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Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines-Diliman
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Definition
The correspondence between points in space and the set of all ordered
triples (x, y, z) of real numbers is called the 3-dimensional rectangular
coordinate system or Cartesian Space, and is commonly denoted by R3 .
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Coordinate Axes
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Example
Locate the following points in space.
1
A : (4, 3, 5)
B : (3, 2, 6)
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Distance Formula
q
(x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2
while in R3 , we have
Theorem (Distance Formula)
The distance of between the points P1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
d(P1 , P2 ) =
q
(x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 + (z1 z2 )2
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Example
=
=
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Midpoint Formula
In R2 , the midpoint of the line segment connecting P1 = (x1 , y1 ) with
P2 = (x2 , y2 ) is given by
M=
x +x y +y
1
2
1
2
,
2
2
In R3 , we have
Theorem (Midpoint Formula)
The midpoint M of the line segment connecting the points P1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 )
and P2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
M=
x +x y +y z +z
1
2
1
2
1
2
,
,
2
2
2
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Example
4 + 2 5 7 1 3
,
,
M=
= (3, 6, 1)
2
2
2
3 5 2 + 2 9 7
,
,
M=
= (1, 0, 1)
2
2
2
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Spheres
Definition
A sphere is the set of all points P(x, y, z) whose distance from the point C is
r > 0. The point C is called the center of the sphere, and r its radius.
Thus,
d(P, C) = r
r2
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Spheres
Equation of a Sphere
The equation of the sphere centered at C(h, k, l) with radius r is given by
(x h)2 + (y k)2 + (z l)2 = r 2
Specifically, the sphere centered at the origin with radius r has equation
x2 + y 2 + z2 = r 2
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Examples
Solution:
The radius of the sphere is 4, which is half of the diameter.
Hence it equation is
(x 3)2 + (y 1)2 + (z + 5)2 = 16
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Examples
Solution:
By completing the squares, we have
(x2 4x + 4) + (y 2 + 2y + 1) + (z2 + 6z + 9)
11 + 4 + 1 + 9
25
(x 2) + (y + 1) + (z + 3)
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Examples
Solution:
The radius r of this sphere is given by the distance between the points A
and B, i.e.,
p
r = d(A, B) = (3 1)2 + (5 0)2 + (1 (1))2
p
p
=
4 + 25 + 4 = 33
Hence, this sphere will have an equation
(x 3)2 + (y + 5)2 + (z 1)2 = 33
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Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Examples
are displacement, velocity, force, etc.
z
(a, b, c)
~v
y
b
A vector is:
Remark
1
~
u
~v
y
On that note, we can define a vector from an initial point to another point.
Remark
4
Let~v be the vector from the point P(a, b, c) going to the point Q(d, e, f ),
Q(d, e, f )
P(a, b, c)
PQ
Remark
5
If the third component of~v is zero, then we can think of~v as a vector
in the xy-plane.
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Example
1
0 4, 0 1, 0 (3)
4, 1, 3
The vector from the point (2, 5, 1) to the point (0, 2, 4) is given by
~v
0 2, 2 (5), 4 1
2, 7, 5
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Norm of a Vector
Definition
The magnitude (or length) of the vector~v = a, b, c, called its norm, is
given by
p
k~vk =
a2 + b2 + c2
Note
A vectors norm is always non-negative, i.e., k~vk 0
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Example
Find the magnitude of the following vectors.
1
3, 5, 8
1 3 5
, ,
2 2 2
1
2
1
p , p , p
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Solutions:
1
p
p
k3, 5, 8k = 9 + 25 + 64 = 98
p
r
1 3 5
1 9 25
35
2, 2,2 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 2
1
4
1 p
p1 , p2 , p1 =
+
+ = 1=1
10
10
2
10 10 2
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Remarks
1
Note
The zero vector is the only vector that has zero magnitude and no specific
direction.
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Directional Angles
The direction angles of a nonzero vector~v are the angles , , and (in the
interval [0, ]) that it makes with the positive x, y, and z-axes.
The cosines of these direction angles, , , and are called the directional
cosines of the vector~v.
So for~v = a, b, c, we have
cos =
a
b
c
, cos =
and cos =
k~vk
k~vk
k~vk
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Directional Angles
Example
Find the directional angles of the vector~v = 2, 1, 3.
Solution:
Since k~vk =
p
p
4 + 1 + 9 = 14 , then
1
3
2
and cos = p
cos = p , cos = p
14
14
14
and so
2
1
3
= cos1 p
, = cos1 p
and = cos1 p
14
14
14
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Vector Operations
Vector Addition
~
u
u+v
~
u
~v
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Vector Operations
Vector Addition
~
u
~
u
~v
uv
y
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Vector Operations
Vector Addition
So if ~
A = a1 , a2 , a3 and ~
B = b1 , b2 , b3
Definition (Vector Addition / Subtraction)
~
A ~
B = a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3
~
A
~
C
~
A +~
B
~
B
~
D
~
D ~
C
Vector Operations
Scalar Multiplication
Let ~
A = a1 , a2 , a3 and c R
Definition (Scalar Multiplication)
c~
A = ca1 , ca2 , ca3
z
2v
1 v
2
~v
x
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Remark
1
The length of c~
A = |c| kAk
kc~
Ak
kc~
Ak
2
3
4
q
(ca1 )2 + (ca2 )2 + (ca3 )2
q
|c| a12 + a22 + a32
|c| kAk
If c > 0, then c~
A has the same direction as ~
A.
~
And if c < 0, then cA has the opposite direction as ~
A.
0~
A =~0.
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Example
Given ~
A = 1, 2, 3 and ~
B = 4, 5, 6
~
A +~
B = 1, 2, 3 + 4, 5, 6 = 3, 7, 3
2~
A ~
B = 2, 4, 6 4, 5, 6 = 6, 1, 12
1
3
5
9
3
1 11 3
~
B+ ~
A = 2, , 3 +
, 3,
= , ,
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
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:= 1, 0, 0
:= 0, 1, 0
k := 0, 0, 1
a + b + ck
For this reason, , and k are called the standard basis vectors for R3 .
Example
1
2
3, 5, 2 = 3 + 5 2k
0, 7, 4 = 7 4k
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1
~v
k~vk
Note
1 1
~v =
=
1
~
v
k~vk k~vk k~vk = 1 (since k~vk > 0)
2
k~vk~v =~v and since k~vk > 0, then ~v and~v have the same direction.
3
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Example
Find a unit vector~v that has the same direction as the vector PQ, where
P(3, 2, 1) and Q(0, 5, 1).
Solution:
PQ = 3, 3, 2
p
p
PQ = 9 + 9 + 4 = 22
1
Hence,~v = p 3, 3, 2 =
22
3
3
2
p ,p ,p
22 22 22
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Exercises
1
(2, 4, 1)
(3, 1, 2)
3
4
(7, 2, 6)
(2, 3, 4)
Define~v as the vector from (3, 1, 2) to (1, 5, 2). Find k~vk and its
directional cosines.
If ~
u = 2, 3, 1,~v = 1, 0, 1 and ~
w = 1, 3, 2, find:
1
2
3
2~
u ~v
~
u ~v + ~
w
~
w 0.5~
u + 1.5~v
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