133

NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF VISCOUS FLOW THROUGH A

PIPE ORIFICE AT LOW REYNOLDS NUMBERS
By R. D. Mills*
Numerical solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations have been obtained in the low range
of Reynolds numbers for steady, axially symmetric, viscous, incompressible fluid flow
through an orifice in a circular pipe with a fixed orificelpipe diameter ratio. Streamline
patterns and vorticity contours are presented as functions of Rcynolds number. The
theoretically determined discharge coefficients are in good agreement with experimental
results of Johansen (2).

INTRODUCTION

has long been used as a device for

measuring flow-rates in pipes. Various specifications of
orifice shape and positions of the pressure tappings have
been put forward as standard (e.g. reference (r)t).
The most convenient for theoretical investigation is the
orifice with corner tappings since this allows different
diameter orifices to be compared on the basis of Reynolds
number in any given pipe. At high Reynolds numbers with
fully developed turbulent flow the coefficient of discharge
of the pipe orifice is well-established experimentally to be
nearly constant. However, at low Reynolds numbers under
conditions of viscous flow appreciable variation in the
value of this coefficient has been observed (e.g. reference
(2)). This is due to the marked dependence of the flow on
Reynolds number at low values of this parameter.
It has therefore been the purpose of the present paper
to investigate theoretically the nature of the flow through
an orifice of simple geometrical shape at low Reynolds
numbers. Streamline patterns and contours of constant
vorticity have been obtained as functions of Reynolds
number. The calculated discharge coefficients are in good
agreement with experimental results of Johansen (2) for
an orifice having corner tappings, even with the differences
in geometry which had to be permitted to render the
problem tractable from the computational point of view.
(The orifice used by Johansen was bevelled by 45 on its
downstream face, whereas the present calculations refer
to a square-edged orifice.)
It has thus been necessary to solve the Navier-Stokes
equations numerically in the low to intermediate range of
Reynolds numbers for axially symmetric, incompressible,
THE PLATE ORIFICE

viscous flow. The foundations of this type of work were

laid nearly 40 years ago by Thom (3). Considerable
attention is currently being given to this type of problem,
including time-dependent flows. Comparatively little
work, however, has been done for axially symmetric flow
even in the time-steady case, despite the importance of
such flows in engineering applications. The first numerical
solution for axially symmetric flow was that for creeping
flow through a sudden expansion in a pipe, given by
Thom (4) in 1932. Later work on flow with axial symmetry has been reported by Jensen ( 5 ) and Lester (6).
The method of solution employed is the two-field
method of Thom: replacement of the fourth-order nonlinear partial differential equation for the stream function
# by two second-order simultaneous equations for 4 and
the vorticity 7; these equations are then replaced by their
simplest finite difference equivalents. In the case of twodimensional flow, this coupled pair of finite difference
equations is now well known to exhibit superior convergence properties compared with finite difference forms of
the original fourth-order equation when iterative methods
are employed for their solution; moreover, the boundary
conditions are more easily treated in rhis formulation of
the problem. There is little doubt that similar conclusions
hold for flow with axial symmetry.

Notation
4

CLi

curl

d
The M S . of this paper was received at the Institution orz 16th
October 1967undaccepted for publication on2Yth hrovember 1967. 2
* Engineering Luborutory, Cambridge University.
f R e f m w e s are given in the Appendix.

grad
H
h

Radius and diameter of pipe (Fig. l}.

Coefficient of discharge of orifice (equations (19), (20)).
Vector curl.
Diameter or orifice (Fig. 1).
Vector gradient.
p+9pqz, total head.
Finite difference mesh width.
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R. D. MILLS

134

L,

P
Po

GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Characteristic length and velocity.

Static pressure of fluid.
Upstream pressure at section AC in
Poiseuille flow (Fig. 1 and equation

In the usual notation the equation of steady, viscous, incompressible fluid flow is
(q.V)q = --gradp+vVf2q
1

(21)).

Volumetric discharge rate.

q = (u, u, w ) Velocity vector.
Re
w,a/v, Reynolds number based on pipe
radius and maximum pipe speed (Fig. 1).
Reo
G0d/v, Reynolds number based on orifice
diameter and mean speed ?I, through
orifice (as used by Johansen (2)).
Cylindrical polar co-ordinates.
rJ 8J
t
Time.
= ( 8 , b 51 Vorticity vector.
Viscosity coefficient of fluid.
P
V
Kinematic viscosity coefficient of fluid.
Density of fluid.
P
Stokes stream function.
0 2
Laplacian operator.
Scalar product.
Vector product.
X

Number of iterations.

(q.?)q = -ggradp+-Vq
Re

(2)

where the Reynolds number of the motion is Re = UL/v.

Take cylindrical polar co-ordinates (r, 0, z) with velocity
components (u, v, w ) and vorticity components (t,7, 5).
Identify L with the pipe radius a and U with the maximum
velocity w, in Poiseuille flow (Fig. 1). The full nondimensional scheme is then

r = r/a z = zia h = h/a u = uiw, etc.

= f/w,a2
.$ = .$a/w, etc. p = p/pwm2

(3)

Subscripts

i,i

where q is the velocity vector, p is the static pressure, p

the density, v = p i p the kinematic viscosity coefficient of
the fluid, and primes signify dimensional quantities. If the
variables and operators are made dimensionless with
respect to a representative length L and velocity U, then
equation (1) becomes in dimensionless form

whereupon the Reynolds number is defined naturally as

Re = w,a/v; h is the mesh width. Henceforth all unprimed quantities are dimensionless.
For motion with symmetry about the z-axis the velocity
and vorticity vectors reduce to q = (u, 0, w ) and =
(0, 7, 0) respectively where

Superscript

(1)

Refer to location of mesh points in the

usual sense of matrix notation.

au aw

G-5

N.B. Field variables, operators and the mesh width are

made dimensionless according to the scheme of
equation (3). Primed quantities are dimensional and
unprimed quantities dimensionless.

. . .

(4)

If the Stokes stream function # is introduced by

Fig. 1
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NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF VISCOUS FLOW THROUGH A PIPE ORIFICE AT LOW REYNOLDS NUMBERS

then the equation of continuity,

L'u aw u
-+-+-=o
ar az r

of notation these equations are identical with those given

by Lester (p. 5, reference (6)).
.

.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

is satisfied automatically, and it can be shown (by taking

the 'curl' of both sides of equation (2) thereby eliminating
the pressure) that the equations of motion reduce to the
pair of simultaneous equations

T o satisfy the condition of no slip at solid walls the

normal and tangential gradients of $ must vanish at these
boundaries. The tangential conditions are satisfied by
setting = constant along these boundaries. Special
boundary formulae have to be developed, however, for
the normal conditions. I n view of the axi-symmetric
nature of the flow it is no longer possible to use the same
boundary formulae for both vertical and horizontal walls
as can be done for two-dimensional flow referred to a
rectangular co-ordinate system. Each direction must be
treated separately, or more generally, as Thom and Lester
have done, by considering a boundary wall at inclination.
Essentially, they expand both and 7 in Taylor series
about their boundary values at the wall and utilize the
governing equations to provide expressions for the higher
order derivatives. I t will suffice here to quote the results;
for a full derivation the reader is referred to Lester's
paper (6).

(7)
1c*aq

r i.z Cr

135

la*&]
r 8 r t k r2 Cz,

. .
Expression of equation (2) in the form
1
q x q = grad(p+:q2)+zcur11;

(8)

. (9)

and resolution of components in the r and z directions

leads to the following two integrals relating to the total
head H = p++q2:

2(*~~I,~-~~,J)-~2*l~]~~l,~
r1171.3. 1

h hZ
r, 43":

horizontal wall (15)

2F--Once the functions I/ and 7 have been calculated equations

(10) and (11) allow the pressure at any point in the flow to
be determined relative to some datum.
FINITE DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

A portion of the square mesh used for the finite difference

scheme is shown in Fig. 1. Mesh points on the solid
boundaries will be referred to as boundary nodes and the
others as field nodes. By use of the simplest centraldifference formulae the stream function and vorticity
equations (7) and (8) can be written in the following
iterated forms:
*:., = ~1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l + ~ ~ - l * ~ + ~ ~ . ~ - l

h
(#:2r,

--

1.1

-#FF1'.J>-h"t?lk

'1

(12)

where k is the iteration number. Apart from a difference

(upper sign = 'outer' wall, lower sign = 'inner' wall)

3
172.1 = 7
(*~,~~1-***,)-~17~.~*1 vertical walls *
(14)
r,h
Equations (15) and (16) are accurate to order h3; equation
(15) is in fact exact for Poiseuille flow, as can easily be
checked. These boundary values are determined by
iteration as the solution proceeds.
The boundary conditions are such that a parabolic
velocity distribution is prescribed at a section AC a short
distance upstream of the orifice and also again 'far downstream' at section BE (Fig. 1). I n reality the downstream
reversion to Poiseuille flow at low Reynolds numbers is
achieved in an asymptotic manner (as also is the change
~ ~ ~ ~ . ,
upstream). For these numerical computations, however,
the author adopted the following approach: take the section at a position which seems sufficiently far downstream
physically (actually, some guide in this matter can be
obtained from a study of the photographs in reference (2));
then repeat the calculations at a sectionfarther downstream;
if no change in the eddy structure at the orifice is observed
then the first position is regarded as 'sufficiently far downstream'. This sort of downstream boundary condition of
course becomes invalidated at high Reynolds numbers
when ultimately turbulence sets in.
The sharp intruding corners at F, G (Fig. 1) were
treated in the manner suggested by Thom. There are
assumed to be two values of the vorticity at the boundary
nodes F, G . These are calculated from equations (15),
(16) utilizing the values of the vorticity at K, N and at

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R. D. MILLS

136

My S respectively. When the 'diamond' in the iteration

process is centred on K, M then the first pair of values of
the vorticity is used and when centred on N, S the second
pair of values is used. I n this way the effects of the corners
are forced to spread into the fluid in both the Y and z
directions-as must occur physically when the fluid
'passes round the corners'.
ITERATION TECHNIQUE

The iterative routine used to solve the system of equations

(12) and (13) and boundary conditions (15) and (16) was in
the main the basic technique used by Thom (p. 115, reference (7)). Many variants are possible but the present
author has found that a single iteration of the +field, setting
the boundary values by equations (15) and (16), followedby
asingleiterationof the 7-field was the most satisfactory (8).
Generally, the boundary values of vorticity were given one
half their 'theoretical' movements in each iteration. T o
start the solution it is necessary to have a guessed or trial
solution at each node. This author started simply with
all field nodal values zero and the boundary nodes given
their Poiseuille flow values. Once the solution was obtained for a given Reynolds number, then this was used
as the starting solution for the next higher value of Re.
This seems a satisfactory enough procedure, though other
workers in this field have found that greater stability
(leading to a higher attainable Reynolds number) can be
obtained by taking into account the aji't terms in the equations, and stepping on from a solution at time t to one at
time t + & by one of the standard procedures for diffusion
problems (e.g. references (9) and (10)).

Stability and convergence

Thom and Apelt (Ir) have studied the effect of introducing a small disturbance into a two-dimensional vorticity
field. They have shown for a square cell that the disturbance will not grow in magnitude provided

<

h'/L %@]Re
. . . (17)
where L is the characteristic length of the problem.
Lester (12)and Mills (8) have generalized this work to
include a rectangular cell, Lester considering also the
effect of introducing a disturbance into the $-field. Lester
concludes that a stability criterion based on the latter field
is less stringent than on the vorticity field. Lester also gives
procedures for obtaining 'optimum' convergence. It has
not yet proved possible to derive a similar simple criterion
for axi-symmetric flow, but it has been found that condition (17) does in practice give some indication as to when
divergence is likely to occur. It may be worth observing
here that Fromm (13) has given a stability analysis of the
full time-dependent equations, showing that simultaneous
with a condition like (17) St'lh'2 Q 1/4v must hold.
The following two empirical criteria were utilized for
terminating the iteration process

where
and irirnl are the largest values of 4 and 71
occurring in the undisturbed Poiseuille flow. The fields
were given 20 iterations and then tested every subsequent
10 iterations.
VERIFICATION O F THE METHOD

As a check of the above methods tests were made on

Poiseuille flow in a circular pipe. Mathematically this flow
represents an exact solution of the Navier-Stokes equations
for arbitrary Reynolds number, though physically the
transition to turbulence begins at a Reynolds number
based on mean speed and pipe diameter of about 2300.
Two different starting solutions were used: in the first the
field values were set equal to zero, and in the second
starting values appropriate to a linear velocity profile were
used. A 'square' section was used for each test, that is,
equal numbers of i- and j-steps were taken. The results
quoted refer to the mid-plane.
A study of Table 1 will show that there is some advantage
to be gained by starting with a closer approximation to the
ultimate solution when using the smaller mesh. As a
further investigation, it might be worth while applying the
extrapolation and empirical error tests utilized by the
author in reference (14)in connection with the boundary
layer equations.
V I S C O U S F L O W THROUGH A
S Q U A R E - E D G E D ORIFICE

The computational method outlined above was used to

determine solutions of steady, incompressible, viscous,
axi-symmetric flow through a square-edged orifice in a
circular pipe. A mesh of width h' = a116 was used, this
being sufficiently small for resolving the details of the flow
in the corners, while the orifice wall was made one mesh
width in thickness (Fig. 1). The resulting flow patterns
are depicted in Figs 2-6 for Reynolds numbers Re, = 0-50
and fixed diameter ratio d / D = 0.5. Also presented in these
figures are the contours of constant vorticity. (For comparison purposes, the Reynolds number used by Johansen,
Reo, is occasionally used instead of the present Reynolds
number Re. For d / D = 0.5, Re, = 2Re.)
Fig. 2 shows that even for the 'creeping' (Re = 0)
motion two corner eddies exist upstream and downstream
of the orifice. As the equations of motion for Re = 0 are
symmetrical in z (equations (7), (8)) the solution should
show symmetry about the mid-plane of the orifice. This is
confirmed in the computational solution, with its nearperfect symmetry (Fig. 2). It is thus immaterial whether
the flow is from left to right or vice versa at Re = 0. This
condition will never actually be realized in practice though
creeping motion is possible with Re arbitrarily near to zero.
As the Reynolds number is increased (Figs 3-6) the
downstream eddy lengthens and increases in size. Simultaneously with this process the upstream eddy shrinks in
size and at Re, = 50 it is very small indeed. Note also the
characteristic stretching of the vorticity contours in the
direction of motion as the Reynolds number increases.
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137

NUMEKICAI, SOLUTIONS OF VISCOUS FLOW THROUGH A PIPE ORIFICE AT LOW REYNOLDS NUMBERS

Table 1. Numerical solution of Poiseuille flow in a circular p$e

(I) Zero field values as starting solution.
(11) Field values corresponding to a linear velocity profile as starting solution.
7

0.25

100
50
100

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-0.030790
-0.030528
-0.029560
-0-030441
-0'030400
-0.030540
-0.028097
-0.030277

-0.110
-0.109
-0.108
-0.109
-0-109
-0.109
-0.104
-0.109

20
50
50
100
20
50
50
100

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-0.030 606
-0.030528
-0'031 226
-0.030 342
-0.030616
-0.030540
-0.031 036
-0.030 359

-0.030273

1ih
16
16
8
8
16
16

Re
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20

8
8
16
16
8
8
16
16

10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20

8
8

k
20
100

50
100
20

Exact

0-75

050

1.oo

$-values
-0.202
-0.202
-0.202
-0.202
-0.202
-0.202
-0.199
-0.202

992
381
482
388
254
402
431
141

-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250

000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000

-0.109 935
-0.109 747
-0.1 11 609
-0.109 477
-0.109 967
-0.109 776
-0.111 160
-0.109 524

-0.202 469
-0.202 381
-0.203 520
-0.202 197
-0.202 512
-0.202 403
-0'203 236
-0.202 235

-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250
-0.250

000
000
000
000
000
000
000

-0.109 375

-0.202 148

-0.250 000

492
747
316
739
448
776
324
342

000

?-values
20
100
50
100
20

16

I0
10
10
I0
20
20
20
20

8
8
16
16
8
8
16
16

10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20

20
50
50
100
20
50
50
100

16
16
8
8
16

100

50
100

Exact

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0506 089
0.499 344
0,576 993
0.501 253
0.501 131
0.500 547
0.499 132
0.500 113

1.007 39 1
0.997 059
1.157 902
0.999 953
1.003 136
0.998 756
1.042 35 1
1.000 845

1.487 303
1.492 019
1.643 015
1-493330
1,503 257
1.492 660
1.635 715
1.501 477

1.939 197
1.984 150
1.894 199
1.985 105
1.982 480
1.982 723
2.084 726
1.997 151

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0-496 611
0.499 345
0-499 841
0.498 926
0.500 467
0500 547
0502 419
0.500 154

0.990 094
0.997 062
0.983 419
0.997 291
0.997 152
0.998 755
0,992 121
0.999 246

1.482 477
1.492 021
1.446 749
1.496 033
1.487 464
1.492 660
1.460 389
1.496 630

1.984 138
1.984 148
1.936 452
1.996 959
1.979 045
1.982 723
1.950 342
1.994 365

0-500 000

1.ooo 000

1500 000

2.000 000

q= 0

16

Fig. 2. Streamlines and vorticity contours: Re, = 0

Fig. 3. Streamlines and vorticity contours: Re,, = 5

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R. D. MILLS

138

Fig. 4. Streamlines and vorticity contours: Re, = 10

Fig. 5. Streanzlines and vorticity contours: Re, = 20

Fig. 6. Streamlines and vorticity comours: Re, = 50

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NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF VISCOUS FLOW THROUGH A PIPE ORIFICE AT LOW REYNOLDS NUMBERS

139

Pressure calculations
The usual relationship for the discharge of an incompressible fluid through a pipe orifice is

where Q is the volumetric rate of flow, C, the coefficient

of discharge and p,-p, is the pressure drop across the
orifice. I n general the coefficient of discharge is a function
of Reynolds number, diameter ratio d / D , and orifice
geometry. The pressure drop p , -p, was calculated from
equations (10) and (11) for each Reynolds number and the
coefficient of discharge determined from

0.5

Theory

Experimental results
f r o m reference ;2)
I

dRec

since Qr = ~Ll*z&3and p,-p, = (p1-p,)pwrn2, The

positions of the pressure points used for this calculation
and the path of integration (broken line) are shown in
Fig. 1. Integration along lines containing an even number
of mesh widths was performed with Simpsons rule while
Gregorys formula was used for the other lines. The pressure drop was recalculated in each case using a neighbouring path; this not only provided an immediate check
but also a more general one on the results as a whole for
the pressure changes between any two points in the field
are independent of the path linking them. The results of
these calculations are shown quantitatively in Table 2, and
graphically in Fig. 7 alongside the experimental results of
Johansen (2).
So that the creeping flow results obtain in the limit
Table 2

0
2.5
25.0

Fig. 7 . CoefJicient of discharge as a function of Reynolds

number

Re 3 0, Re(p, -p2) was evaluated rather than ( p , -p2) in

equations (10) and (1 1). This means Cd12/Re is logically
evaluated in equation (20). (For the justification of this in
exlensu see reference (IS), p. 168.) The first item in Table 2
can be expected to hold in a small neighbourhood of
Re = 0. It is seen that at low Reynolds numbers the
coefficient of discharge is very nearly proportional t o the
square root of the Reynolds number, a result confirmed
by Johansens experiments for a wide range of d / D ratios.
I n Fig. 8 are shown the axial pressure distributions as
functions of Reynolds number, calculated from equation
(11). Some care is needed in evaluating 87jar and
numerically on the axis, for 7 + 0 as r + 0 (see reference
(6) for details). Also shown for comparison is the linear
pressure drop of Poiseuille flow

0-220
0.216

0.207
0.184
0.138

Note that the pressure distribution correctly becomes

parallel to this line downstream of the orifice. Once again,
Re(p-p,) has been evaluated rather than (p-p,) so that
the Stokes creeping flow results are obtained as Re + 0.

Fig. 8. Axial pressure distributions as functions of Reynolds number

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The pressure minima which begin to appear just downstream of the orifice at about Re = 5 are evidently associated with the gradual appearance, as Re increases, of
significant kinetic energy in the flow along the axis. The
pressure drop across the orifice, viewed as a device
incurring a loss of head, can be determined from Fig. 8.
CONCLUSIONS

Numerical solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations have

been obtained for axi-symmetric, viscous, incompressible
flow through a square-edged orifice in a circular pipe for
Reynolds numbers Re,, = 0-50 and fixed diameter ratio
d / D = 0.5. It has been found that there are two eddies
symmetrically located upstream and downstream of the
orifice for Re,, = 0 (creeping flow). As the Reynolds
number increases the downstream eddy lengthens while
the upstream eddy shrinks in size and become almost
imperceptible at Re,, = 50.
T h e phenomenon of eddy-lengthening with increase of
Reynolds number is well known for other physical situations, e.g. the flow behind spheres ( 5 ) or backward-facing
steps. It is difficult to give a simple physical explanation of
this phenomenon. However, in the present case it must
originally be connected with the shedding of vorticity
from the sharp corners of the orifice. Ultimately, a vortex
sheet arrives at the pipe wall which has insufficient convective speed to enable it to proceed downstream against
the counterflow effect of the vorticity itself at the wall. A
backward flow is induced at the walls and this leads in turn
to a closed recirculating region in which both diffusion and
convection of vorticity occur. As the Reynolds number
increases and convection of vorticity becomes more
important than diffusion this limiting vortex sheet is
carried farther and farther downstream and so the eddy
lengthens.
I n all these cases, at a certain critical Reynolds number,
laminar flow breaks down into periodic eddy shedding
( K i r m h vortex street, in two dimensions) and ultimately
turbulence sets in. The critical Reynolds number in the
present case must depend on the diameter ratio d / D and
also on the detailed geometry of the orifice. Johansens
experimental results indicate that periodic flow does not
occur below the value Re,, = 150.
No solutions were attempted by the present methods
for Reynolds numbers Re,, in excess of 50 for the following
reasons. I t is extremely difficult to disentangle the effects
of instability in the numerical procedure used to solve the
finite difference forms of the equations of motion and
boundary conditions and the hydrodynamic instability to
small disturbances of the equations of motion themselves;
and to ascertain to what extent these are associated with
the actual physical instability. Furthermore, it is now known
that stable solutions obtained at high Reynolds numbers
by finite difference methods can stem from truncation
error in the finite difference representations of the convective terms. The truncation error, which increases with
the mesh width, gives rise to an enhanced viscosity, i.e.
stabilizing, term. These high Reynolds number solutions

are thus open to question as strict solutions of the viscous

flow equations.
The discharge coefficients calculated by the present
methods show good agreement with the values obtained
experimentally by Johansen even though there was not a
complete similarity in regard to orifice geometry and
location of pressure tappings. Thus it seems that at low
Reynolds number these considerations are not soimportant
as the Reynolds number itself in determining the flow
characteristics. It might be worth while doing some further
theoretical work on different orifice geometries to confirm
this (including different d / D ratios), though the handling
of the boundary conditions would then present rather
greater difficulties.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges the receipt of the

necessary computer time for this investigation on the
Science Research Council Atlas computer, Harwell, and
on the Cambridge University Titan computer. He would
like also to thank D r L. C. Squire for reading the
manuscript critically. This work was made possible by the
award of an I.C.I. Fellowship.
APPENDIX
REFERENCES

Part 1: 1964. Methods for the measurement of

fluid flow in pipes. Part 1: Orifice plates, nozzles and
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Vol I0 No 2 1968

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