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2.1
2 INT
TRODUC
CTION
N
Todeescribetheeperform
manceofaanantennaa,definitio
onsofvarriousparameters
arenecess
a
sary.
2.2
2 RAD
DIATIO
ON PAT
TTERN
Anan
ntennarad
diationpatternisdeefined
as
a a matthematical function
n or a graaphical
representa
r
ationofth
heradiatio
onproperttiesof
the
t
anteenna as a functtion of space
coordinate
c
es. In most
m
casess, the rad
diation
patternis
p
determineedintheffarfieldreegion.
pertiesincludepoweerflux
Radiaationprop
intensity, field streength,
density,
d
r
radiation
directivity
d
,phaseorrpolarization.
Amplitu
ude field pattern.
p
Amplitu
ude powerr pattern.
Often
n the field
d and pow
wer patteerns are normalized
n
d to the maximum
m
value,
yielding
y
normalized
d field and
d power p
patterns. The
T pattern is usuaally plotteed on a
logarithmiic scale (dB). This scale is desirablee becausee a logaritthmic scaale can
einmoredetailsthosepartsofthepattternofveerylowvalues.
accentuat
a
2.2.1 Ra
2
adiation
n Pattern
n Lobes
Vario
ouspartsofaradiaationpatteernarereeferredto
oaslobesmajororrmain,
minor,sid
m
de,andbaacklobes.
Figurre2.3(a)d
demonstrratesasymmetricaalthreedimensionalpolarp
pattern
withanu
w
mberofrradiationllobes.
Someeareofggreaterrad
diationin
ntensityth
hanotherrs,butallareclassiifiedas
lobes.Figure2.3(b)illustrateesalineartwodim
mensionalpatternw
wheretheesame
patternch
p
haracterissticsarein
ndicated.
Amajorlobe(m
main beam
m)isdefined
dastheradiationlobeconttaining
thedirect
t
tionofmaaximumrradiation.InFigure2.3the majorlob
beispoin
ntingin
the=0
t
direction
n.Insomeeantennaas,suchassplitbeeamanten
nnas,therremay
existmore
e
ethanon
nemajorlobe.
Amino
orlobe(
)isanyylobeexcceptamaajorlobe.
2.2.3 Pr
2
rincipal Pattern
ns
Foraalinearly polarized
dantennaa,perform
manceiso
oftendesscribedinterms
cipalEan
ofitsprin
o
ndHplan
nepattern
ns.
definedasstheplane
TheEplaneisd
contaiining the electric field
f
vecttor
and the
t
direcction of maximu
um
radiation.
The Hplane
H
is defineed as the
plane containin
ngthemaagneticfieeld
vectorr and the dirrection of
maxim
mumradiaation.
An illlustration
n is show
wn in Figgure 2.5. For this example, the xz plane
(elevation
(
n plane;
= 0) is the princcipal Eplaane and the
t xy plane (azim
muthal
plane;
p
== /2) is the
t princiipal Hplaane. Otheer coordin
nate orien
ntations ccan be
selected.
s
The omn
nidirection
nal patterrn of Figu
ure 2.6 haas an infiinite num
mber of
principal
p
Eplaness (elevation planees; = c) and one principal Hplane
H
(azimutha
(
alplane;
=90o).
2.2.4 Fie
2
eld Regiions
The space
s
surrounding an antenna is usually subdiivided into three regions:
r
reactive
n
nearfield,
, radiating nearfieeld (Fresn
nel ) regio
on and farfield
(
(Fraunhof
fer
)regions
1.
1
Reacttivenearfieldregio
on
For most an
ntennas, the outeer
boundary
b
of this region
n is
0.62
0
/ , isth
hewaveleengthandD
isthelargeestdimensionoftheantennaa.
a.
a
Thereeactivefieeldpredom
minates
b.
b
2.
2 Radiatiingnearffield(Fressnel)regio
on
Defin
ned as that region of the field of an
a antenn
na betwe
een the reeactive
nearfield
n
dregionan
ndthefarrfieldreggion
a Radiationfieldspredomin
a.
nate
b The an
b.
ngular field distribution
is deependent upon the
distanccefromth
heantenn
na.
c Iftheantennahasamaximum
c.
overall dimension whicch is
very sm
mall com
mpared to
o the
waveleength, thiis field re
egion
mayno
otexist.
Therregionislimitedbyy
0.62
2
/ .
3.
3 Farfield(Fraunh
hofer)reggion
a Theangularfield
a.
ddistribu
utionisesssentially independ
dentofthedistancefrom
theanttenna.
b The farrfield reggion is taken to exxist at disstances greater than 2
b.
theanttenna.
As the observvation is
m
moved
t the radiating
to
r
n
nearfield
d region
n, the
p
pattern
b
begins
to smooth
a
and
form
m lobes. In the
the
region,
f
farfield
is well formed,
p
pattern
u
usually
consisting of few
m
minor
lob
bes and one, or
m
more,ma
ajorlobes..
/ from
2.2.5 Ra
2
adian
and Stera
adian
Them
measureo
ofasolidangleisaasteradian.
One steradian
n is defin
ned as the solid
anglewith
a
hitsverteexattheccenterofasphere
ofradius
o
thatisssubtend
dedbyasspherical
surfacear
s
rea .
Sinceetheareaaofasphe
ereofrad
dius is
4 , there are
a 4 srr 4 / in a
closedsph
c
here.
The infinitessimal areea
surfaceof
s
fasphereeisgivenb
by
on the
(m2)
(21)
Therefore
T
e,thesolid
dangle d
d canbeewrittenas
/
(sr)
(22)
Example2.1
Forasphereofradius r,findthesolidangle(insquareradiansorsteradians)
ofasphericalcaponthesurfacesphereoverthenorthpoleregiondefinedby
sphericalanglesof030o,0360o.Dothis
a. exactly.
b. usingA12,where1and2aretwoperpendicularangular
separationsofthesphericalcappassingthroughthenorthpole.
Comparethetwo.
Solution:
a. Using(22),wecanwritethat
/
b.
0.83566
1.09662
Theapproximatebeamsolidangleisabout31.23%inerror.
(23)
instantaneousPoyntingvector (W/m2)
instantaneouselectricfieldintensity (V/m)
instantaneousmagneticfieldintensity (A/m)
The total power, crossing a closed surface, can be obtained by integrating the
normalcomponentofthePoyntingvectorovertheentiresurface
(24)
P: instantaneoustotalpower (W);
n: unitvectornormaltothesurface
da: infinitesimal area of the closed surface
Fortimevaryingfields,averagepowerdensityisneeded,whichisobtained
byintegratingtheinstantaneousPoyntingvectoroveroneperiodanddividing
bytheperiod.Fortheform
, , ;
, ,
, , ;
, ,
25, 6
Usingthedefinitionsof(25)and(26)andtheidentity
Re
, ,
, ,
/2
(23)canbewrittenas
(23)
(27)
Finally,thetimeaveragePoyntingvector(averagepowerdensity)is
, ,
, , ;
/2 (W/m2) (28)
Note:
/2 representstheaverage(real)powerdensity
Therealpartof
Theimaginarypartrepresentsthereactive(stored)powerdensity
The 1/2 factor appears in (27) and (28) because the and
representpeakvalues,anditshouldbeomittedforRMSvalues
fields
Baseduponthedefinitionof(28),theaveragepowerradiatedpowercan
bewrittenas
Re
(29)
Example2.1
Theradialcomponentoftheradiatedpowerdensityofanantennais
(W/m2)
isthepeakvalueofthepowerdensity, isthesphericalcoordinate,
and istheradialunitvector.Determinethetotalradiatedpower.
SOLUTION
For a closed surface, a sphere of radius is chosen. To find the
totalradiated power, the radial component of the power density is
integratedoveritssurface.
(212)
Where
=radiationintensity(W/unitsolidangle);
=radiationdensity(W/m2)
The radiation intensity is also related to the farzone electric field of an
antennaby
,
, ,
2
|
Where
2
|
, ,
,
, ,
| (212a)
, ,
:farzoneelectricfieldintensityoftheantenna
E , E :farzoneelectricfieldcomponentsoftheantenna
:intrinsicimpedanceofthemedium
Thusthepowerpatternisalsoameasureoftheradiationintensity.
Thetotalpowerisobtainedbyintegratingtheradiationintensity,asgiven
by(212),overtheentiresolidangleof 4.Thus
Comparison:
(213)
Example2.2
ForExample2.I,findthetotalradiatedpowerusing(213).
SOLUTION
andby(213)
Using(212)
(214)
ortheradiationintensityofanisotropicsourceas
/4 (215)
2.5
2 BEA
AMWID
DTH
Thebeamwidth
hofapatternisdeefined:theeangularseparatio
onbetweeentwo
identicalp
i
pointsonoppositesideofth
hepattern
nmaximu
um.
1.
1 HalfPo
owerBeam
mwidth(H
HPBW).
2.
2 FirstNu
ullBeamw
width(FNBW).
Offten,
the
term
beamwidt
b
th usuaally refeers to
HPBW.
H
he beamwidth is a
Th
between
tradeoff
t
n it and the side
lobe leevel. Th
he beamwidth
decreases
d
s, the side lobe increases
andvicev
a
versa.
Th
hebeamw
widthofttheanten
nna isalso
ousedto
odescribe
ethereso
olution
capabilitie
c
estodistinguishtw
woadjaceentradiatingsourcesortarggets.
ThemostcommonresolutioncriterionisFNBW/2,whichisusuallyusedto
approximateHPBW.
Thatis,twosourcesseparatedbyangulardistancesequalorgreaterthan
FNBW/2 HPBWofanantennacanberesolved.
If the separation is smaller, then the antenna will tend to smooth the
angularseparationdistance.
Example2.4
Thenormalizedradiationintensityofanantennaisrepresentedby
U
cos cos 3 , 0
90 , 0
Findthe
a. halfpowerbeamwidthHPBW(inradiansanddegrees)
b. firstnullbeamwidthFNBW(inradiansanddegrees)
Solution:
360
a. Since the
represents the power pattern, to find the halfpower
beamwidth.Let
3
U |
Since
0.5
cos 3
14.3250
0.25 rad
issymmetricalaboutthemaximumat
HPBW
0.5 rad
0,thentheHPBWis
28.65
b. Tofindthefirstnullbeamwidth(FNBW),letthe
U |
0.707
cos cos 3 |
equaltozero
0
Thisleadstotwosolutionsfor
90 ,
30
The one with the smallest value leads to the FNBW. Again, because of the
symmetryofthepattern,theFNBWis
radians 60
FNBW 2
3
2.6 DIRECTIVITY
Thedirectivityofanantennadefinedastheratiooftheradiationintensityin
agivendirectionfromtheantennatotheradiationintensityaveragedover
alldirections.
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antennadividedby 4.
Ifthedirectionisnotspecified,thedirectionofmaximumradiationintensity
isimplied.Directivitycanbewrittenas
D
D=directivity(dimensionless); D0=maximumdirectivity(dimensionless)
U=radiationintensity(W/unitsolidangle);
=totalradiatedpower(W)
=maximumradiationintensity(W/unitsolidangle);
=radiationintensityofisotropicsource(W/unitsolidangle);
So,inagivendirectionthetotaldirectivityisthesumofthepartialdirectivities
for any two orthogonal polarizations. For a spherical coordinate system, the
totalmaximumdirectivity fortheorthogonal and componentsofan
antennacanbewrittenas
whilethepartialdirectivities
and
areexpressedas
,
where
=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedin fieldcomponent
=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedin fieldcomponent
=radiatedpowerinalldirectionscontainedin fieldcomponent
=radiatedpowerinalldirectionscontainedin fieldcomponent
Example2.5
Find the maximum directivity of the antenna whose radiation intensity is
thatofExample2.2.Writeanexpressionforthedirectivityasafunctionofthe
directionalangles and .
Solution:
Theradiationintensityisgivenby
Themaximumradiationisdirectedalong:
/2
Thus
InExample2.2itwasfoundthat
P
Wefindthatthemaximumdirectivityisequalto
1.27
Example2.6
The radial component of the radiated power density of an infinitesimal
lineardipoleoflengthl <<isgivenby
(W/m2)
where is the peak value of the power density, is the usual spherical
is the radial unit vector. Determine the maximum
coordinate, and
directivity of the antenna and express the directivity as a function of the
directionalangles and .
Solution:
Theradiationintensityisgivenby
/2.Thus
Themaximumradiationisdirectedalong
Thetotalradiatedpowerisgivenby
/3
Using(216a),themaximumdirectivityisequalto
4
4
8
/3
1.5
greaterthan1.27inExample2.5.Thusthedirectivityisrepresentedby
1.5
Figure 2.12 shows the relative radiation intensities of Example 2.5
(U A sin)andExample2.6(U A sin )
a.
a Bothp
patternsaareomnid
directional
b.
b Examp
ple 2.6 has
h moree directio
onal charracteristiccs (is narrower) in the
elevattionplanee.
Anothere
A
example: Examin
nethedirectivityo
ofahalfw
wavelengtthdipole,which
atedby
approxim
a
1.67
7
(2.18)
Thevalue
T
esrepreseentedby((218)and
dthoseofanisotropicsourrce(
inFigure2
i
2.13(a,b).
1)are
| 219
where
is a constant, and
and
fieldcomponents.Themaximumvalueof(219)isgivenby
,
(219a)
Thetotalradiatedpowerisfoundusing
,
220
We now write the general expression for the directivity and maximum
directivityusing(216)and(216a),respectively,as
,
D ,
, D
221, 22
Equation(222)canalsobewrittenas
D
,
,
where
isthebeamsolidangle,anditisgivenby
223
1
,
224
,
,
,
,
(225)
2.6.1Di
2
rectionaalPatterrns
Insteaadofusin
ng(223) tocompu
utethedirectivity, itisoftenconvenientto
derivesim
d
mplerexprressionsaapproximaately.
For antennas
a
with onee narrow
major
m
lo
obe and very negligible
minorlob
m
bes,thebeeamsolidangleis
approxim
a
atelyequ
ualtothe product
of
o the halfpowerr beamw
widths in
twoperpe
t
endicularplanes.
For a
a rotatio
onally symmetric
hallfpower
pattern,
p
the
two
beamwidt
b
ths
in
n
any
mmetricalpattern (b)SSymmetricalpattern
perpendic
p
cularplan
nesareth
hesame, (a)Nonsym
Figure2.1
14Beamsolidanglesfo
ornonsymm
metrical
asillustrat
a
tedinFigure2.14(b).
an
ndsymmetricalradiatio
onpatterns.
Withthisapproximation,(223)canbeapproximatedby
D
,
,
223
(226)
Thebeamsolidangle hasbeenapproximatedby
(226a)
Where
=halfpowerbeamwidthinoneplane,(rad)
=halfpowerbeamwidthinaplaneatarightangletotheother,(rad)
Ifthebeamwidthsareknownindegrees,(226)canbewrittenas
/
(227)
where
1d=halfpowerbeamwidthinoneplane(degrees)
2d=halfpowerbeamwidthinaplaneatarightangletotheother (degrees)
Thevalidityof(226)and(227)isbasedonapatternthathasonlyone
majorlobeandanyminorlobes.
Forapatternwithtwoidenticalmajorlobes,thevalueofthemaximum
directivityusing(226)or(227)willbetwiceitsactualvalue.
For patterns with significant minor lobes, the values of maximum
directivity obtained using (226) or (227), which neglect any minor
lobes,willusuallybetoohigh.
Example
E
2.7
Theeradiation
nintensityyofthem
majorlobeeofmanyy
antennas
a
canbead
dequatelyyrepresen
ntedby
where
w
is the maximum
m radiatiion inten
nsity. Thee
intensity existsonlyinthe upperhemispheree
radiation
r
(0
(
/2, 0
2 ),
) and it is show
wn in thee
Figure.Fin
F
ndthe
a.beams
a
ndapproxximate.
olidanglee;exactan
b.maximu
b
umdirecttivity;exacctusing(2
223)and
dapproxim
mateusingg(226).
Solution:
S
The halffpower point
p
of the
t patteern occurrs at
60 . Thus the
beamwidt
b
thinthe directiionis 120 .Sincethepatteernisindeependenttofthe
coordin
nate,
a.Beamsolidangle
/
steradians (224)
Approximate:Using(226a)
4.386 steradians (226)
b.Directivity
Exact:
Approximate:
:
4
10 log
6.02dB
2.865
4.57
2.7
2 ANT
TENNA
A EFFIC
CIENCY
Y
Associatedw
withanaantenna areanu
umberoffefficien
ncies.Theetotal
antenna
a
efficiency iss used to take
intoacco
i
ountlosse
esattheeinputteerminals
andwith
a
hinthesttructure oftheantenna.
Suchloss
S
sesmayb
bedueto
o
1.
1 Reflections beecause of the mismatch
betweeenthetransmisssionlineandthe
antenn
na
2.
2
lo
osses(co
onduction
nanddieelectric)
The overalleefficiencyycanbe written
as
a
(244)
where
totalefficiency(dimensionless)
reflection(mismatch)efficiency= 1
|| (dimensionless)
=conductionefficiency(dimensionless)
=dielectricefficiency(dimensionless)
=voltagereflectioncoefficientattheinputterminalsoftheantenna
Z Z / Z
Where
Z =antennainputimpedance,
Z =characteristicimpedanceofthetransmissionline
Usually and are very difficult to compute, but they can be
determinedexperimentally.
2.8 GAIN
The gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a
measurethattakesintoaccounttheefficiencyoftheantennaaswellas
itsdirectionalcapabilities.
Directivity is a measure that describes only the directional
propertiesoftheantenna,anditiscontrolledonlybythepattern.
Absolutegainofanantennaisdefinedas"theratiooftheintensity,
inagivendirection,totheradiationintensitythatwouldbeobtainedif
the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The
isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted by the
antennadividedby 4."
gain
(dimensionless)
(244)
(dimensionless) (244a)
Whenthedirectionisnotstated,thepowergainisusuallytakenin
thedirectionofmaximumradiation.
Referring to Figure 2.17(a), we can write that the total radiated
power(P )isrelatedtothetotalinputpower(P )by
(245)
Bothareveryimportantlossesandneedtobeincludedinthelink
calculations of a communication system to determine the received or
radiatedpower.
Using(245)reduces(244a)to
,
(246)
whichisrelatedtothedirectivityof(221)by
,
(247)
Inasimilarmanner,themaximumvalueofthegainisrelatedtothe
maximumdirectivityby
G , |
e D , |
e D (247a)
for
whilethepartialgains
where
and
,
(248)
areexpressedas
4
(248a)
U=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedinfieldcomponent
U=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedinfieldcomponent
Pin=totalinput(accepted)power
(249)
10 log
e D dimensionless (250)
Example2.8
Alosslessresonanthalfwavelengthdipoleantenna,withinputimpedance
of 73 ohms, is to be connected to a transmission line whose characteristic
impedance is 50 ohms. Assuming that the pattern of the antenna is given
,findtheoverallmaximumgainofthisantenna.
approximatelyby
SOLUTION
Letusfirstcomputethemaximumdirectivityoftheantenna.Forthis
|
P
U , sindd
2B
16
Prad
sind
3 B /4
1.697
Sincetheantennawaslossless,thentheradiationefficiency
=1
Thus,thetotalmaximumgain,asdefinedinthiseditionandbyIEEE,isequalto
G
D 1 1.697 1.697
G dB 10 log 1.697 2.297
whichisidenticaltothedirectivitybecausetheantennaislossless.
Thereisthelossduetoreflectionormismatchlossesbetweentheantenna
(load) and the transmission line. This loss is accounted for by the reflection
efficiencyof(251)or(252),anditisequalto
1
||
1
10 log
Z Z
Z
Z
0.965
0.965
0.155 (dB)
Thus,theoverallefficiencyis
0.965
0.155 dB
Thus,theoveralllossesareequalto0.155dB.
The gain in dB can also be obtained by converting the directivity and
radiationefficiencyindBandthenaddingthem.Thus,
dB 10 log 1.0 0
D dB 10 log 1.697 2.297
G dB
dB D dB 2.297
whichisthesameasobtainedpreviously.
2.9
2 BEA
AM EFF
FICIEN
NCY
Beam
m efficie
ency is frequen
ntly useed to judge th
he qualiity of
transmitt
t
tingand receivingantenn
nas.Foraananten
nnawith itsmajo
orlobe
alongthezaxis((=0),th
directed
d
hebeamefficienccy(BE)issdefined
dby
BE
(253)
is thee halfangleof th
he cone within which
w
thee
percenta
p
ageoftheetotalpo
oweristo
obefoun
nd.
Equattion(253)canbe
ewritten
nas
BE
,
,
(254)
(d
dimensio
onless)
If ischosenastheanglewherethefirstnullorminimumoccurs
(see Figure 2.4), then the beam efficiency will indicate the amount of
powerinthemajorlobecomparedtothetotalpower.
A very high beam efficiency is necessary for antennas used in
radiometry, astronomy, radar, and other applications where received
signalsthroughtheminorlobesmustbeminimized.
2.10 BANDWIDTH
Thebandwidthofanantennaisdefinedas"therangeoffrequencies
within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some
characteristic,conformstoaspecifiedstandard."
Thebandwidthcanbeconsideredtobetherangeoffrequencies,on
either side of a center frequency, where the antenna characteristics
(such as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side lobe
level,gain,beamdirection,radiationefficiency)arewithinanacceptable
valueofthoseatthecenterfrequency.
The bandwidth is usually expressed as the ratio of the
uppertolowerfrequenciesofacceptableoperation.Forexample,
a10:1bandwidthindicatesthattheupperfrequencyis10times
greaterthanthelower.
2.11 POLARIZATION
Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as "the
polarizationofthewavetransmitted(radiated)bytheantenna.
Polarization of a wave is defined as "that property of an
electromagneticwavedescribingthetimevaryingdirectionandrelative
magnitudeoftheelectricfieldvector"
When the direction is not stated, the polarization is taken to be the
polarizationinthedirectionofmaximumgain."
Polarizationoftheradiatedenergyvarieswiththedirectionfromthe
centeroftheantenna,sothatdifferentpartsofthepatternmayhave
differentpolarizations.
Polarization is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow
representing the instantaneous electric field. A typical trace as a
functionoftimeisshowninFigures2.18(a)and(b).
Figure2.18
8Rotationofaaplaneelectromagneticwaaveanditspo
olarizationelliipseatz=0asafunctiono
oftime.
Polarizat
P
ionmaybeclassiifiedas
1.
1 Ellipticcal
Thefigurethaattheeleectricfielldtracesisanellipse.
nsarespecialcasesofelliptical
Linearandcirrcularpolarization
2. Linear
Ifthevectorthatdescribestheelectricfieldatapointinspaceasa
function of time is always directed along a line, the field is said to be
linearlypolarized.
Verticalpolarization
horizontalpolarization
3. Circular
Thefigureoftheelectricfieldistracedina
Clockwise(CW):theelectricfieldvectorisrighthandpolarization
Counterclockwise (CCW): the electric field vector is lefthand
polarization.
4. Copolarizationandcrosspolarization
At each point on the radiation sphere the polarization is usually
resolvedintoapairoforthogonalpolarizations,thecopolarizationand
cross polarization. Copolarization represents the polarization the
antenna is intended to radiate (receive) while crosspolarization
representsthepolarizationorthogonaltothecopolarization.
2.11.1Linear,Circular,andEllipticalPolarizations
The instantaneous field of a plane wave, traveling in the negative z
direction,canbewrittenas
,
(255)
t+kz)
t+kz+
t+kz+
,
t+kz+
t+kz)
t+kz+
where
and
) (256)
)
) (257)
are,respectively,themaximummagnitudesofthe
xandycomponents.
A. LinearPolarization
Forthewavetohavelinearpolarization,thetimephasedifference
betweenthetwocomponentsmustbe
n,
Whichmeansthatthephasesof
0, 1, 2, 3, (258)
z, t and
z, t arethesameor
reverse.
B. CircularPolarization
Circularpolarizationcanbeachievedonlywhen
themagnitudesofthetwocomponentsarethesame
thetimephasedifferencebetweenthemisoddmultiplesof /2.
Thatis,
E
2n , n
2n , n
E (259)
0, 1, ,2, for CW (260)
0, 1, ,2, for CCW (261)
multiplesof /2 andtheirmagnitudesarenotthesame
or, when the timephase difference between the two components is
notequaltomultiplesof/2(irrespectiveoftheirmagnitudes).That
is,
|
When
E E
2n , n
Or
0,
0, 1, ,2,
0,
0, 1, ,2,
2n , n
263
264
For elliptical
e
polarization, the curvve
tracedat
t
tagiven
nposition
nasafu
unctiono
of
time
t
is a
a tilted ellipse,
e
ass shown in Figurre
2.18(b).T
2
Theratio
oofthe major axxistothe
minorax
m
xisistheaxialratio(AR),
AR
, 1AR
265
5
where
w
OA
OB
B
E
E
2E E cos 2
2E
E E coss 2
/
/
266
267
Thetiltoftheellipse,relativettotheyaaxis,isreepresente
ed givvenby
tan
n
cos 2
268
SUMMARY
1. LinearPolarization
Atimeharmonicwaveislinearlypolarizedatagivenpointinspaceifthe
electricfield(ormagneticfield)vectoratthatpointisalwaysorientedalongthe
same straight line at every instant of time. This is accomplished if the field
vector(electricormagnetic)possesses:
a. Onlyonecomponent,or
b. Two orthogonal linear components that are in time phase or 180o (or
multiplesof180o)outofphase.
2. CircularPolarization
Atimeharmonicwaveiscircularlypolarizedat agiven pointiftheelectric
(ormagnetic)fieldvectoratthatpointtracesacircleasafunctionoftime.The
necessaryandsufficientconditionstoaccomplishthisare:
a. Thefieldmusthavetwoorthogonallinearcomponents,and
b. Thetwocomponentsmusthavethesamemagnitude,and
c. Thetwocomponentsmusthaveatimephasedifferenceofoddmultiples
of90o.
3. EllipticalPolarization
A wave is elliptically polarized if it is not linearly or circularly polarized.
Althoughlinearandcircularpolarizationsarespecialcasesofelliptical,usually
in practice elliptical polarization refers to other than linear or circular. The
necessary and sufficient conditions to accomplish this are if the field vector
(electricormagnetic)possessesallofthefollowing:
a. Thefieldmusthavetwoorthogonallinearcomponents,and
b. Thetwocomponentscanbeofthesameordifferentmagnitude.
c. (1)Ifthetwocomponentsarenotofthesamemagnitude,thetimephase
difference betweenthe two components must not be 0 or multiples of
180 (becauseitwillthenbelinear).(2)Ifthetwocomponentsareofthe
samemagnitude,thetimephasedifferencebetweenthetwocomponents
mustnotbeoddmultiplesof90o(becauseitwillthenbecircular).
2.11.2PolarizationLossFactorandEfficiency
Thepolarizationofthereceivingantennawillnotbethesameasthe
of the incident wave. This is stated as "polarization mismatch." The
amountofpowerextractedbytheantennafromtheincidentsignalwill
notbemaximumbecauseofthepolarizationloss.Assumingtheelectric
fieldoftheincidentwaveis
E
269
where istheunitvectorofthewave.Assumingthepolarizationof
theelectricfieldofthereceivingantennais
E E 270
where is its unit vector (polarization vector). The polarization loss
factor(PLF)isdefined
PLF | |
cos| | dimensionless 271
where
w
is th
he anglee betweeen the two uniit polarization of
o the
incoming
i
gwavean
ndoftheevectorsshowninFigure2.19.
Iftheeantennaaispolarization matched
d,
its
i PLF
1 and
d the anttenna will extracct
maximum
m
mpowerfromtheeincomingwave.
Anoth
her figurreofmerit descrribing the
polarizat
p
ion charracteristiccs of a w
wave and
that
t
of an anteenna is the po
olarization
efficiency
e
y.
Figu
ure2.19Po
olarizationunit
vectorssofinciden
ntwave(
)and
antenn
na( )
Polarizationeefficiencyyisdefin
nedas:
werreceivedbyaananten
nnafrom
magiven plane
"Theeratiooffthepow
wave
w
of arbitraryy polarization to the pow
wer that would be
b receivved by
thesame
t
eantennafromaplanew
waveofth
hesamepowerfluxdensittyand
Where
|
|
271a
=vectoreffectivelengthoftheantenna
=incidentelectricfield
polarizationcharacteristicsoftheantenna.BoththePLFand
thesameanswers.
leadto
Example2.9
Theelectricfieldofalinearlypolarizedelectromagneticwavegivenby
,
isincidentuponalinearlypolarizedantennawhoseelectricfieldpolarization
canbeexpressedas
, ,
Findthepolarizationlossfactor(PLF)
SOLUTION
Fortheincidentwaveandtheantenna
,
ThePLFis:
PLF |
10 log
0.5
3dB
1. Even the incoming wave and the antenna are linearly polarized, there is a
3dBlossinextractedpowerbecausethepolarizationoftheincomingwaveis
notaliggnedwith
hthepolarizationo
oftheanteenna.
2.
2
Iftheepolarizationofth
heincomin
ngwaveissorthogo
onaltothe
epolarizaationof
the antenna,
a
then there will bee no poweerextractted by the antenna from
theincomingwaveand
dthePLFw
willbezeroord
dB.
InFiggures2.20(a,b)weeillustrateethepolaarizationlossfactorrs(PLF)offtwo
typesofa
t
antennas;wiresand
dapertures.
(aa)PLFfortraansmittingaandreceivin
ngapertureantennas
(b)PLFfortransmittingandreceivingglinearwireeantennas
Fiigure2.25P
Polarizationllossfactors(PLF)forapertureandlinearwireaantennas.
Anaantennath
hatisellip
pticallypo
olarizedisscomposeedoftwocrossedd
dipoles,
as
a shown in Figuree 2.26. Th
he two crrossed dip
poles provide the two orthogonal
fieldcomp
f
ponents.
Figure2.26Geomeetryofelliptticallypolarizedcrossd
dipoleantenna.
If th
he two dipoles aree identicaal, the fieeld intenssity of each along zenith
(perpendi
(
iculartottheplaneofthetw
wodipoles)would beofthe
esameinttensity.
Also,ifth
A
hetwodip
poleswerrefedwittha90 degreetim
d
mephase
edifferencce,the
polarizatio
p
onalongzzenithwo
ouldbecirrcularand
delliptical.
2.12
2 INP
PUT IM
MPEDA
ANCE
Inpu
utimpedaanceisdeefinedas "theimpeedancepresented atananttennas
terminals
t
ortheratioofthe
evoltagettocurrenttatapairrofterminalsorth
heratio
oftheapp
o
propriate compone
entsoftheeelectrictomagneeticfieldsatapoint."
Inpu
ut impedaance at the inpu
ut
terminals
t
of the antenna iss primarily
g. In Figure 2.2
interestin
i
27(a) the
are designated as ab. The
terminals
t
ratio
r
of th
he voltagge to currrent at the
terminals,
t
, with no
n load attached
d,
defines
d
the impedance of the
antennaa
a
as
where
w
ZA=anteennaimpeedanceatterminalsab (ohms)
RA=anteennaresisttanceattterminalsab (o
ohms)
(272)
XA=anteennareacttanceatterminalsab (ohms)
me the an
ntenna is attached
d to a gen
nerator
Assum
withinter
w
rnalimped
dance
274
where
w
R =rresistanceeofgenerratorimpeedance (ohms)
X =rreactance
eofgenerratorimpeedance (ohms)
Being
B
use
ed in the transmittting mod
de, the an
ntenna
andgener
a
ratorcanberepressentbyFiggure2.27
7(b).
To find
f
the amount of power delivered to for rad
diation an
nd the
amountd
a
dissipatedin assheat(
/2),w
wefirstfin
ndthecurrrentdeveeloped
withinthe
w
eloopwh
hichisgiveenby
A 275
anditsmagnitudeby | |
where
|
|
275a
isthepeakgeneratorvoltage.
Thepowerdeliveredtotheantennaforradiationisgivenby
|
| | |
W 276
andthatdissipatedasheatinantennaby
|
| | |
W 277
ThepowerdissipatedasheatontheinternalresistanceRgofthegeneratoris
|
W 278
279, 2080
|
|
281
282
283
From(281)(283),itisclearthat
284
Thepowersuppliedbythegeneratorduringconjugatematchingis
W 285
dimensionless 290
2/
290a
thesmallestdiagonalofthecrosssectionoftherod,thecurrentisconfinedtoa
thinlayerneartheconductorsurface.Thereforethehighfrequencyresistance
canbewritten,basedonauniformcurrentdistribution,as
ohms
Where
290b
2 istheperimeterofthecrosssectionoftherod( : theradiusofwire)
istheconductorsurfaceresistance
istheangularfrequency
isthefreespacespermeability
isthemetalsconductivity.
Example2.13
Aresonanthalfwavelengthdipoleismadeoutofcopper( 5.710 s/m)
wire. Determine the conductiondielectric (radiation) efficiency of the dipole
antenna at 100 MHz, the radius of the wire b is 310 , and the
radiationresistanceofthe /2 dipoleis73ohms.
SOLUTION
At
10 Hz
3 ;
2
10
3/2 ;
6
10
where
isgivenby(290b).Therefore,
1
2
e
0.25
6
10
0.9952
10
99.52; e
4
10
5.7 10
dB
10log
0.349
0.9952
0.02
2.15
2
ANT
TENNA VECTOR
R EFFEC
CTIVE LENGTH
L
H AND EQUIVA
E
ALENT
ARE
EAS
An antenna
a
in the receiving
r
g mode, whateveer its forrm, is ussed to
capture(
c
(collect)electrom
magneticwavesandtoexttractpow
werfrom
mthem,
asshown
a
ninFigurres2.29(a)and(b
b).
Fore
eachantenna,itssequivalentlengtthandequivalen
ntareasccanbe
definedt
d
todescriibetherreceivinggcharacteristicso
ofananttenna,w
whena
waveisin
w
ncidentu
uponthe
eantennaa.
2.15.1VectorEffectiveLength
The effective length of an antenna is a quantity to determine the voltage
(291)
(292)
Theeffectivelengthisparticularlyusefulinrelatingtheopencircuitvoltage
ofreceivingantennas.Thisrelationcanbeexpressedas
(293)
where
=opencircuitvoltageatantennaterminals
=incidentelectricfield
=vectoreffectivelength
In(293)
oflength
canbethoughtofasthevoltageinducedinalinearantenna
when
and
arelinearlypolarized.
Inaddition,theantennavectoreffectivelengthisusedtodetermine
thepolarizationefficiencyoftheantenna.
Example2.14
The farzone field radiated by a small dipole of length
and
withatriangularcurrentdistributionisgivenby
8
Determinethevectoreffectivelengthoftheantenna.
Solution:Accordingto(292),thevectoreffectivelengthis
(292)
2
Thisindicatestheeffectivelengthisafunctionofthedirectionangle .
Themaximumopencircuitvoltageatthedipoleterminals occurswhenthe
incidentdirectionofthewaveisnormaltothedipole( 90 ).
In addition, the effective length of the dipole to produce the same output
opencircuitvoltageisonlyhalf(50%)ofitsphysicallengthifitwerereplaced
byathinconductorhavingauniformcurrentdistribution
The maximum effective length of an element with an ideal uniform current
distributionisequaltoitsphysicallength.
2.15.2 AntennaEquivalentAreas
AntennaEquivalentAreas
Thescatteringarea
Thelossarea
thecapturearea
(294)
Where
=effectivearea(effectiveaperture)(m2);
=powerdeliveredtotheload(W);
=powerdensityofincidentwave(W/m2)
(294))
(295))
Unde
er conditions of maximum
m powerr transferr (conjuggate mattching),
an
nd
, thee effectivve area of
o (295) reduces to the
maximum
m
meffective
eapertureegivenbyy
|
(296)
When(29
W
96)ismultipliedbyytheincid
dentpoweerdensityy,itleadstothecaptured
(289).
powerof
p
(297)
(297)
multipliedbytheincidentpowerdensitygivesthescatteringpower.
(298)
multipliedbytheincidentpowerdensitygivesthedissipatedpower.
The capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when
multiplied by the incident power density leads to the total power
capturedbytheantenna.Underconjugatematchingthisiswrittenas
|
(299)
multipliedbytheincidentpowerdensity,itleadstothecapturedpower.
Thetotalcaptureareaisequaltothesumoftheotherthree,or
Theapertureefficiency ofanantenna,whichisdefinedasthe
ratioofthemaximumeffectivearea A
area A ,or
oftheantennatoitsphysical
(2100)
Example2
E
2.15
Aunifo
ormplaneewaveisincidentu
uponaveeryshortllosslessdipole(l<<<),as
shown
s
in Figure 2.29(a). Find the maximum
m
effective area asssuming th
hat the
radiation
r
80
0 / , and the incident field is
resistance of the dipole is R
linearlypo
olarizedaalongtheaxisoftheedipole.
Solution:
S
For
F R
0,them
maximumeffectiveearea
of(296)r
o
reducesto
o
|
| |
8
(296)
1
Since
S
the
e dipole is
i very sh
hort, the induced
d current can be assumed to be
constanta
c
andofuniformphaase.Thein
nducedvo
oltageis
where
VT=inducedvoltageonthedipole
E=electricfieldofincidentwave,l=lengthofdipole
Forauniformplanewave,theincidentpowerdensitycanbewrittenas
/2
whereistheintrinsicimpedanceofthemedium(120ohmsforafreespace
medium).Thus
8
| |
/2 80
0.119
2.16
2 MAX
XIMUM DIRECT
TIVITY AND
A
MA
AXIMUM
M EFFECT
TIVE AR
REA
To derive
d
th
he relattionship betweeen direcctivity and maxximum
effective
e
area, leet Anten
nna 1 bee a transsmitter and 2 a receiver. The
effective
e
areas and
a direcctivities of each are designated as , and
, . Iff antenna 1 were isotrop
pic, and the total
t
radiated pow
wer. its
powerd
radiated
r
densityattadistan
nce wouldbe
w
(2101))
Because
B
o the directive properties
of
p
s
oftheant
o
tenna,itsactualde
ensityis
(2102))
The
T pow
wer colleccted (recceived) by
b the antenna and
a transferred to
t the
loadwou
l
uldbe
(2103)
(2104)
Equating(2103a)and(2104)reducesto
(2105)
Increasing the directivity of an antenna increases its effective area in
directproportion.Thus,(2105)canbewrittenas
(2106)
where A and A (D and D )arethemaximumeffectiveareas
(directivities)ofantennas1and2,respectively.Ifantenna1isisotropic,
then D
1 anditsmaximumeffectiveareacanbeexpressedas
(2107)
dipole
(2108)
Using(2108),wecanwrite(2107)as
(2109)
In general then, the maximum effective aperture (A
antennaisrelatedtoitsmaximumdirectivity(D )by
) of any
(2110)
2.17
2
FR
RIIS TRA
ANSMIS
SSION EQUAT
E
ION AN
ND RAD
DAR RA
ANGE
EQUAT
E
TION
The analysiss and design off radar and com
mmunicaations syystems
requiret
r
theuseo
oftheFriisTransmission Equation
nandthe
eRadar Range
Equation
E
n.
2.17.1Fr
2
riisTranssmissionEquation
The Friis Transmissio
on Equattion relattes the power
p
re
eceived to
t the
powertr
p
ransmitteedbetweeentwo antennaasseparaatedby R
R
thelarge
t
estdimen
nsionofeeitheran
ntenna.
,, D is
Assumingthetransmittingantennaisisotropic.Iftheinputpoweratthe
terminals of the transmitting antenna is P , then its isotropic power
density W atdistance R fromtheantennais
W
2113
e :theradiationefficiencyofthetransmittingantenna.
For a nonisotropic transmitting antenna, the power density of
(2113)inthedirection , is
W
Sincetheeffectivearea
efficiency anddirectivity
(2114)
ofthereceivingantennaisrelatedtoits
by
;
thepower
collectedbythereceivingantennais
(2115)
e D ,
ee
| |
(2118)
Theratioofthereceivedtotheinputpoweras
,
(2117)
Thepowerreceivedbasedon(2117)assumesthatthetransmitting
and receiving antennas are matched to their respective lines or loads
andthepolarizationofthereceivingantennaispolarizationmatchedto
theimpingingwave.
Ifthesetwofactorsarealsoincluded,thentheratioofthereceived
totheinputpowerof(2117)isrepresentedby
,
| |
| | | |
(2118)
Forreflectionandpolarizationmatchedantennasalignedformaximum
directionalradiationandreception,(2118)reducesto
2119
accountthelossesduetothesphericalspreadingoftheenergybythe
antenna.
2.17.2Ra
2
adarRan
ngeEquaation
Assu
uming that the trransmitteed poweer is incid
dent upo
on a targget, as
shownin
s
nFigure2
2.32.
(2120)
| |
| |
(2120a)
=radarcrosssectionorechoarea (m2)
R=observationdistancefromtarget (m)
W =incidentpowerdensity (W/m2)
W =scatteredpowerdensity (W/m2)
E (E )=incident(scattered)electricfield (V/m)
H H )=incident(scattered)magneticfield (A/m)
Usingthedefinitionofradarcrosssection,wecanconsiderthat
the transmitted power incident upon the target is initially
captured
incidentpowerdensityof(2114)bytheradarcrosssection,or
W
(2114)
(2121)
Thepowercapturedbythetargetisreradiatedisotropically,andthe
scatteredpowerdensitycanbewrittenas
,
(2122)
Theamountofpowerdeliveredtothereceiverloadisgivenby
,
(2123)
Equation(2123)canbewrittenastheratioofthereceivedpowertothe
inputpower,or
,
(2124)
Expression(2124)isusedtorelatethereceivedpowertotheinput
power, It does not include reflection losses and polarization losses. If
thesetwolossesarealsoincluded,then(2124)mustbeexpressedas
,
| |
| | | |
(2125)
For polarizationmatched antennas aligned for maximum directional
radiationandreception,(2125)reducesto
2126
Equation(2124),or(2125)or(2126)isknownastheRadarRange
Equation.Itrelatesthepower P (deliveredtothereceiverload)tothe
input power P transmitted by an antenna, after it has been scattered
byatargetwitharadarcrosssection(echoarea)of .
Example2.16
Two lossless Xband 8.2 12.4 GHz horn antennas are separated by a
distance of 100 . The reflection coefficients at the terminals of the
transmitting and receiving antennas are 0.1 and 0.2 , respectively. The
maximum directivities of the transmitting and receiving antennas (over
isotropic)are16dBand20dB,respectively.Assumingthattheinputpowerin
thelosslesstransmissionlineconnectedtothetransmittingantennais 2W,and
the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation between them and are
polarizationmatched,findthepowerdeliveredtotheloadofthereceiver.
Solution:
Forthisproblem
e
1 becauseantennasarelossless.
| |
1 becauseantennasarepolarizationmatched
D ,D
16 dB39.81(dimensionless)
20 dB100 (dimensionless)
Using(2118),wecanwrite
2
39.81
100 1
0.1
0.2 1 =4.777mW
2.17.3AntennaRadarCrossSection
The radar cross section is a farfield parameter, which is used to
characterizethescatteringpropertiesofaradartarget.
monostaticorbackscatteringRCS
bistaticRCS
TheRCSofatargetisafunctionof
1. polarizationoftheincidentwave,
2. theangleofincidence,
3. theangleofobservation,
4. thegeometryofthetarget,
5. theelectricalpropertiesofthetarget,
6. thefrequencyofoperation.
TheunitsofRCSofthreedimensionaltargetsarem2,ordBsm,orRCS/2in
dB.
The RCS of a target can be controlled using primarily two basic methods:
shapingandtheuseofmaterials.
Shaping is used to attempt to direct the scattered energy toward
directionsotherthanthedesired.However,formanytargetsshapinghas
to be compromised in order to meet other requirements, such as
aerodynamicspecificationsforflyingtargets.
Materials are used to trap the incident energy within the target and to
dissipatepartoftheenergyasheatortodirectittowarddirectionsother
thanthedesired.
Usuallybothmethods,shapingandmaterials,areusedtogetherinorderto
optimizetheperformanceofaradartarget.
One of thegolden rulesto observe in order to achieve low RCS is to
roundcorners,avoidflatandconcavesurfaces,andusematerialtreatmentin
flarespots.
Problems
2.4. Find the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) and first-null beamwidth (FNBW),
in radians and degrees, for the following normalized radiation intensities:
a U
cos b U
cos
c U
cos 2 d U
cos 2
e U
cos 3 f U
cos 3
0 90 , 0 360
2.7. The power radiated by a lossless antenna is 10 watts. The directional
characteristics of the antenna are represented by the radiation intensity of
a U B cos
b U B cos
(watts/unit solid angle) and (0 /2, 0 2)
For each, find the
(a) maximum power density (in watts/square meter) at a distance of 1,000
m(assume far-field distance). Specify the angle where this occurs.
U ,
1
0o 20o
0
60
180
U ,
cos sin
for 0/2 an d 02(i.e., inthe upper half-space). It is zero in the lower
half-space. Find the
(a) exact directivity (dimensionless and in dB)
(b) elevationplan e half-power beamwidth (in degrees)
2.17. The maximum gain of a horn antenna is +20 dB, while the gain of its first
sidelobe is 15 dB. What is the difference in gain between the maximum and
first sidelobe:
(a) in dB
(b) as a ratio of the field intensities.
2.34. A 300 MHz uniform plane wave, traveling along the x-axis in the negative
x direction, whose electric field is given by
r
Ew E0 ja y 3a z e jkx
where Eo is a real constant, impinges upon a dipole antenna that is placed at the
originan
o
d whose electric field radiated tow
ward the x-axis in
n the positive x
direction
d
is
i givenby
y
r
Ea Ea a y 2 a z e jkx
where
w
Ea is a real constant.
c
Determin
D
ne the follo
owing:
(a)
( Polarizzation of the incideent wave (includin
ng axial raatio and seense of rootation,
if
i any). Yo
ou must ju
ustify (staate why).
(b)
( Polarizzation of the antenn
na (includ
ding axiall ratio and
d sense off rotation, if any).
You
Y must justify (sstate why
).
(c)
( Polarizzation losss factor (d
dimension
nless and in dB).
2.35.
2
Thee electric field of a uniform plane waave travelling along
g the neggative z
directionis given by
Ewi a x ja y E0 e jkz
and is incident upon a receiving antenna placed at the origin and whose radiated
electric field, toward the incident wave, is given by
e jkr
Ea a x 2a y E1
r
Determine the following:
(a) Polarizationof the incident wave, and why
(b) Sense of rotation of the incident wave.
(c) Polarization of the antenna, and why
(d) Sense of rotation of the antenna polarization.
(e) Losses (dimensionless and in dB) due to polarization mismatch between the
incident wave and the antenna.