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Optical-fiber transmission has come of age as a major innovation in telecommunications. Such systems offer
extremely high bandwidth, freedom from external interference, immunity from interception by external means,
and cheap raw materials (silicon, the most abundant material on earth).
Top of page
Snell's Law
How optical fibers work can be explained by Snell's Law, which states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the ratio of the propagation velocities of the wave in
the two respective media. This is equal to a constant that is the ratio of the refractive index of the second medium
to that of the first. Written as an equation, Snell's Law looks like this:
sin A1 V1 n2
==K=
sin A2 V2 n1
In this equation:
A1 and A2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively
V1 and V2 are the velocities of propagation of the wave in the two media
n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the two media
The parameters are demonstrated graphically in Figure 7.3. In each case, A1 is the angle of incidence, and A2 is
the angle of refraction. The index of refraction of material 1, n1, is greater than the index of refraction of material
2, n2. This means that the velocity of propagation of light is greater in material 2 than in material 1.
Figure 7.3a demonstrates how a light ray passing from material 1 to material 2 is refracted in material 2 when A1
is less than the critical angle. Figure 7.3b demonstrates the condition that exists when A1 is at the critical angle
and the angle A2 is at 90 degrees. The light ray is directed along the boundary between the two materials.
As shown in Figure 7.3c, any light rays that are incident at angles greater than A1 of Figure 7.3b will be reflected
back into material 1 with angle A2 equal to angle A1. The condition in Figure 7.3c is the one of particular interest
for optical fibers, and it is discussed further in later sections of this chapter.
Fiber Composition
An optical fiber is a dielectric (nonconductor of electricity) waveguide made of glass or plastic. As shown in Figure
7.4, it consists of three distinct regions: a core, the cladding, and a sheath or jacket. The sheath or jacket protects
the fiber but does not govern the transmission capability of the fiber.
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because modal delay spreading broadens the pulses in the time domain, as illustrated in Figure 7.6. The effect of
pulse spreading is to make it difficult or impossible for an optical receiver to differentiate one pulse from another
after a given transmission distance. Thus, after a predefined transmission distance, a multimode fiber either
causes a very high error rate or precludes the capability of the pulse to be recognized and terminates the
capability of the cable to be used for communications.
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dispersion. Some of these profiles are shown in Figure 7.8; the step and graded profiles are repeated for
comparison.
Figure 7.9 compares the flow of light through step-index, graded-index, and single-mode fiber. A step index fiber
typically has a core diameter between 100 mm and 500 mm. A graded-index fiber commonly has a core diameter
of 50 mm or 62.5 mm, while single-mode fibers have core diameters between 8 and 10 mm. Both stepped-index
and graded-index fiber support multimode transmission.
Bandwidth
The limitations on bandwidth in fiber-optic systems arise from two main sources: modal delay spreading and
material dispersion. Modal delay spreading, which was previously described, is evident primarily in multimode
fibers. Material dispersion arises from the variation in the velocity of light through the fiber with the wavelength
of the light.
If the light source, such as a light-emitting diode (LED), emits pulses of light at more than one wavelength, the
different wavelengths travel at different velocities through the fiber. This causes spreading of the pulses. At a
typical LED wavelength of 0.8 mm, the delay variation is about 100 picoseconds (ps) per nanometer (nm) per km.
If the width of the spectrum emitted by the LED is 50 nm, pulses from the source are spread by 5 nanoseconds
(ns) per km. This limits the modulation bandwidth product to about 50 to 100 MHz/km. Fortunately, at certain
wavelengths (near 1.3 and 1.5 mm for some types of fibers), there is a null in the material dispersion curve, giving
much better modulation bandwidth performance. Figure 7.10 shows the relationship of loss in doped silicon glass
fibers versus light wavelength. Most current development work is aimed at making fibers, light sources, and
detectors that work well at the loss nulls at 1.3 and 1.5 mm.
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Figure 7.10: The net spectral loss curve for a glass core.
See full-sized image.
Reading Cable Measurements
When examining fiber cable, you will commonly note a dual numeric specified for the fiber, such as 62.5/125. The
first number references the core size, and the second number references the cladding diameter in microns. Three
common multimode fiber cables in use are 62.5/125, 50/125, and 100/140.
Attenuation
The loss in signal power as the light travels down the fiber is called attenuation. Attenuation in the fibers is
controlled mainly by four factors: radiation of the propagated light, called scattering; conversion of the light
energy to heat, called absorption; connection losses at splices and joints in the fiber; and losses at bends in the
fiber.
Scattering Losses
Scattering occurs due to microscopic imperfections in the fiber, such as the inclusion of water in the glass. The
effect of impurities in the transmission medium is evident when we look up at the sky and see a blue color. In fact,
deep space has no color (appears as black), but due to the scattering of sunlight by the dust in the atmosphere,
the sky appears bright blue.
There is a limit below which scattering cannot be reduced, no matter how perfectly the glass fiber is made,
because of irregularities in the molecular structure of glass. This limit, called the Rayleigh scattering limit, has a
strong wavelength dependence (1/l4). Thus, as the wavelength of the light source increases, the effect of Rayleigh
scattering on optical loss is reduced. This effect is shown graphically in Figure 7.10. For light with a wavelength of
0.8 mm it is about 2.9dB/km. At a wavelength of 1.3 mm, the value is about 0.3dB/km, and at 1.55 mm wavelength,
the limit is about 0.15dB/km. Commercially available glass fibers exhibit losses of about 3.5dB/km at 0.8 mm, and
0.7 to 1.5dB/km at 1.3 and 1.5 mm. There is less attenuation through 6 meters (about 20 feet) of good quality
optical-fiber glass than through an ordinary clean windowpane.
Absorption Losses
Absorption refers to the conversion of the power in the light beam to heat in some material or imperfection that
is partially or completely opaque. This property is useful, as in the jacket of the fiber, to keep the light from
escaping the cable, but it is a problem when it occurs as inclusions or imperfections in the fiber. Current fiberoptic systems are designed to minimize intrinsic absorption by transmitting at 0.8, 1.3, and 1.5 mm, where there
are reductions in the absorption curve for light.
Connection Losses
Connection losses are inevitable. They represent a large source of loss in commercial fiber-optic systems. In
addition to the installation connections, repair connections will be required because experience has shown that a
typical line will be broken accidentally two or three times per kilometer over a 30-year period. The alignment of
optical fibers required at each connection is a considerable mechanical feat. The full effect of the connection is
not achieved unless the parts are aligned correctly. The ends of the fibers must be parallel within one degree or
less, and the core must be concentric with the cladding to within 0.5 mm. Production techniques have been
developed to splice single-mode fibers whose total diameter is less than 10 mm by using a mounting fixture and
small electric heater.
The heater is usually an electric arc that softens two butted fiber ends and allows the fibers to be fused together.
Due to the cost of an electric arc and the time required to let the heated ends cool, other methods to connect
broken fibers, such as mechanical splices and couplers, are more commonly used. Mechanical splicing is based
on the use of a mechanical clamp to permanently splice together two fibers. This task is accomplished with a
portable workstation that is used to prepare each fiber end. That preparation includes stripping a thin layer of
plastic coating from the fiber core before its splicing. The typical mechanical splice loss is approximately .15dB. In
comparison, the use of a connector enables fibers to be glued to the device by a special epoxy after each fiber is
stripped to its proper dimension. The connector provides a splice that joins the two fibers to enable light to pass
from one fiber to the other. Although connector loss can range from .25 to 1.5dB, use of connectors is preferred
for many labor-intensive applications because the process is relatively quick and can usually be accomplished in
30 minutes or less with a minimal amount of equipment.
Bending Losses
Bending an optical fiber is akin to playing crack-the-whip with the light rays. As light travels around the bend, the
light on the outside of the bend must travel faster to maintain a constant phase across the wave. As the radius of
the bend is decreased, a point is reached where part of the wave would have to travel faster than the local speed
of lightan obvious impossibility. At that point, the light is lost from the waveguide. For commercial single-mode
fiber-optic cables operating at 1.3 and 1.5 mm, the bending occurring in fabrication (the cables are made with
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the fibers wound spirally around a center) and installation does not cause a noticeable increase in attenuation.
Fiber Production
Optical fibers are fabricated in several ways, depending on the vendor and the purpose of the system. The core
and cladding regions of the fiber are doped to alter their refractive indices. This doping is carried out by heating
vapors of various substances such as germanium, phosphorus, and fluorine, and depositing the particles of
resulting oxidized vapor or "soot" on high-quality fused-silica glass mandrels, called preforms. The preforms are
large-scale version of the core and cladding that are then heated to a taffy-like consistency and drawn down into
the actual fiber. The core and cladding dimensions have essentially the same relationship in the final fiber as in
the preform. Deposition of the dopants is done in one of three standard ways: outside, inside, and axial vapor
deposition.
Light Sources
Light sources for fiber-optic systems must convert electrical energy from the computer or terminal circuits
feeding them to optical energy (photons) in a way that allows the light to be coupled effectively to the fiber. Two
such sources currently in production are the surface light-emitting diode (LED) and the injection laser diode (ILD).
Light-Emitting Diodes
A cross section of a surface LED is shown in Figure 7.11. It emits light over a relatively broad spectrum, and it
disperses the emitted light over a rather large angle. This causes the LED to couple much less power into a fiber
with a given acceptance angle than does the ILD. Currently, LEDs are able to couple about 100 microwatts (mW)
of power into a fiber with a numerical aperture of 0.2 or more and a coupling efficiency of about 2 percent. The
principal advantages of LEDs are low cost and high reliability.
Injection Laser Diodes
A cross section of a typical ILD is shown in Figure 7.12. Because of its narrow spectrum of emission and its
capability to couple output efficiently into the fiber lightguide, the ILD supplies power levels of 5 to 7 milliwatts
(mW). At present, ILDs are considerably more expensive than LEDs, and their service life is generally less by a
factor of about 10. Other disadvantages of laser diodes are that they must be supplied with automatic level
control circuits, the laser power output must be controlled, and the device must be protected from power supply
transients.
Light Detectors
At the receiving end of the optical communications system, the receiver must have very high sensitivity and low
noise production. To meet these requirements, there is a choice of two types of devices to detect the light beam,
amplify it, and convert it back into an electrical signal: the integrated p-i-n field-effect transistor (FET) assembly
and the avalanche photodiode (APD). In the p-i-n FET device, a photodiode with unity gain (the p-i-n device) is
coupled with a high-impedance front-end amplifier. This device combines operation at low voltage with low
sensitivity to operating temperature, high reliability, and ease of manufacture.
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receiver sensitivity. The APD devices require high voltage bias that varies with temperature. Receivers using APDs
are so sensitive that they require as few as 200 phototons to be detected at the receiver per bit transmitted at
data rates of 200 to 400Mbps.
Wavelength Multiplexing
A combination of the single-mode fiber (low dispersion by the transmission medium), narrow output spectrum
(power concentration at a single frequency), and narrow dispersion angle (good power coupling) from ILDs
makes possible the extreme bandwidth-distance characteristics given for systems at the beginning of this chapter.
The narrow ILD emission spectrum also makes it possible to send several signals from different sources down the
same fiber by a technique called wavelength multiplexing. The capability to multiplex several analog signals in the
frequency domain has been described in detail in Chapter 6, "Multiplexing Techniques." As illustrated in Figure
7.13, wavelength multiplexing at optical frequencies is the equivalent of FDM at lower frequencies. Light at two or
more discrete wavelengths is coupled into the fiber and each wavelength carries a channel at whatever
modulation rate is used by the transmission equipment driving the light source. Thus, the information capacity of
each fiber is doubled or tripled.
Transmission Systems
During the past decade, most carrier transmission systems have moved from the use of copper wire to optical
fiber. In fact, by mid-1994, almost 100 percent of long-distance communications was carried over optical
transmission systems.
An AT&T study in 1978 noted a striking advantage of installing a digital transmission system over comparable
analog systems: a $900 savings per circuit termination when interconnecting multiple digital switching machines.
The savings came from the difference in requirement for terminal multiplexing equipment. The AT&T FT3C
lightwave system was devised to provide the most economical digital transmission system possible with the
current state of the fiber-optic art. It used wavelength multiplexing techniques to send three 90Mbps signals over
the same fiber, giving more than 240,000 digital channels at 64,000bps in a cable containing 144 optical fibers.
The first application of the system was in the Northeast Corridor project by AT&T, between Boston and
Washington, and in the North/South Lightwave Project on the West Coast of the United States by Pacific Telesis,
between San Francisco and San Diego. Figure 7.14a is a map of the Northeast Corridor system, which contains
78,000 fiber-kilometers of lightwave circuits. Figure 7.14b is a map of the North/South Lightwave Project. The two
systems were placed in service in 1983 and have been expanded considerably since then.
The significant advantages associated with the use of fiber-optic transmission systems resulted in tens of
thousands of miles of fiber being installed during the 1980s. By early 1991, U.S. Sprint had converted 100 percent
of its inter-city transmission facilities from microwave to fiber. A few years later, AT&T and MCI Communications
completed the conversion of their systems to fiber.
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During the mid to late 1990s, the growth in the use of the Internet and other data applications resulted in the use
of traditional long-distance communications carriers such as AT&T, MCI, and Sprint being supplemented by a
number of newly formed communications carriers such as IXC Communications, Quest Communications, and Level
3 Communications. The newly formed companies installed more than 50,000 route miles of fiber along gas,
railroad, and electric utility right of ways to develop their own long distance networks. In the face of competition,
the traditional long distance communications carriers spent billions of dollars upgrading their previously installed
fiber-based infrastructure to compete with the newly formed carriers. Upgrading of existing fiber included new
optical transmitter/receivers capable of supporting data rates as high as 2.4Gbps, as well as the use of
wavelength division multiplexing which permits up to four separate optical channels, each transporting a 2.4Gbps
data stream to provide a 9.6Gbps composite transmission capability over existing fiber links. These same fiber
links may have been hard pressed to support a data rate of 300Mbps earlier in the decade.
Digital Transmission Systems that use state-of-the-art Fiber Optics
SONET
Advances in the use of fiber-optic transmission systems resulted in a requirement for standards to enable
interoperability between interexchange carriers and telephone companies. In addition, a considerable growth in
communications from companies and government agencies resulted in a requirement to define the interface of
commercial communications equipment to an evolving optical network. The resulting standard, known as the
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) in North America and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) in Europe,
represents a transport vehicle capable of supporting data rates in the gigabit range, optical interfaces, network
management, and diagnostic testing methods.
Until SONET standards were developed, there was a void in compatibility between fiber terminal equipment
operating at rates above the DS3 transmission rate of 44.736Mbps. That operating rate is formed by a
communications carrier using a device known as an M13 multiplexer to combine 28 DS1 channels into a DS3
signal. The resulting DS3 signal is asynchronous because each DS1 signal is independently timed. Although each
DS1 signal includes 8000 bits per second for framing, the resulting multiplexed DS3 signal includes three
intermixed framing signals, which makes it almost impossible to locate an individual DS0 signal within the DS3
signal. Thus, to remove one PCM digitized voice signal in a carrier's DS3 transmission hierarchy, the carrier
typically had to first demultiplex the DS3 signal, requiring additional equipment and adding to the cost of the
carrier's infrastructure. Recognizing this problem, the developers of the SONET standard developed a frame
structure that enables lower-speed channels within a higher-speed signal to be easily removed from or added to
the signal. This process is known as drop (removal of the signal on a channel) and insert (addition of a signal on
a channel).
Frame Structure
As previously indicated the basic SONET frame consists of nine rows of bytes with 90 bytes per row, and 8,000 of
these frames are transmitted each second. This arrangement results in a composite data rate of 51.84Mbps.
Because 27 bytes of each 810-byte frame represent overhead, the payload of the basic SONET frame is limited to
50.112Mbps, of which 2.3Mbps represents overhead. That overhead includes positioning information that
enables a single DS0 channel to be identified and data easily extracted or inserted into the channel position.
These characteristics of SONET's frame structure are illustrated in Figure 7.15.
This also means that a DS3 signal representing 28 DS1 signals can be carried within the basic SONET frame, and
each of the 672 DS0 channels within the 28 DS1 signals can have data easily removed (dropped) or added
(inserted).
The basic SONET frame illustrated in Figure 7.15 that occurs 8000 times per second is referred to as a
Synchronous Transport Signal-Level 1, or STS-1. SONET is called synchronous because the frame is synchronized
with respect to each input DS0 channel through the use of pointers in the 27 bytes of overhead per frame, which
results in a synchronous multiplexing format. In addition to pointers, a significant portion of the overhead bytes in
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the STS-1 frame are reserved for management data, enabling network management functions to include
loopback, bit error rate testing, and collection and reporting of performance statistics to be carried within the
SONET frame.
Line Rate
DS3 Channels
OC-1
51.84Mbps
OC-3
155.52Mbps
OC-9
466.56Mbps
OC-12
622.08Mbps
12
OC-18
933.12Mbps
18
OC-24
1.244Gbps
24
OC-36
1.866Gbps
36
OC-48
2.488Gbps
48
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Undersea cable systems have some understandably difficult environmental requirements. The environment
includes pressures of 10,000 pounds per square inch (psi) at depths of 7,300 meters, salt water, and the
possibility of mechanical damage from anchors and earth movement in shallow waters. An important requirement
for these systems is that the regenerator spacing be as wide as possible to cut down on the system failure
probability and the power requirements, because power must be fed from the ends of the cable.
A schematic of the SL Undersea Lightguide System is shown in Figure 7.17. It is composed of a high-voltage
power supply, a supervisory terminal, a multiplexer with inputs for several types of information, the cable light
source, the cable itself, and the repeaters. The cable is made of a central core and a surrounding support, as
shown in Figure 7.18. The core has an outside diameter of 2.6 mm and consists of 12 optical fibers wound
helically around a central copper-clad steel wire called a kingwire, all embedded in an elastomeric substance and
covered with a nylon sheath. This assembly is in turn covered with steel strands, a continuously welded copper
tube, and an insulation of low-density polyethylene for electrical insulation and abrasion resistance. The outside
diameter of the completed cable is 21 mm (about 0.8 in.).
LAN Applications
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LAN Applications
The use of fiber in local area networks has considerably expanded over the past decade. During the late 1980s,w
fiber was commonly used between electrical-optical repeaters as a mechanism to extend the length of LANs.
Currently one LAN referred to as FDDI (Fiber Data Distribution Interface) represents an optical fiber-based local
area network that supports data transmission at 100Mbps. FDDI can support transmission distances beyond 50
miles, which makes it suitable for creating campus-wide backbones. Another type of LAN referred to as "Gigabit
Ethernet" requires the use of optical fiber on all connections beyond 100 meters due to the extreme difficulty in
transmitting very narrow pulses over copper media and having them recognizable at a receiver. As organizations
require higher data transfer rates the use of fiber can be expected to grow in local area network applications.
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offered to the consumer under the labels "video-on-demand," "multimedia," or another term, those services will
be transported through the use of fiber-optic cable to the home, either directly or via the use of hybrid fiber coax
systems.
Top of page
Figure 7.20: Americatel's U.S. teleport consists of three large-diameter satellite dishes. (Courtesy of
Americatel Corporation)
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Downlink Frequencies
5.9256.425GHz
3.7004.200GHz
7.9008.400GHz
7.2507.750GHz
14.0014.50GHz
11.7012.20GHz
27.5030.00GHz
17.7020.20GHz
Frequency Range
1.02.0GHz
2.014.0GHz
4.018.0GHz
8.0112.0GHz
Ku
12.0118.0GHz
18.0127.0GHz
Ka
27.0140.0 GHz
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frame containing one burst of information from each earth station allowed access to the single transponder. A
typical format for a frame is shown in Figure 7.22. The sum of the durations of the individual bursts does not
quite equal the frame time in order to give some guard time between bursts.
Timing for keeping the station bursts apart is a major problem, and it is complicated by two facts. First, the
satellites are not perfectly stationary in orbit (each appears to travel in a small figure-eight pattern). Second, the
times of travel of the signal between different earth stations and the same satellite are different because of
different slant range distances. TDMA techniques allow the satellite transmitter to be operated at higher power
levels than FDMA. This method is permissible because only one carrier at a time occupies the transponder,
reducing the amount of intermodulation distortion that's generated.
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The Iridium satellite network consists of 66 satellites in six orbital planes approximately 480 miles above the earth.
Communications to Iridium satellites are via special Iridium mobile telephones and via conventional telephone
systems through the use of satellite earth station gateways that convert terrestrial signals to the Ka-band for
transmission to an Iridium satellite. In addition to Iridium, other major communications firms provide competitive
satellite-based personal communications services. One such competitive service is provided by ORBCOMM, a
partnership owned by Orbital Sciences corporation, Teleglobe, Inc. of Canada, and Technology Resources
Industries of Malaysia. ORBCOMM currently has 36 satellites in orbit and during 1998 received permission from
the FCC to add another 12 satellites to its constellation. ORBCOMM provides a variety of two-way data and
messaging communications. Applications include monitoring of fixed assets such as electric utility meters,
pipelines, heavy equipment, rail cars, and other vehicles.
Low earth orbit satellites are ideally suited for two-way cellular and paging operations. This is because the low
orbit of those satellites requires less power to reach those satellites. Anyone who has seen an old Tom Clancy
made-for-TV movie in which an intelligence agent opens a suitcase and constructs a small earth station to bounce
a signal off a satellite can now recognize that the person was accessing a geostationary satellite. In comparison,
in the movie "Air Force One," Harrison Ford was able to use a small handheld cellular phone because he was
accessing a low earth orbit satellite.
Top of page
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d. 10
12. The SL Undersea Lightguide system can carry how many two-way voice _channels?
a. 10,000
b. 100,000
c. 35,000
d. 760
13. When the index of refraction is greater in Material 1 than it is in Material 2, the velocity of propagation in
Material 1 compared to Material 2 is what?
a. Equal or greater
b. Greater
c. Lesser
d. Equal
14. The different angles of entry of light into an optical fiber in which the diameter of the core is many times
the wavelength of the light transmitted are called what?
a. Emitters
b. Modes
c. Sensors
d. Refractors
15. In single-mode fibers, a large fraction of the power is propagated in the:
a. Sheath.
b. Core.
c. Cladding.
d. Air.
16. The loss in signal power as light travels down a fiber is called what?
a. Propagation
b. Scattering
c. Absorption
d. Attenuation
17. What is the coupling efficiency of an LED light source to an optical fiber with a numerical aperture of 0.2 or
more?
a. 60 percent
b. 10 percent
c. 2 percent
d. 0.1 percent
18. How many fibers does the FT3C lightwave system contain?
a. 12
b. 144
c. 128
d. 64
19. A key advantage of SONET is its capability to enable:
a. Data to be carried at high operating rates.
b. -The interoperability of optical transmission between interexchange carriers and telephone
companies.
c. Routing of data to the home.
d. Interconnection of private networks.
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Gilbert Held is an internationally known award-winning lecturer and author. He is the author of more than 40
technical books and 300 articles covering the fields of personal computing and computer communications.
Copyright 1999 by New Riders Publishing
We at Microsoft Corporation hope that the information in this work is valuable to you. Your use of the
information contained in this work, however, is at your sole risk. All information in this work is provided "as -is",
without any warranty, whether express or implied, of its accuracy, completeness, fitness for a particular purpose,
title or non-infringement, and none of the third-party products or information mentioned in the work are
authored, recommended, supported or guaranteed by Microsoft Corporation. Microsoft Corporation shall not
be liable for any damages you may sustain by using this information, whether direct, indirect, special, incidental
or consequential, even if it has been advised of the possibility of such damages. All prices for products
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International rights = English only.
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W as th is p age h elp fu l?
Yes
No
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