B.

Fallacies of Presumption
Introduction
Presumption is a conclusion drawn from either the existence or non-existence of
evidence or fact. Fallacies of Presumption, though not an error of reasoning in
logical form, are classified as erroneous reasoning because these are arguments
that begin with false or unsubstantiated statement thus its conclusion could not
be established.
In this chapter, the various types of Fallacies of Dilemma will be taken up so that
the student may learn to avoid as well as detect dubious truth.
1. Fallacy of false Dilemma also known as either/or fallacy or fallacy
of false dichotomy. It happens when one unjustifiably reduces the
number of alternatives to be considered to two and two only. In other
words, it is solving problems by limiting the options to two and nothing
more.1
Example 1: if you find the kitchen hot. It is either you remain in the
kitchen and endure or you get out of the kitchen. Since you cannot endure
then get out of the kitchen.
N.B. this is fallacy because one reduces the option to staying in or staying
out. It does not provide other options though there are actually other
options.
Example 2: the chair gives the teachers their teaching load. He said to
them that they only have two options, either to take it or leave it.
Example 3:
It is either we cure patients or we kill them.
Since their illness have no cure.
Therefore we will kill them.
N.B. this is a fallacy because it does not consider other options to address
or answer concerns and problems.
2. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization. It happens when one makes a
generalization of group out of wrong or false sample. 2
Example 1: Have interviewed thirty students and according to them they
prefer a presidential form of government for the student council than a
parliamentary system. Therefore, the 2000 students of the university
prefer a presidential form of government than a parliamentary form.
1 Ibid p. 251
2 Ibid p. 254

Example 2: Five women prefer a guy with a sense of humor than a

handsome guy. Therefore, all the women in the city prefer a guy with
sense of humor than a handsome guy.
Example 3: since one out of ten dentists prefers this toothpaste.
Therefore, this toothpaste is the best.
3. Straw Man Fallacy. It happens when one misinterprets the proposition or
argument of a speaker. It is directed against a position that is presented as
if it were the real argument but actually it is not. 3
Example 1: since the judge said that the hearing has to be postponed and
adjourned. It shows that he is partial and that he is favoring the accused.
Example 2: The chair is organizing a lot of fund raising activities this year
and he says that the department needs enough funding. It only shows that
he is only concerned with money and that he is a corrupt official.
Example 3: The mayor declares that he will implement a curfew. It means
that he is a dictator and that another martial law is at hand. Therefore, we
will not let him in the next election.
4. Fallacy of Red Herring. It happens when one instead of arguing for an
issue uses another issue to divert the attention from the real issue in
question.4
Example 1: there was a debate about charter change. The debaters were
arguing which form government is better, the federal system or the
presidential system. The negative side who was in favor of the presidential
system which is the status quo said that it is not about the system, it is
the people who run the system that matters. What is good with a federal
system when it is governed by the same corrupt politicians?
Example 2: the members of the supreme student council were debating
about which design and color of the uniform for the school is best for the
students. One of the members said that it is not the design or the color of
the uniform that matters but it is the one wearing the uniform.
Example 3. Two brothers were arguing which country is the best place to
migrate Canada or the United States. One brother said that it is not where
we go but it is where we are happy.
5. Fallacy of False Analogy. It happens when one presupposes that if two
things or persons are alike in some aspects they are also alike in some
other aspects.5
3 Ibid p. 261
4 Ibid p.263.
5 Ibid p. 258

Example 1: if prostitution is legal in the Netherlands. Therefore it will

also be legalized in Philippines because both countries are democracies.
Example 2: if communism is good for the Russians then it can also be
good for the Filipinos because Russia and the Philippines experienced great
struggles and difficulties.
Example 3: if apples once dropped will fall on the ground, then of
one drops apple from space it will also fall down to the earth.
Example 4: diabetes is an illness, AIDS is also an illness. If diabetes
can be cured, AIDS also can be cured.
6. It does not follow Fallacy (Non Sequitur). It happens when there is an
enormous gap between the conclusion and the premise or premises. In
other words, the conclusion does not logically flow or follow from the
premise or premises.6
Example 1: the Girl speaks English well therefore she must be a genius
Example: 2 the boy runs fast, therefore he values sportsmanship
Example 3: the girl has Chinese blood. Therefore she is a good
businesswoman.
Example 4: he is left handed. Therefore, he will be a champion in
boxing.
Example 5: she is a very good teacher. Therefore, she is also a good
administrator.
Example 5: she is not a Filipino because she does not have brown skin.
7. Begging the Question (petitio prencipii)-it assumes the truth of the
conclusion even without proving it or even without substantial evidence of
the thing in question.7
There are different kinds of begging the question fallacy
A. Assuming without proving ( assumptio non probata).
Example1: the students have no questions because they understood the
discussion well.
Example2: since some teachers do not complain so there is no problem.
Example3: the girl must be single because I have not seen hear with a guy
companion.
6 Copi and Cohen p. 134.
7 Ibid p. 260.

Example4: she must be a genius because she is wearing eye glasses.

Example5: the woman must be married because she is wearing a ring.
Example6: the boy is good because he is always quite.
B. Arguing in Circles (Circulus in probando). It happens
when one argues without providing a sufficient answer or
explanation to the thing in question but instead using
usually the opposite as explanation or reason and answer.
Example: he is fat because he is not thin. He is thin because he is not fat
Example: the weather is warm because it is not cold. It is not cold that is
why it is warm
Example: the guy is tall because he is not short. He is not short because
he is tall.
Example: the door is open because it is not closed. It is not closed
because it is open.
Example; I am your friend because I am not a foe. I am not a foe because I
am your friend.
C. Complex or Loaded Question Fallacy. It happens when
a question is asked and that question presupposes the
truth of certain propositions within the question. 8
Example1: do you believe that rebels are always incorrigible and
belligerent people because they are always identified with insurrection?
Example 2: does the good congressman agree that the Filipino people will
just forget the Pork Barrel Scam after several calamities have struck the
country because they are overwhelmed by the aftermath?
Example 3: are you amenable that your party will lose the election. Have
you the not observed the election trending for the past five years?
8. Fallacy of False Cause (post hoc, ergo propter hoc-after this, therefore
because of this) it assumes that whatever precedes an event is the cause
of that event.9
Example 1 : Rizal came before Hitler, since Rizal visited Austria before the birth
of Hitler, therefore, Jose Rizal is the father of Hitler.

8 Copi and Cohen p. 149

9 Johnson p. 249.

Example 2: I sat office two years ago as the head of the college; I observed that
the number of enrollees increased since the last two years. Therefore, the
enrollment increased because of me.
Example 3: before I sat in office as head of the college, teachers complained
loudly, now that I am in office they no longer complain loudly. Therefore, the
reason why teachers complained loudly was that they were mismanaged by the
erstwhile middle managers and I have managed them well.
N.B. This fallacy of false cause because there is no verification and valid
evidence that the reason teachers were complaining loudly was because they
were missed managed by the middle managers. It could be that there are other
reasons they were complaining and that their complains were not about the
middle managers.
Example 4: whenever the dawn breaks the roosters would always crow.
Therefore, the cause of the crowing is the break of dawn.
9. Slippery Slope Fallacy. It is a variation of the fallacy of false cause. It
happens when one assumes that an event or practice that a person
disapproves will initiate a chain of events that will consequently lead to
undesirable effects.10
Example 1: we do not want you to run as president of the faculty club because
we fear that your being president will stir the opposition and resurrect their ill
feelings against the administration and this will lead to mass protest and
rebellion.
Example 2: we should not allow women acolytes because this will lead to
women clergy in the future.
Example 3: we do not want you to join the debate because losing in the
competition will cause shame and embarrassment.
Example 4: do not marry that poor women you will not have a good future with
her.

10 Ibid p. 250