Could Still Be a Danger, May 24,
1999.
The Wall Street Journal
Russia Retains Biological Weapons Capability, February, 2000.
Bioterror: A Very Real Threat, October,
2001.
The Washington Post
Anthrax under the Microscope, with
Matthew Meselson, November 5, 2002.
Selected Congressional Testimony

5 References
[1] . Max-Well.com (in
Russian). Retrieved 31 October 2014.
[2] Anderson, D. (2006), Lessons Learned from the Former Soviet Biological Warfare Program; UMI Dissertation
Services, UMI NO. 3231331
[3] Anderson (2006), Op. cit.
[4] Alibek, Ken and Stephen Handelman (1999), Biohazard:
The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological
Weapons Program in the World - Told from Inside by the
Man Who Ran It, Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6
[5] AFG Biosolutions

Testimony before the Joint Economic Committee,

May, 1998: Terrorist and Intelligence Operations:
Potential Impact on the US Economy

[6] MaxwellUSA

Testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, June, 1999

[8] Random Samples, Science, 11 October 2002: Vol. 298.

no. 5592, p. 359

[7] Willman, David (2007), Selling the Threat of Bioterrorism, The Los Angeles Times, 1 July 2007.

[9] Willman, Op. cit

[10] Willman, Op. cit.

See also:
Interview Dr. Ken Alibek, Journal of Homeland
Security (September 18, 2000)

6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1

Text

Ken Alibek Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20Alibek?oldid=642566306 Contributors: Ineuw, Andrewman327, Benwing, Altenmann, Chowbok, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Deacon of Pndapetzim, BenJonson, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ev, Mirror Vax,
Ground Zero, Wavelength, Grafen, Shadowfax0, Xdenizen, CaliforniaAliBaba, Bobak, SmackBot, Edgar181, Gilliam, Ser Amantio di
Nicolao, Iridescent, Exzakin, Cydebot, Hydraton31, Tec15, DumbBOT, ObjectivityAlways, Horologium, Next Generation, JAnDbot,
Demophon, Magioladitis, Nyttend, Valerius Tygart, Tgeairn, Hodja Nasreddin, Olegwiki, VolkovBot, Gamer112, Grumpycraig, TXiKiBoT, Zil, ClueBot, Dogwood1, Saddhiyama, Niceguyedc, NuclearWarfare, MelonBot, InMemoriamLuangPu, Good Olfactory, Mithrilmax, Addbot, Chamal N, Kenalibek, Mosedschurte, Keepcalmandcarryon, Tsange, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, PasswordUsername, Grifter72, Jschnur, MastiBot, Figure19, Vrenator, RjwilmsiBot, Skamecrazy123, DiiCinta, Amussina, Esc2003, Mira7435, Rocketrod1960, Mira7535, Globalbio, Bioglobal, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Perevozshik,
Bodefence, Chemglobal, Mogism, Makecat-bot, VIAFbot, Alibek2030, Monkbot, Wallace McDonald, Americanada96, Marilynnpetrosil,
AntoinetteReynolds50, Mtthwknnd4, MicroPaLeo and Anonymous: 55

6.2

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6.3

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