Question 1:

What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.

Behaviour is a response or a reaction of an individual or an activity in which the individual is engaged in. It is the result of a stimulus in the
environment or an internal change. Behaviours may be simple or complex and overt or covert.
Examples of overt behaviour
(i) Blinking of eyes when a stone is hurled at a person
(ii) Withdrawing the hand immediately after touching a hot pan
Examples of covert behaviour
(i) The twitching of hand muscles while playing a game of chess.
(ii) Pounding of heart during an interview.
Question 2:
How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline of psychology?
Scientific psychology can be distinguished from the popular notions about the discipline of psychology on the basis of the following
characteristics:
Scientific psychology

Popular notion about psychology

1
.

It is based on scientific study of psychological phenomenon.

1 It uses common-sense knowledge to understand behaviour.

.

2
.

It explains the psychological phenomenon systematically on the basis of

empirical data.

2 It explains the phenomenon on the basis of experiences, sayings

. or beliefs.

3
.

It studies the patterns of behaviour that can be predicted before they occur.

3 It explains events in hindsight after they occur.

.

Question 3:
Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.

The evolution of psychology was an outcome of ancient philosophy. It later varied with the development of different approaches of
psychological study. The formal beginning of modern psychology took place in 1879 with the establishment of an experimental laboratory in
Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt.
The initial approach to study psychology was based on introspection or structuralism in which the individuals were asked to
describe their experiences.
It was followed by functionalism that studied the working of the mind and the impact of behaviour upon peoples interaction with
their environment.
Gestalt psychology emerged as a reaction to structuralism in the early 20th century and focused on the organisation of the
perceptual experiences.
Another reaction was the development of behaviourism that studied behaviour or responses in a measurable and objective form.
This was followed by psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud that viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of
unconscious desires, conflicts and their gratification.
In contrast, the humanistic perspective emphasised the free will of human beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold
their inner potential.
Further, Cognitive perspective was a combination ofGestalt approach and structuralismand focused on how an individual
perceived the world.
Later, Constructivism viewed human beings as activelyconstructing their minds through the exploration of physical and the social
world.
It was followed by Vygotskys view that human mind develops through social and cultural processes in which the mind is
perceived as culturally constructed by joint interaction between children and adults.
Therefore, the evolution of psychology passed through various stages and levels. Starting from the roots of philosophy, it took a new
direction and included numerous theories of structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, constructivism, etc. However, in contemporary era
the discipline of psychology has grown into a scientific discipline, which deals with various processes underlying human experiences and
behaviours.
Question 4:
What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain.
(i) The problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be fruitful are as follows:
(ii) While dealing with a criminal case, it is important for a lawyer or a criminologist to understand the psychology of a witness or the criminal.
It is also necessary to decide the degree of punishment valid for a crime. Thus, it is important for a lawyer or a criminologist to have the
knowledge of psychology in order to regulate the legal system of a country.
(iii) It is important for an architect or an engineer to satisfy his/her customers by providing with mental and physical space in a building.
Further, an engineer should also consider the human habits while construction. Thus, they need to have a psychological knowledge in order
to understand the needs and demands of their customers.
Question 5:
Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical psychologist.

(a). The difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist are mentioned below:
Psychologist

Psychiatrist

1
.

A psychologist deals with the psychological phenomenon.

i.

A psychiatrist deals with serious mental problems.

2
.

His/her main work is research in psychology and formulation of

psychological conclusions that are derived on the basis of data.

ii.

A psychiatrist studies the causes, treatment and prevention

of psychological disorders.

3
.

A psychologist does not hold a medical degree and is mainly into academic
and research fields.

iii
.

A psychiatrist holds a medical degree and he/she can use

medical treatment to cure the patients.

(b). The difference between a counsellor and clinical psychologist are mentioned below:
Counsellor

Clinical Psychologist

1
.

A counsellor deals with the causes, treatment and prevention of different

types of psychological disorders, which are related to motivational and
emotional problems.

i.

A clinical psychologist provides therapy for behavioural

problems, which are related to mental disorders.

2
.

Counsellors help people in vocational rehabilitation programmes, making

professional choices and adjusting to new situations in life.

ii.

Clinical psychologists conduct interviews and administer

psychological tests to diagnose various problems.

3
.

A counsellor deals with different types of psychological disorders in

everyday life of the patient.

iii
.

A clinical psychologist deals with specific and

complicated psychological disorders

Question 6:
Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put to practice.

Some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put into practice are as follows:
Psychology helps to understand various personal problems like family, marriage and work sphere. It also helps to deal with larger
problems related to community and society.
Psychology enables an individual to understand oneself in a balanced and positive way without being reactionary, in order to deal
with everyday challenges and meet with personal expectations.
Understanding of psychology further helps in analysing the various social, economic and political problems that affect an
individuals life and their solution at individual and collective level.
Psychology helps in understanding the cause of violence and need for cooperation that makes people wise, which improves the
societal relationships by avoiding conflict, frustration and aggression.
Psychological analysis also enables in decision-making for various spheres and cultivating healthy lifestyles.
Therefore, the understanding of psychology enables a person to build stronger relationships at community level and improves the strength at
individual level in order to meet daily challenges and obstacles.
Question 7:
How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote
environment-friendly behaviour?
Answer :

The knowledge of environmental psychology is helpful to promote environment friendly behaviour because:
It studies the interaction of physical factors such as temperature, humidity, pollution and natural disaster on human behaviour.
It analyses the influence of physical arrangements at work place on the health, emotional state and interpersonal relations of the
individual.
Issues like disposal of waste, population explosion, conservation of energy etc. are related with behaviour of human beings as
well as its consequence.
Thus, an understanding of human behaviour in relation to environment generates awareness and inculcates safe environmental
practices.
Question 8:
In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of psychology do you think is most suitable? Identify the
field and discuss the concerns of the psychologists working in this field.

The branch of social psychology is most suitable for the purpose of solving social problems like crime.
It explores the thought process of people and their influence upon others and evaluates the impact of social environment upon the actions of
an individual.
Social psychologists are concerned with topics like attitudes, conformity and obedience to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful
behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social motivation and inter-group relations.
Question 1:
What are the goals of scientific enquiry?

The goals of scientific enquiry are as follows:

Description It is very important in a scientific enquiry to describe the behaviour or a phenomenon accurately in order to be able
to deal with it.
Prediction Scientific enquiry aims at the understanding of a particular behaviour in relationship to other behaviours or events. It
tries to predict their occurrences under certain conditions with a margin of error.
Explanation Scientific enquiry is conducted to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour and the conditions where
the behaviour does not occur.
Control Being able to explain behaviour also leads to the control in behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions.
The control refers to making a particular behaviour happen, reduce it and enhance it.
Application Application of a particular behaviour aims at bringing about positive changes in the lives of people by solving their
problems in various settings.
Question 2:
Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
The various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry can be described as follows:
(i) Conceptualisation of problem It is important in a scientific enquiry to narrow down the focus and understand the specific problem. It is
done by reviewing past research, personal experience and observations. This is further followed by preparing a hypothesis or a tentative
solution of the problem.
(ii) Data collection The second step involves the preparation of a blueprint of the entire study. It consists of four aspects namely,
identifying the participants in the study, methods of data collection, tools to be used in research and procedure for data collection.
(iii) Drawing conclusions The data are analysed through statistical procedures and represented graphically in the form of pie-chart, bardiagram, etc. It helps to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions by putting them into an appropriate context.
(iv) Revising research conclusions The existing hypothesis is finally confirmed on the basis of revision of data else, a new hypothesis is
stated and tested by new data. The research may also be revised by other researchers, hence making it a continuous process.
Question 3:
Explain the nature of psychological data.

The nature of psychological data can be explained through the following points:
The psychological data are not independent entities: The physical or social context, the persons involved and the time of the
behaviour affects the data. For instance, an individual behaves differently in a group than being alone.
The quality and nature of data is affected by the method of data collection: It is possible that while conducting a personal
interview, an individual provides with answers which are different than his/her behaviour as observed by the researcher.
Data are facts without any meaning: This suggests that data do not speak themselves about reality. They only acquire meaning
when placed in a context by the researcher.
Question 4:
How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
Experimental groups differ from control groups as independent variable manipulation occurs in an experimental group whereas it is absent in
a control group. For example, in a study conducted by Latane and Darley, there were two experimental groups and one control group. The
participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms.
Room 1 in which the participant was alone formed the control group. Room 2 and 3, in which two persons were present with the participant
formed experimental groups.
The independent variable, in this study, was the absence or presence of other persons sitting in the room. The remaining factors in the
experiment were the same for both kinds of groups. In experimental groups, two persons were present with the real participant while in the
control group, participant was alone. Therefore, it can be said that the manipulated variable is absent in control group.
Question 5:
A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify
the independent and dependent variables.
Relationship between the speed of cycling and the presence of people
Hypothesis As the speed of cycling increases people tend to move away fast.
Field experiment Two market places
A boy is asked to ride a bicycle with different speedsin the market.
Market 1 It is observed that when the boy passes through the market street with high speed on the bicycle, people surrounding him will get
away quickly in order to protect themselves from getting hit by the cycle.
Market 2 It is observed that when the boy passes through the market street with normal speed on the bicycle people around him will get
away normally and slowly to give him the way as compared to the people of market 1.
Conclusion When the speed of the cycle is high people move away from it quickly and when the speed of cycle is normal people will move
away slowly in comparison.
Revision of research conclusion The conclusion has matched the hypothesis. Therefore, the hypothesis is correct.
Independent variable Speed of cycle
Dependent variable Movement of people
Question 6:
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.

The strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry are:

Strengths

It provides a relatively convincing evidence of a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
The extraneous variables can be eliminated from the laboratory.
It can minimise the sequence effect with the help of counter-balancing technique.
It eliminates any potential systematic differences between groups by giving random assignment to groups of participants. This is
done to help in framing the conclusion without any assumption.
Weaknesses
The highly controlled laboratory situation only simulates the conditions of the outer world.
The results of the experiments cannot be generally applied to real situations, thus field experiments are required in such
situations.
It is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally.
It is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables, particularly in field experiments. Many variables cannot be manipulated
in laboratory settings.
Question 7:
Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record childrens play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the
behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
Dr. Krishnan will use non-participant observation methodto observe and record childrens play behaviour at a nursery school without
attempting to influence or control the behaviour. She will sit in the corner of the play school and will observe the behaviour of children, their
interaction with other children and teachers, how they play and react to winning and losing. The children will not be aware that they are being
observed. Later, she will record her observations in a file. She will analyse and conclude it and then try to match her conclusion with the
hypothesis.
Merits of non-participant observation method
The researcher observes the people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation as it occurs.
Demerits of non-participant observation method
This method is time taking, labour intensive and vulnerable to the researchers bias. The observations are influenced by the personal values
and interpretations of the observer.
Question 8:
Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?

The two examples where a survey method can be used are as follows:
(i) To find out the attitudes of people on polio eradication programme.
(ii) To record information about the members of a particular population.
The limitations of survey method are as follows:
People may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they do not want the researcher to know their real opinions
about a particular issue.
People sometimes respond in a way they think the researcher wants to hear.

Question 9:
Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
The difference between an interview and a questionnaire are:
Interview

Questionnaire

1
.

It is a form of interaction in which questions are asked

directly to the respondents.

i.

It is a framework in which questions of scientific enquiry are written.

2
.

Questions may vary in their sequence according to the need

of the situation.

ii.

Questions are in written in an appropriate sequence which is answered in written

by the respondents.

3
.

Researcher and respondents are in face-to-face contact.

iii
.

Researcher and respondents are not required to be in face-to-face contact.

4
.

Researcher can visit the respondents or call them at the

office.

iv.

Researcher can go to the places to distribute the questionnaire or questions can

be sent through e-mail and post.

5
.

The questions are flexible by nature.

v.

The questions are rigid.

6
.

Number of questions can be increased or decreased.

vi.

Number of questions cannot be changed.

Question 10:
Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.

The characteristics of standardised test are as follows:

Validity The test has to be devised to measure what it claims to measure in order to be held as valid and usable.

Reliability This refers to the consistency of scores obtainedby an individual on the same test on two different occasions. Testretest indicates temporal stability and split-half indicates internal consistency of the test.

Norms The test needs to devise norms or the average performance of the group. It helps in comparison and interpretation of an
individuals performance in relation to the overall standards of the group.
Question 11:
Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.

The limitations of psychological enquiry are as follows:

Lack of true zero point Psychological measurements do not have a zero point. The scores that are assigned to individuals in
psychological studies are not absolute in nature but have relative value.
Relative nature of psychological tools Psychological tests need to be developed, modified and adapted according to the
context of study. For example, test developed for urban children is not suitable and cannot be applied on tribal children.
Subjective interpretation of qualitative data The qualitative data are largely subjective and interpretations may vary from one
individual to the other.
Question 12:
What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?
The following are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry:
Voluntary Participation The person on whom the study has to be conducted has the choice whether to participate or not in the
study.
Informed Consent The participants should be informed about the nature of the study and its impact upon them before it starts.
Debriefing The participants have to be provided with information to complete their understanding of the research and enable
them to leave the place or laboratory in the same mental and physical state as before the test was conducted.
Sharing the results Theresearcher has to share the results of the study with the participants to fulfil their expectations. The
opinion of participants about the results also provides new insights to the researcher.
Confidentiality of Data Source The researcher has to make sure that the information given by the participants is kept
confidential and not shared with other interested parties.
Henceforth, it is necessary for the researcher to ensure certain ethics and principles in order to respect an individuals privacy and protect
him/her from any harm caused by the research.

Question 1:
How does the evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?

The evolutionary perspective explains the biological behaviour by demonstrating the behavioural and physiological changes that occur as a
result of evolution being necessary for the survival of species. For instance, increase in the capacity for cognitive behaviour like perception,
memory and use of language for communication among humans is a result of the evolution. Such type of changes have occurred due to the
impact of the surrounding environment and is related to abilities like finding food, avoiding predators and protecting the offspring. This is
manifested in humans in the following ways:
The human brain has evolved from smaller to bigger in size.
Human beings can walk upright on their two legs.
Human beings have got a free hand with a workable opposing thumb.
Thus, the evolutionary perspective highlights the importance of the developed body and mind that humans have inherited from their
ancestors and provides a biological basis of behaviour.
Question 2:
Describe how neurons transmit information?
Neurons transmit information with the help of its dendrites, axon, soma and terminal buttons by converting stimuli into electrical impulses.
This is done by the following method:

Dendrites receive the incoming neural impulses, from adjacent neurons or directly from the sense organs, in electrochemical form.
The nerve impulse is then passed on to the soma that is the main body of the neuron.
From soma, impulse passes on to the axon.
The axon transmits the information/impulse along its length to terminal buttons.
The terminal buttons transmit the information to another neuron, gland and muscle.
Question 3:
Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. What functions do they perform?
The four lobes of the cerebral cortex are frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe. Their functions are as follows:
Frontal lobe It is responsible for cognitive functions such as attention, thinking, memory, reasoning and learning. It also inhibits
the autonomic and emotional responses.
Parietal lobe It is mainly concerned with cutaneous sensations and their coordination with visual and auditory sensations.
Temporal lobe It processes the auditory information.
It also helps in understanding of speech and written language and memorising symbolic sounds and words.
Occipital lobe It interprets visual impulses, memorises visual stimuli and helps in colour visual orientation.
Question 4:
Name the various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them. How does the endocrine system affect our behaviour?

The various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them are as follows:
Endocrine glands

Hormones
Growth hormones

Pituitary gland
Gonadotropic
Thyroid gland

Thyroxin
Corticoids

Adrenal gland

Epinephrine
Norepinephrine

Pancreas

Insulin

Gonads

Estrogens
Progesterone
Androgens
Testosterone

The endocrine system controls or regulates our behaviour with the help of chemical substances known as hormones. Hormones enable the
individual to react to the stimuli present in the environment. They also enable the growth of individuals, their maturity and help in
reproduction. For example, growth hormones help in growth of a child while gonadotropic hormones bring primary and secondary sexual
changes. Thyroxin maintains the metabolic rate of the body while estrogens and testosterone help in reproduction. This system works with
different parts of the nervous system and also known as neuroendocrine system.
Question 5:
How does the autonomic nervous system help us in dealing with an emergency situation?

The autonomic nervous system helps us in dealing with an emergency situation with the help of its two divisions namely, Sympathetic
division and Parasympathetic division.
(i) Sympathetic division
During an emergency situation the sympathetic division helps in quick and powerful actions.
It stops the digestion of food and causes the flow of blood from internal organs to the muscles and also increases the breathing
rate, oxygen supply, heart rate and blood sugar level.
(ii) Parasympathetic division
Parasympathetic division decelerates the sympathetic division after the emergency gets over.
It brings the heart beat, breathing and blood flow to the normal levels. It also calms down the individual to the normal condition.
Question 6:
Explain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.
The term culture refers to the shared customs, beliefs, values, norms institutions and other products of a community which are transmitted
from one generation to another. It includes all materialistic, abstract and behavioural particulars that exist prior to the individual and consists
of features that vary across societies. The important features of culture are as follows:
It contains values and language that can be expressed.
It contains a way of life that is followed by individuals who have grown in that context.
It is a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols.
It has influence upon human behaviour.
Question 7:
Do you agree with the statement that biology plays an enabling role, while specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors? Give
reasons in support of your answer.
The statement that biology plays an enabling role while, specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors, is correct. The reasons
are as follows:
Culture decides the norms of behaviour for an individual while biology helps in materialising the behaviour.
The biological frame of the body enables the individual to create culture. The human brain, endocrine glands, hormones etc. are
responsible for humans being intelligent and different from other species.
Culture ascribes meaning to biological actions and lends them rationality.
Question 8:
Describe the main agents of socialisation.
The main agents of socialisation are as follows:
(i) Parents

The socialisation of a child starts with the help of parents and other members of the family. Parents introduce the child to the
society and provide the building blocks of socialisation.
Parents approve and discourage certain types of behaviour among children.
Parenting styles are based upon strategies that can be authoritative, authoritarian and democratic or permissive. They exert
varying degrees of acceptance and control upon their children.
The parenting style is also influenced by conditions of life like poverty, illness etc. Grandparents and network of social
relationships also socialise children through parental influences.
This agency has a direct and significant effect upon the childs behaviour and personality.
(ii) School
Schools provide children with an organised set up for interaction with teachers and peers.
Children in schools learn various cognitive skills, social skills, self-control, self-initiative, responsibility, and creativity and also
internalise the norms set by the society.
Schooling therefore, can transform a childs personality since children learn to become self-reliant.
(iii) Peer group
Development of self-identity is greatly facilitated by the peer group.
Children not only learn to assert their own point of view, but also accept and adapt to those of others.
They also acquire qualities like sharing, trust, mutual understanding, role acceptance and fulfilment.
The interaction is direct, therefore the socialisation is smooth.
(iv) Mass Media
Children learn about many things through television, newspaper, books and cinema. Adolescents and young adults often derive
their models from them.
Children learn to form their own opinions and ideas with interaction to mass media.
However, this agency may also promote anti-social aspects that have to be avoided by the individuals.

Question 9:

How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation? Explain.

Enculturation and socialisation can be distinguished in the following ways:

Enculturation

Socialisation

1
.

Enculturation is the learning that takes place

without direct, deliberate teaching.

i.

Socialisation is a deliberate process that takes place through agencies like family,
school, peer group and mass media.

2
.

Enculturation leads to acquisition of ideas, concepts

and values in a specific socio-cultural context.

ii.

Socialisation is a general process that helps in development of knowledge, skills

and dispositions that enable individuals to function effectively as members of the
society.

3
.

Enculturation takes place through observation.

iii
.

Socialisation takes place through interaction.

4
.

The effects of enculturation are visible in the

cultural behaviour of the individual.

iv.

The effects of socialisation are to condition the individual towards socially

accepted behaviour through rewards and punishment.

Question 10:
What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.
Acculturation refers to the cultural and psychological changes that result from contact with other cultures. This process can be direct, indirect,
voluntary or involuntary.
The smoothness of the process of acculturation depends upon the re-socialisation of the people, this is because
sometimes it is easy for people to learn new norms, values, dispositions and patterns of behaviour. Successful adaptation in such instances
leads to a smooth process of acculturation towards the group that is responsible for it. Contrary to this,
individuals also face difficulties while adopting new cultural traits and it results in a state of conflict.
This situation arises mostly when acculturation is involuntary and is painful as it leads to experience of stress and other behavioural
difficulties.
Question 11:
Discuss the acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of acculturation.

The acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of acculturation are as follows:
Integration: This is an attitude of maintaining ones own cultural traits and identity while staying in daily interaction with other
culture.
Assimilation: This is an attitude of quitting ones own culture and becoming part of another culture. It results in the loss of ones
culture and identity.

Separation: This attitude is of avoiding interaction with other culture and holding on to ones own culture and glorifying the cultural
identity.

Marginalisation: This attitude is of little interest in maintaining ones culture and little interest in having interaction with other
culture. People are indecisive about their actions and continue to stay with a lot of stress.

Question 1:

What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation?

Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly and predictable changes that originate at conception and continue to take place
throughout an individuals life. It is different from growth and maturation by the following features:
Growth

Development

1
.

Growth refers to an increase in the size of body parts or of

the organism as a whole.

i.

Development on the other hand refers to a larger process, which is in terms

of growth and maturation both.

2
.

Growth is measurable and quantified.

ii.

Development is not always measurable and quantified.

3
.

Any change that does not lead to the decline in age is

considered as growth.

iii
.

The change that leads to decline such as in old age is also considered as
development.

Maturation

Development

1
.

Maturation refers to the changes that follow an orderly sequence.

i.

Development does not necessarily refer to orderly

sequence.

2
.

Maturation is largely dictated by the genetic blueprint which produces

commonalities in the growth.

ii
.

Development need not to be identified with genetic

changes and growth.

Question 2:
Describe the main features of life-span perspective on development.
Answer :The main features of life-span perspective on development are as follows:

Development is a lifelong process that takes place across all age groups starting from conception to old age. It also includes the
interaction between gains and losses, which is dynamic.
The biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes of human development are interwoven in the development of a person
throughout the life-span.
Development is multi-directional as some dimensions or components of a given dimension of development may increase, while
others show a decrease.
Development is highly plastic since modifiability is found in psychological development within persons, though flexibility varies
among individuals.
Development is influenced by historical conditions.
A number of disciplines like psychology, anthropology, sociology and neuro-sciences are concerned with development.
The response and actions of individuals are related to contexts, which include the inherited traits, the physical environment, and
social, historical, and cultural contexts. These contexts vary among individuals.
Question 3:What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples.
Answer :Developmental tasks refer to a physical or cognitive skill that a person must accomplish during a particular age period to continue
development. A developmental task for infants is walking, which is followed by the development of a sense of autonomy in the toddler period.
In the adolescence period, some of the developmental tasks that the child faces are accepting ones physical body, learning to get along with
friends of both sexes, becoming self sufficient, preparing for job & career etc.
Question 4:
Environment of the child has a major role in the development of the child. Support your answer with examples.
Environment of the child has a major role in the development of the child because it includes the surroundings in which a child develops
various cognitive and motor skills. It also influences the physical development of the child according to the limits created by genetic
characteristics.
Further, the social-economic and cultural environment has a major role in the development of a childs thought process.
For example, a child who is sent to school is able to develop characteristics of confidence and self-reliance more easily than a child who
does not receive education.
In genetic terms, children having angry genetic disposition learn to calm down if they grow in a stable environment. Therefore, environment
plays a vital role in the development of a child, it not only develops a particular skill but influences the whole personality.

Question 5:
How do socio-cultural factors influence development?

Following are the socio-cultural influences on the development of an individual:

Socio-cultural factors influence development by providing it with a social context.

The various socio-cultural consequences that a child meets with are learnt by him/her and thus, a child develops a personality
which is influenced by his/her experiences.
The socio-cultural background of an individual has an impact over his/her interaction with the rest of the society.

The variable experiences of individuals during their development are dependent upon their social and cultural background.

These factors include the conditions at home, the quality of schooling and interaction with peer groups.

Children growing up in an unsupportive family environment find it hard to learn new things and make their own decisions. Children
who are exposed to diverse experiences early in life develop a confident attitude and are more able to face challenges.
Question 6:
Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child.

The cognitive changes that take place in a developing child are as follows:
0-2 years: This is the age of sensory motors whereby, infant explores the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical
actions.

2-7 years: In this age, Preoperational thinking begins and the child acquires the concept of object permanence that enables
him/her to use mental symbols to represent objects. The child does not have the ability to judge or assume the consequences of actions

before performing them.

The child also acquires preoperational thought, i.e., s/he gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not physically
present.

The children are egocentric and develop animist thought

4-7 years: Children develop intuitive thought. This enables them to question the things happening around them.

7-11 years: This age is marked by the development of concrete operational thought, whereby a logical thought is developed and

the child can reason logically about concrete events, classify objects into sets and perform reversible mathematical operations.
11-15 years: The adolescents in this age develop formal operational thought, which leads to a hypothetical thinking and are able
to apply logic abstractly. They also develop a special kind of egocentrism of imaginary audience and personal fable.
Question 7:

Attachment bonds formed in childhood years have long-term effects. Explain taking examples from dailylife.

Answer :

Attachment bonds formed in childhood years have long-term effects because it is notably developed between the parents and
children. These bonds determine the level of trust and the perception of the world during the formative years of a child. For
example, a child growing up in a secure family with sensitive, responsive and affectionate parents is able to trust them. The child
is also able to share important decisions with them like the choice of career and marriage. On the other hand, a child whose
parents are not responsive to his/her emotional needs would not be able to communicate with them as freely. This pattern may
continue throughout his/her life. Furthermore, problems of juvenile delinquency are often related to the lack of attachment of an

individual towards his/her parents.

Thus, a family which provides love and support to gives rise to a pleasing personality in the child, whereas a family that does not

inculcate these ideals lead to an aggressive and disturbed personality of the child.
Question 8:
What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism.
Adolescenceis commonly defined as the stage of life that begins at the onset of puberty, when sexual maturity or the ability to reproduce is
attained. It is a transitional period in a persons life between childhood and adulthood. It is marked by rapid biological and psychological
change in the individual. It starts at approximately 11 to 12 years of age and ends at 18 to 20 years of age.
The concept of egocentrism deals with self focus. It is a viewpoint of the world that is centred upon the self. It hinders an appreciation of the
viewpoint of others. This kind of an attitude develops within a child from his/her childhood stage. However, it differs during adolescence. The

egocentrism in adolescents comprises the following two elements:

Imaginary audience It is the adolescents belief that others are as preoccupied about them as they are about themselves. They
think that people are always noticing them and observing their behaviour, hence, it leads to self-consciousness.
Personal fable The adolescents sense of uniqueness makes them feel that no one understands them or their feelings.
Question 9:
What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence? Support your answer with examples.
The factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence are as follows:

Cultural background: The ideas and opinions of adolescents about the world around them are shaped by their cultural
background and the level of their exposure. These determine the norms followed by them and hence, their cultural identity. For example,

adolescent behaviour varies among Indian and American cultures.

Family and societal values: The values of the society inhabited by an adolescent shape their identity. For example, teenagers in

USA are conditioned to a materialistic society in contrast to young adults in Tibet who are more spiritually inclined.
Ethnic background: Adolescents distinguish themselves as members of their ethnic group thus framing their own identity. For

example, expectations of teenage behaviour and responsibilities vary across different ethnicities and tribes.
Socio-economic status: The socio-economic background of an adolescent determines the peer group and the extent of their
accessibility to popular lifestyle choices that determine identity. For example, accessibility to expensive gadgets and branded clothing that

are popular among teenagers are determined by their socio-economic background.

Vocational commitment: Adolescents begin to think of their career as a component of their identity. For example, adolescents
choose whether to study science or commerce.
Question 10:
What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood?
The challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood are as follows:

(i) Career and work

The adult gets a new role responsibility at work.

S/he has to adjust with new challenging situations.

There are apprehensions regarding different adjustments, proving ones competence and coping with expectations of both
employers and self.

(ii) Marriage
Adults

have to make adjustments while entering a marriage relation and to know their spouse, coping with each others likes, dislikes,

tastes and choices.

Responsibilities of home have to be shared if both partners are working.

(iii) Parenthood
It is a difficult and stressful transition in young adults.

It depends on factors such as number of children in the family, the availability of social support and the happiness and
unhappiness of the couple.
Sometimes single parents have to take the responsibility of bringing up the child.
Question 1:Explain the functional limitations of sense organs.
The functional limitations of sense organs of human beings refer to their limited range of stimulation. In order to be noticed, a stimulus has to
be of an optimal intensity and magnitude. Thus, the stimulus has to carry a minimum value or weight. For example, our ears cannot hear very
faint or loud sounds. Similarly, our eyes cannot see objects in very dim or very bright light.
Question 2:
What is meant by light and dark adaptation? How do they take place?
Light adaptation is the process of adjusting to bright light after exposure to dim light. This process often takes a minute or two to be
completed. Dark adaptation, on the other hand, refers to the process of adjusting to dim light after exposure to bright light. It may take half an
hour or longer depending upon the level of exposure.
Light and dark adaptation takes place due to photochemical processes. Light adaptation takes place when the molecules of rhodopsin or
visual purple in the rods of the eye get bleached or broken down, as a result of the action of light. Dark adaptation takes place when the light
is removed allowing for restorative processes that regenerate the pigment in the rods with the help of vitamin A.
Question 3:
What is colour vision and what are the dimensions of colour?
Colour vision is the ability of the eyes to see and distinguish between colours based upon their varying wavelengths in the visible spectrum of
light. The vision of colours depends on the visible spectrum, which includes the range of energy detected by the photoreceptors. Further, the
colours are a psychological property of human sensory experience. They are created by the interpretation of the information received by the
brain.
The dimensions of colour are as follows:
(i) Hue It is a property of chromatic colours. Hue varies with wavelength and each colour carries a specific wavelength. Achromatic colours
like black, white and grey do not have hues.

(ii) Saturation It is a psychological attribute that refers to the relative amount of hue of a surface or object. The light of a single wavelength
appears to be saturated, while the mixtures of different wavelengths cause decrease in saturation.
(iii) Brightness It refers to the perceived intensity of light and varies across both chromatic and achromatic colours. White is the brightest
colour, whereas black is the least bright colour.
Question 4:
How does auditory sensation take place?
Auditory sensation takes place when sound enters the ear and stimulates the chief organs of hearing. This involves the production of cyclical
displacements of molecules in the air. Auditory sensation refers to a subjective hearing of something, and audition is an important sense
modality, as it provides spatial information and plays an important role in spoken communication.
Question 5:
Define attention. Explain its properties.
Attention refers to the process through which certain stimuli are selected from a group of others. It requires an allocation of effort. The objects
that are at the centre are the focus of attention while objects that are away from the centre are at the fringe.
Attention has following properties:
(i) Alertness: It refers to the individuals readiness to deal with stimulus that they experience. For instance, the situations where people are
alert while crossing the road in order to avoid mishaps.
(ii) Concentration: It refers to the focus of awareness on specific objects while excluding others in that period of time. For instance, the
executives in a meeting concentrate upon their work while ignoring other activities outside.
(iii) Search: It takes place when an observer looks for specific subset of objects among a set of objects. For example, the historians search
for sites to gain information about events within a particular time period.
(iv) Selection: It refers to the focus of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, upon which the attention is gained.
Question 6:
State the determinants of selective attention. How does selective attention differ from sustained attention?
The determinants of selective attention are following:
(i) The external factors: These are the features of stimuli such as size, intensity, shape etc.

(ii) The internal factors: These are present within the individual and can be divided into motivational factors and cognitive factors.
Motivational factors represent our biological and social needs. Instances of the same are the drivers strictly following all the traffic
rules.

Cognitive factors represent interests, attitude and preparatory set. For instance, an average teenager would be more interested in
watching a cricket match than reading a novel.
Selective attention differs from sustained attention as sustained attention is primarily concerned with concentration and refers to the ability to
maintain attention on an object for even for long duration. Contrary to this, selective attention is related to the selection of a limited number of
stimuli from a larger group of stimuli.
Question 7:
What is the main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the visual field?
The main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the visual field is that humans perceive different stimuli as an
organised whole, which carries a definite form. According to them, the form of object lies in its whole that is different from the discrete parts.
The Gestalt psychologist also believes that human perceive everything in an organised form because of the orientation of cerebral processes
towards a pragnanz.
Question 8:
How does perception of space take place?
Space is perceived in three dimensions. This is because of the ability to transfer a two-dimensional retinal vision into a three dimensional
perception. Spatial attributes of objects like size, shape and direction, and the distance between objects also contribute towards the
perception of space. While the images of objects projected on the retina are flat and two dimensional, it is possible to perceive them in three
dimensions by transferring the two-dimensional retinal vision into a three-dimensional perception.
Question 9:
What are the monocular cues of depth perception? Explain the role of binocular cues in the perception of depth?
The monocular cues of depth perception induce depth in objects when viewed through a single eye. They are also known as pictorial cues as
they are used by artists to induce depth in two dimensional paintings. Important monocular cues are relative size and height, interposition,
linear and aerial perspective, light and shade, texture gradient and motion parallax.

The binocular cues of depth perception are provided by both the eyes in three dimensional spaces. Their role in the perception of depth are
as follows:
(i) Retinal or Binocular disparity: It occurs when the two eyes have different locations in the head and are separated horizontally with a
difference of 6.5 centimetres. The difference in the images formed by the eyes is due to retinal disparity. Large retinal disparity means a close
object and small retinal disparity means a distant object.
(ii) Convergence: When the eyes converge inward to bring the image on the fovea of each eye, a group of muscles send messages to the
brain which are interpreted as cues to the perception of depth. The degree of convergence decreases with increase in distance of the object.
(iii) Accommodation: It is the process through which image is focussed on the retina with the help of ciliary muscle. These muscles change
the thickness of the eye lens. The degree of contraction of the muscles provides a cue to distance. The muscles relax when the object is
distant and contract when the object is near.
Question 10:
Why do illusions occur?
Illusions occur because of a result of a mismatch between the physical stimuli and its perception by the individual. The mismatch is caused
by incorrect interpretation of information received by sensory organs. Illusions are called primitive organisations as they are generated by an
external stimulus situation that generates the same kind of experience in all the individuals. Some illusions are universal in nature as they are
found in all individuals. They are also known as universal illusions or permanent illusions because they do not change with experience and
practice. Contrary to this, illusions that vary in different individuals are known as personal illusions.
Question 11:
How do socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions?
Socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions by generating differential familiarity and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of
perception. People living in different cultural settings have varying perceptions like identification of objects and interpretation of depth. For
example, in the study carried out by psychologists in Africa and Europe, it was observed that the Africans have greater susceptibility to
horizontal-vertical illusions as they live in dense forests and regularly experience verticality which overestimated.
Europeans on the other hand, have greater susceptibility to Muller-Lyer illusion as they live in an environment that has right angles. Hence,
they underestimate the length of lines characterised by enclosure.