1.

3 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

1.3a particles, substances and formulae
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has that elements
properties.
An atom contains protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons
are found in the nucleus of the atom while the electrons exist in the shells,
energy levels or quantum shells around the nucleus. The existence of the
nucleus was proved by Geiger and Marsden in their experiment when alpha
particles were fired at gold foil. Deflection of the alpha particles could only
be explained by the existence of a nucleus containing all of the atom's mass.
particle
electron
proton
neutron

relative mass
1/1840
1
1

relative charge
-1
+1
0

Story1.1a

A molecule is a particle with two or more atoms chemically ``joined

together.
An ion is a particle of one or more atoms with an electric charge.
An element is a pure substance which cannot be separated by chemical
means.
A compound is a substance with two or more different elements
chemically joined.
An empirical formula is the simplest formula for a substance showing the
ratio of atoms that have been joined.
A molecular formula shows the number of atoms of each type in a
molecule of a substance.
Task 1.3a.1 Classify the following: He, O2, Na+, bromine, sodium
bromide, C2H4, CH2, H, H2O, CO32-, neon, lithium chloride, CH3, C2H6.
Task 1.3a.2 Give examples of each defined word above.
1.3b Full and ionic equations
When iron is added to copper (II) sulphate, copper and iron (II) sulphate
is formed.
The full equation is
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ---> Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)
In terms of ions this is:

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ----> Cu(s) +Fe2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Sulphate ions are spectator ions as they are unaffected by the reaction.
Therefore they are left out. The ionic equation is:
Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq) ----> Fe2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
Both the number of atoms and charges balance.
Common ions
Cations
Sodium Na+, potassium K+, lithium Li+, magnesium Mg2+, calcium
Ca2+, Aluminium Al3+, ammonium NH4+, hydrogen H+,
Anions
Oxygen O2-, fluoride F-, chloride Cl-, bromide Br- iodide I-, hydroxide
OH-, carbonate CO3-, sulphate SO4-, nitrate NO3-,
Task 1.3b Balancing equations
Balance the following equations:
Write ionic equations where appropriate
1) Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
2) CO + O2 CO2
3) Ca + O2 CaO
4)* Fe2O3(s)
+ HCl(aq)
FeCl3(aq)
+ H2O (l)
5)* NH3(aq)
+ H2SO4(aq)
(NH4)2SO4 (aq)
6)* Al + H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + H2
7)* CaO + HCl CaCl2 + H2O
8)
NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
9) Na2O + H2O NaOH
10)* Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + CO2 + H2O
11)* Br2 + KI KBr + I2
12)* Ca(OH)2 + HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
13) Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2
14)* Pb3O4 + HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + PbO2 + H2O
15)* Cu + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO
16)
HNO3 NO2 + H2O + O2
Answers
1) Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
2) 2CO + O2 2CO2
3) 2Ca + O2 2CaO (s)
4) Fe2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2FeCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Fe2O3(s)
Fe2O3(s)
5)
6)
7)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)

+ 6H+ + 6Cl- 2Fe2+ + 6Cl- + 3H2O(l)

+ 6H+ 2Fe2+ + 3H2O(l)

2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

2Al + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
CaO + HCl CaCl2 + H2O
8)
NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
Na2O + H2O NaOH
Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Br2 + KI KBr + I2
Ca(OH)2 + HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2

14) Pb3O4 + HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + PbO2 + H2O

1.3c Chemical quantities
The unit of mass is 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the isotope Carbon-12
(12C=12.0000 exactly)
The Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)of an element is the ratio of the mass of an
average atom of that element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the nuclide
Carbon-12.
Experiment 1.3c.1
Cut squares, to represent different atoms, from graph paper with areas of
4cm2, 8cm2 and 16cm2. Weigh each square on a two decimal place balance.
Calculate the relative masses of your atoms.
Atom
Mass/g
Relative mass
A
0.12
0.12g/0.12g = 1.00
B
0.23
0.07g/0.02g = 3.5
C
0.48
0.14/0.02 = 7
(graph paper, scissors, 2dec place balances)

1.3c Amount of substance

The mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of
particles as there are atoms in 12.00g of carbon-12. This number of atoms is
6.02 x 1023 and is called the Avogadro constant.

One mole of carbon atoms.

Molar mass can be found. The number of g in one mole is the same number
as the relative formula mass of a substance E.g. 23gmol -1 of Na atoms and
28g mol-1 of N2 molecules all contain the same number of particles, they are
all one mole of atoms or molecules.
Molar mass = mass of 1 mole

amount of substance = mass of substance/molar mass of

substance
Task 1.3c.1 What are molar masses of (a) K, (b) O 2, (c) Br, (d) Br2, (e) H2O,
(f) H2SO4
Task 1.3c.2 What amount is (a)12g C, (b)14g Li, (c)12g Mg, (d)18g H2O,
(e)4.4g CO2?
Task 1.3c.3 What mass is (a)1mol O, (b)2mol O2, (c)0.5mol N2, (d) 0.1mol
CO, (e)0.2mol H2SO4?
Task 1.3c.4 What is the molar mass of (a)X if 1mol X has mass of 5g,
(b)2mol X has mass of 20g, (c)0.25 mol X has 25g.
Answers:
1(a) 39gmol-1, (b) 32 gmol-1 (c) 80 gmol-1 (d) 160 gmol-1, (e) 18 gmol-1, (f)
98 gmol-1

2(a)1mol, (b)2mol, (c)0.5mol, (d)1mol, (e)0.1mol

3(a)16g, (b)64g, (c)14g, (d)2.8g, (e)19.6g
4(a)5gmol-1, (b)10gmol-1, (c)100gmol-1

1.3c
CO - Carbon Monoxide
USA Air Quality Standards
These levels may not be exceeded more than once per year:
1-hour average concentration -- 35 ppm
8-hour average concentration -- 9 ppm

NO2 - Nitrogen Dioxide

Air Quality Standard
Annual average concentration -- 0.053 ppm
http://www.airquality.co.uk/
Pollutants in air are measured in parts per million. Air that contains 4 cm3
of carbon dioxide in 1 million cm3 (1000dm3) has a carbon dioxide
concentration of 4ppm.
Pollutants in water are also measured as parts per million (ppm). A solution
that contains 2 g of lead in 1 million grams of water (1,000 dm 3) is a 2 ppm
solution
Task 1.3c.5

(a) A car produces CO in the concentration 3ppm from its exhaust. What
volume of CO is present in 2000dm3 of exhaust gas?
(b) What is the concentration in ppm of nitrogen dioxide if 32 cm3 is
found in 500dm3 of air?
(c) What mass of water is there in 1 tonne (1000kg) of aviation fuel if the
concentration is 1ppm?
(d) What is the concentration of nitrate ion in water from a stream in
which 3g of nitrate is found in 2000dm3 of water?
6cm3, (b) 64ppm, (c) 1g, (d) 1.5ppm.

Answers: (a) 2000dm3 is 2000000cm3

3ppm 1000000cm3 exhaust contains 3cm3 of CO
so 2000000cm3 exhaust contains 6cm3 CO

1.3d Solution concentration data

The concentration of a solution can be stated as the mass of solute per cubic
decimetre of solution (g/dm3) or the amount in moles of a solute present in
1dm3 of solution (mol/dm3).
Concentration = mass of solute/volume
Concentration (Molarity) = amount of solute /volume
of solution
1dm3 = 1000cm3

Task 1.3d Concentration and Molarity Problems

1. Calculate the mass of 1 mol of (a) NaOH, (b) NaCl, (c) H2SO4, (d)
NH4OH, (e) HCl.
2. Calculate the amount present in (a) 10.6g Na2CO3, (b) 12.6 g of HNO3,
(c) 21.3g Cl2, (d) 8.5g NH3, (e) 14.8g Ca(OH)2.
Answers:Q1 40g, 58.5g, 98g, 35g, 36.5g
Answers:Q2 0.100mol, 0.200mol, 0.300mol, 0.500mol, 0.200mol
3. Calculate, to three significant figures, the concentrations (molarity) in
mol dm-3 of
(a) 3.65g of hydrogen chloride, HCl, in 2.00dm3 of solution
(b) 73.0g of hydrogen chloride, HCl, in 2.00dm3 of solution.
(c) 14.8g Ca(OH)2 in 3.00dm3 of solution.
(d) 4.25g NH3 in 1dm3 of solution.
(e) 17.4g glucose, C6H12O6 in 0.5dm3 of blood.
(f) 5.85g NaCl in 200cm3 aqueous solution
Answers; 0.0500 mol dm-3 , 1.00 mol dm-3 , 0.0667 mol dm-3 , 0.250 mol
dm-3, 0.193 moldm-3

1.3e Using reacting masses and chemical equations

What mass of sodium carbonate (molar mass = 106g/mol) can be made by heating
16.8g of sodium hydrogencarbonate (molar mass = 84g/mol)?
Method 1 (recommended)
2NaHCO3(s) ----> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
mass NaHCO3 =16.8g
amount NaHCO3 = mass NaHCO3/molar mass NaHCO3 =16.8g/84gmol-1 = 0.20mol
from equation: amount Na2CO3/amount NaHCO3 =1/2
amount Na2CO3 =1/2*0.2mol = 0.1 mol
mass Na2CO3 = amount Na2CO3*molar mass Na2CO3 =0.1mol*106gmol =10.6g
Method 2
formula mass 2NaHCO3 = 168 formula mass Na2CO3 = 106
so 168g of sodium hydrogen carbonate forms 106g of sodium carbonate
so 1g of sodium hydrogen carbonate forms 106/168g of sodium carbonate
so 16.8g of sodium hydrogen carbonate forms 16.8*106/168g of sodium carbonate
so 16.8g of sodium hydrogen carbonate forms 10.6g of sodium carbonate

Task 1.3e
1. What amounts of substance are the following masses?
(a) 8g of S, (b) 8g of O, (c) 8g of O2, (d) 0.5g of H2, (e)25g of NaOH
2. What are the masses of the following amounts?
(a) 2mol of Cl2, (b) 0.5 mol of CuO, (c) 0.1 mol of H2SO4, (d) 2.5mol of
NaHCO3.
3. What mass of glucose can be fermented to give 5.00g of ethanol?
C6H12O6(aq) -----> 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
4. What mass of silver chloride can be precipitated from a solution which
contains 1.00*10-3 mol of silver ions?
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -----> AgCl(s)
5. The pollutant, sulphur dioxide, can be removed from the air by the
reaction
2CaCO3(s) + 2SO2(g) +O2(g) -----> 2CaSO4(s) + 2CO2(g)
What mass of calcium carbonate is needed to remove 10.0g of SO2?
6. What mass of sodium carbonate can be made by heating 100g of
sodium hydrogencarbonate?
2NaHCO3(s) -----> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) H2O(g)
7. What mass of KOH is fromed from 5 g of K when it reacts with water
8. What mass of HCl forms 4.4g carbon dioxide in a reaction with
calcium carbonate.
Answers:

1. (a) 8g/32gmol-1 = 0.25mol, (b) 0.5mol (c)0.25mol (d) 0.25mol (e)

0.625mol

2. (a) 2mol*71gmol-1 = 142g, (b) 40g, (c)9.8g, (d) 210g.

3. 9.81g
4. 0.144g
5. 15.6g
6. 63.1g
7. amount K = 5/39 =0.128mol
Amount of KOH/amount of K =2/2
So amount of KOH = 0.128mol
Mass of KOH = amount KOH * molar mass KOH
= 0.128mol*56gmol-1 = 7.18g
8. amount CO2 = 4.4/44 = 0.1mol
Amount HCl/amount CO2 =2/1
So amount HCl = 2* amount CO2 =2*0.1 = 0.2mol
Mass HCl = amount * molar mass = 0.2 * 36.5= 7.3g
Calculating percentage yield
Mass of lead ethanoate = 3.78g
Mass of lead sulfate precipitated from solution = 2.80g
(CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O(aq) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2CH3COOH + 3H2O(l)
amount of (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O
= mass (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O / molar mass of (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O
amount of (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O = 3.78g / 378 g/mol = 0.0100mol
Chemical equation shows that 1 mol (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O forms 1 mol PbSO4
so 0.0100 mol of (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O forms 0.0100 mol PbSO4
So theoretical mass of PbSO4 = amount PbSO4 * molar mass PbSO4
= 0.0100 mol * 302 gmol-1 = 3.02g
% yield of PbSO4 = actual mass of PbSO4 obtained*100 / theoretical mass of PbSO4
= 2.80g *100 / 3.02g = 92.7%
Predicted mass
Mass empty tube = 44.0g
Mass tube + NaHCO3 = 45.90g
Mass tube + solid product = 45.40g
Mass of NaHCO3 = 1.90g
Mass of solid product = 1.40g
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 +H2O + CO2
Amount NaHCO3 = mass NaHCO3/molar mass NaHCO3
= 1.90g/84gmol-1 = 0.226mol
From equation: expected amount of Na2CO3 / Amount NaHCO3 = 1/2
expected amount of Na2CO3 = amount NaHCO3 * = 0.226/2mol = 0.113mol
Expected mass of Na2CO3 = amount NaCO3 * molar mass Na2CO3
= 0.113mol * 106gmol-1 = 1.20g
Above the expected mass is less than the actual mass so perhaps decomposition was
not complete.
Calculation for Standard solution
Mass of sodium carbonate = 1.30g Na2CO3
Volume of solution = 250cm3
Amount of Na2CO3 = mass Na2CO3/ molar mass Na2CO3
= 1.30g/106gmol-1 = 0.0123mol

Concentration of Na2CO3 = amount Na2CO3/ vol Na2CO3 solution

= 0.0123mol/(250/1000)dm3 = 0.0491moldm-3
Titration of HCl v sodium carbonate
Vol of sodium carbonate = 25.0cm3
Conc of sodium carbonate = 0.0500moldm-3
Volume of HCl used = 9.40cm3
Amount of Na2CO3 = conc of Na2CO3 solution * vol Na2CO3 solution
= 0.0500 moldm-3* (25.0/1000)dm3
= 0.00125mol
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3 2NaCl(aq) +H2O(l) + CO2(g)
From equation
amount HCl/amount Na2CO3 = 2/1
so amount HCl =(2/1)* amount Na2CO3
= 2*0.00125mol = 0.00250mol
Conc of HCl = amount HCl/vol HCl solution = 0.0025mol/(9.40/1000)dm3
= 0.266moldm-3
Conc of NaOH by titration against HCl
Conc of acid = 0.100moldm-3
Vol of acid = 24.90cm3
Vol of alkali = 25.0cm3
Amount of HCl = conc HCl * vol HCl = 0.100moldm-3 * (24.90/1000) dm3
= 0.00249mol
HCl + NaOH NaCl +H2O
From equation amount of alkali/amount of HCl = 1/1
So amount of NaOH = amount HCl = 0.00249mol
Conc NaOH = amount NaOH/vol NaOH solution = 0.00249mol/(25.0/1000)dm3
= 0.0996moldm-3
1.3f The molar volume of a gas
Avogadro's Law states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions
(temperature and pressure) contain the same number of particles. One mole of any
ideal gas occupies 22.4dm3 at stp (Standard temperature and pressure) and 24dm3 at
rtp (Room temperature and pressure). This is the molar volume of a gas.

amount of gas = volume of gas/molar volume

H2(g) + Cl2(g) ----> 2HCl(g) (At stp)
22.4dm3 of hydrogen reacts with 22.4dm3 of chlorine forms 44.8dm3 of
hydrogen chloride
1 volume of hydrogen reacts with 1 volume of chlorine to form 2 volumes
of hydrogen chloride
1 mole of hydrogen molecules reacts with 1 mole of chlorine molecules to
form 2 moles of hydrogen chloride molecules.
task 1.3f.1
Equations can be used to deduce reacting gas volumes:
What volume of nitrogen dioxide can be formed when 16.4g of Calcium
nitrate (molar mass 164g/mol) decomposes on heating?
2Ca(NO3)2(s)----> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

amount of calcium nitrate = mass/molar mass = 16.4/164 = 0.100mol

from equation amount of nitrogen dioxide/amount of calcium nitrate = 4/2
so amount of nitrogen dioxide = 0.200mol
volume of nitrogen dioxide = amount *molar volume
volume of nitrogen dioxide = 0.200mol*22.4dm3 mol-1 = 4.48dm3 .
Task 1.3f.2
Answers
1.(a) O2 20cm3, CO2 10cm3, H2O 20cm3.
(b) O2 25cm3, CO2 20cm3, H2O 10cm3.
(c) H2 30cm3, NH3 20cm3.

1.3g Percentage yields and atom economies

Many organic reactions produce side products and during purification
some of the main product is normally lost. The result is that the amount
of product obtained, the yield, is less than the theoretical maximum yield.
The theoretical yield is calculated using the balanced chemical equation.
E.g.
C2H5OH + HBr ----> C2H5Br + H2O
1 mol of ethanol forms 1 mol of bromoethane so
46.0g of ethanol forms 109g of bromoethane so if we start with 2.30g of
ethanol
1g of ethanol forms 109/46.0g of bromoethane
2.30g of ethanol forms 2.30*109/46.0g = 5.45g of bromoethane so
the theoretical yield of bromoethane is 5.45g if we start with 2.30 g of
ethanol.
If only 4.00g are actually formed (actual yield = 4.00g) in the preparation
then
percentage yield = 100*actual yield/theoretical yield
percentage yield = 100*4.00/5.45 = 73.4%
Task 1.3g.1
(b) What is the % yield if 20.2g ethanol is oxidised to 15.0g ethanoic
acid.
C2H5OH +[O] CH3COOH

amount of C2H5OH =mass /molar mass = 20.2/46 =0.439mol

Amount of CH3COOH = mass/molar mass = 35.0/60 = 0.583mol
So only 0.439mol of ethanol reacts

% atom economy =
100% atom economy = all atoms in reactants turn into products. The
atom economy can be low even if percentage yield is high. The atom
economy idea is popular as high raw material costs and environmental
concerns make waste an increasing problem.
Task 1.3g.2 Calculate the percentage atom economy for each of the
following organic products:
(a) In the reaction shown below, 4.60g of ethanol gave 8.50g of
bromoethane. Find the % yield (78.0%) and % atom economy(41.4%)
for the organic product.
C2H5OH + KBr + H2SO4 ---> C2H5Br + KHSO4 + H2O
(b) In a reaction to make ethyl ethanoate by the reaction
C2H5OH + CH3COOH ---> CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
20.2g of ethanol was heated under reflux with 35.0g of ethanoic acid.
15.0g of ethyl ethanoate was obtained. Find the theoretical and
percentage yield of ethyl ethanoate(83.0%) . Find the atom economy of
the organic product.
(c) What is the theoretical yield of cyclohexene when dehydrating 10g of
cyclohexanol by heating it with phosphoric acid? What is the percentage
yield is the actual yield of cyclohexene is 7.1g?
C6H11OH --> C6H10 + H2O
(d) A synthesis of 1-bromobutane produced 6.5g of product from 6.0g of
butan-1-ol using excess sodium bromide and conc. sulfuric acid.
Calculate the theoretical and % yields of the product.
1.3h Avogadro Constant
Experiment 1.3c.2
Describe the amounts of substance in each of 4 bottles. Consider the masses
and the number of atoms. (bottles containing 12g of carbon, 32g sulphur, 20 black model
atoms, 20 yellow model atoms)

amount of substance = number of particles/Avogadro

constant
Chemist cannot find numbers of particles easily so mass is used. The mass
of a substance which contains the Avogadro number of particles is called the
molar mass. The Avogadro number is about 6*10 23mol-1
1. Calculate the number of atoms in
(a) 1mol of carbon, C.
(b) 0.5mol of copper, Cu.

(c) 7.20g of sulfur, S

2. Calculate the number of molecules in
(a) 1.00g of ammonia, NH3.
(b) 3.28g of sulfur dioxide, SO2.
(c) 7.83g of hydrogen chloride, HCl.
3. Calculate the number of ions in
(a) 0.500mol of sodium chloride, NaCl [Na+,Cl-]
(b) 14.6g of sodium chloride, NaCl.
(c) 18.5g of calcium chloride, CaCl2.
4. Calculate the amount of hydrogen molecules, H 2 in 3*1023 molecules if
the Avogadro number is 6*1023.
5. Calculate the Avogadro number if 1.5*1023 mol of helium atoms He has a
mass of 1g.

Answers

1(a) 9.03*1022, (b) 1.71*1022, (c) 1.35*1023.

2(a) 3.54*1022 , (b) 3.08*1022 (c) 1.29*1023 .
3(a)6.02*1023. (b)3.01*1023 , (c) 3.01*1023 .
4. 0.5mol
5. 6*1023

1.3i Formulae and equations by experiment

elements reacting
symbols of elements
masses reacting
(from experiment)

magnesium
Mg
2.4g

chlorine
Cl
7.1g

molar mass (look up

relative atomic
mass in periodic table)
amounts (amount =
mass/molar mass
ratio of atoms (divide
by smallest)
formula

24gmol-1

35.55gmol-1

2.4g/24gmol-1
=0.1mol
1

7.1g/35.5gmol-1
0.2mol
2
MgCl2

Task 1.3i.1
mgburnpic.JPG
mgburnvid.3gp
1.What is the formula of magnesium oxide given experimental results below
Mass an empty crucible = 10.00g
Mass of crucible + magnesium = 11.20g
Mass of heated crucible + magnesium oxide = 12.00g
Mass of magnesium =
Mass of magnesium oxide =
Mass of oxygen reacting with magnesium =
2.Work out formulae of compounds formed when the following react:
(a) 56g of iron and 32g of sulphur (Fe =56, S =32)
(b) 2g of hydrogen and 16g of oxygen (H=1, O=16)
(c) 14g of lithium and 16g of oxygen (Li=7)
(d) 32g of copper and 8g of oxygen (Cu=64)
(e) 6.4g of copper and 0.8g of oxygen.

Lithium and water react to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen. The
expected reaction might be:
2Li + 2H20 2LiOH + H2
This can be checked by experiment.
Draw apparatus to mix lithium and water and measure the volume of
hydrogen gas formed.
If the molar mass of Li is 7.0gmol-1 and the 0.35g Li reacts with water to
form 600cm3 of hydrogen at 25oC is the equation correct? Assume molar
vol =24000cm3 at 25oC.
Amount of Li = mass Li/molar mass Li =0.35g/7.0gmol-1 =0.05mol

Amount of H2 = vol H2/molar vol = 600cm3/24000cm3mol-1 = 0.025mol

So by experiment 0.05 mol Li forms 0.025 mol H2
So by experiment 1 mol Li forms 0.5 mol H2
So by experiment 2 mol Li forms 1 mol H2
The equations shows 2 mol Li forms 1 mol H2
So the equation must be correct.
Titanium can be made from titanium chloride using sodium. Experiment
shows that 1.92 g of Na is needed to make 1g of Ti.
Which of the following equations must be correct?
TiCl4 + 4Na Ti + 4NaCl
TiCl3 + 3Na Ti + 3NaCl
1.3j Making salts and percentage yields
Methods include:
1. metal + acid salt + hydrogen
2. metal oxide +acid salt + water
3. metal hydroxide + acid salt + water
4. metal carbonate + acid salt +water + carbon dioxide
5. soluble salt1 + soluble salt2 insoluble salt + soluble salt3
Exp 1.3j making sodium chloride using method 4
1dm3 1.00M HCl, anhydrous sodium carbonate, balances, matches

1. Add solid anhydrous sodium carbonate, with stirring, to 25.0cm3

of 1.00M HCl until the effervescence ends.
2. Weigh an evaporating basin.
3. Filter the mixture and collect the filtrate in the evaporating basin.
4. Evaporate the solution to dryness.
5. Reweigh the evaporating basin.
Results:
Mass of basin =
Mass of basin + salt =
Analysis and conclusion
Actual mass of sodium chloride formed (in basin) =
Amount of HCl used in experiment = vol HCl * concentration HCl =
Na2CO3 +2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Amount NaCl formed theoretically/amount HCl = /
Amount of NaCl formed theoretically =
Mass of NaCl formed theoretically = amount of NaCl * molar mass NaCl
Percentage yield NaCl = actual mass of NaCl formed *100/theoretical
mass NaCl =
Sample results: mass of basin =50.00g, mass of basin + salt = 51.20g.
1.3k Simple test tube reactions

Method: Pour about 5cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid into a test tube and add
a small piece of magnesium ribbon. Use a lighted splint to identify the
gas given off.
Observations:
Effervescence, the gas burns with a squeaky pop.
Inferences:
The gas evolved is hydrogen.
Magnesium + sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate + hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Method: Pour about 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a test tube and
add an approximately equal volume of dil. sodium hydroxide.
Observations:
No observable change. Test tube warms slightly.
Inferences:
Reaction exothermic. Acid base reaction.
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Method: Put half a spatula measure of copper (II) oxide into a boiling
tube and add dilute sulphuric acid so that the tube is about 1/3 full.
Carefully warm the mixture.
Observations:
The copper (II) oxide dissolves on heating to form a blue solution.
Inferences:
Acid base reaction. Neutralisation. Blue solution is aqueous copper
sufate.
Copper (II) oxide + sulfuric acid copper (II) sulfate + water
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Method: Mix equal volumes of lead (II) ethanoate solution and potassium
iodide solution in a boiling tube. Filter the mixture.
Observations:
A yellow precipitate forms. The filtrate is a colourless solution.
Inferences:
A precipitation reaction. The precipitate is insoluble lead iodide. The filtrate
contains aqueous potassium iodide.
Lead(II) ethanoate + potassium iodide lead iodide + potassium ethanoate

(CH3COO)2 Pb (aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) +2CH3COOK(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s)
Method: To about 5 cm3 of dilute hydrogen peroxide in a boiling tube
add approximately half a spatula of manganese (IV) peroxide. This black
solid acts as a catalyst in this reaction. Identify the gas given off using a
glowing splint.
Observations:
Vigorous effervescence. Gas relights glowing splint.
Inferences:
Gas is oxygen.
Hydrogen peroxide water + oxygen
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Method: Pour about 5cm3 of copper sulphate solution into a boiling tube.
Add a spatula of zinc powder, stir thoroughly and then leave to stand.
Note any colour changes in both the solution and solid.
Observations:
Blue colour of solution changes to colourless. Red solid appears on
surface of zinc.
Inferences:
Displacement reaction. Copper is the red solid displaced from solution.
Colourless zinc sulfate replaces blue copper sulfate in solution.
Zinc + copper sulfate copper + zinc sulfate
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq)

Revision
Expressions (write as is or rearranged)
Amount = mass/molar mass
Amount = number of particles/Avogadro number
Concentration of solution = amount/volume of solution
Amount = volume of gas /Molar volume of gas
Atom economy = 100*molar mass of product/sum of molar masses of
reactants

Yield = 100*actual mass of product/maximum theoretical mass of

product
Empirical formulae
1. A compound is found to contain the following % by mass:
69.58% Ba, 6.090% C, 24.32% O. What is the simplest (i.e.
empirical) formula?
2. A compound consists of 29.1%Na, 40.5% S, and30.4%O. Determine
the simplest formula.
3. Determine the simplest formula if a compound is composed of 7.20 g
carbon, 1.20 g hydrogen, and 9.60 g oxygen.
4. Combustion analysis gives the following:26.7% C, 2.2% hydrogen, 71.1% oxygen. If the
molecular mass of the compound is 90 g/mol, determine its molecular formula.
5. A compounds empirical formula is CH, and it weighs 104g/mol. Give the molecular formula.
6 . A substance is decomposed and found to consist of 53.2% C, 11.2% H, and 35.6% O by mass.
Calculate the empirical formula

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Mass of HCl = 3.65g
Molar mass HCl =?
Amount of HCl =?
Vol HCl(aq) = 0.5dm3
Conc HCl(aq) =?
ting
Mass reacNa2CO3=5.3g
Molar mass Na2CO3= ?
Amount of Na2CO3= ?
Show that the equation is correct by showing that
Amount HCl/amount Na2CO3 =2/1

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Find x and y in the following expressions
Amount NaCl/amount HCl =x/y
Amount of Na2CO3/amount H2O =x/y
Amount CO2/amount HCl =x/y
Amount HCl =0.100mol
Amount NaCl =?
Amount of Na2CO3=?
Amount CO2=?
Volume of CO2=?
Molar volume of gas = 24dm3mol-1
Calculate the theoretical maximum masses of each product.
Calculate the atom economy of each product.
If 2.0g of CO2 form what is its percentage yield?
A 25.07 mL sample of vinegar is titrated with 37.31 mL of
0.5119 M NaOH. What is the molarity of the acetic acid in
vinegar? (0.7978 M)
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

Volumetric calculations
http://www.docbrown.info/page06/Mtestsnotes/ExtraVolCalcs1.htm

Q1 A solution of sodium hydroxide contained 0.25 mol dm . Using phenolphthalein

-3

indicator, titration of 25.0 cm of this solution required 22.5 cm3 of a hydrochloric acid
solution for complete neutralisation.
(a) write the equation for the titration reaction.
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
(b) what apparatus would you use to measure out (i) the sodium hydroxide solution?
pipette
(ii) the hydrochloric acid solution?
burette
(c) what would you rinse your apparatus out with before doing the titration ?
pipette NaOH, burette HCl

(d) what is the indicator colour change at the end-point?

pink to colourless
(e) calculate the moles of sodium hydroxide neutralised.
amount NaOH = conc NaOH * vol NaOH = 0.25*25/1000 = 0.0625 mol
(f) calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid neutralised.
amount HCl = amount NaOH = 0.0625 mol
(g) calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid in mol/dm 3 (molarity).
conc HCl = amount HCl/vol HCl = 0.0625mol/22.5/1000 dm3 = 0.278 moldm-3

Q2 A solution made from pure barium hydroxide contained 2.74 g in exactly 100
cm3 of water. Using phenolphthalein indicator, titration of 20.0 cm3 of this solution
required 18.7 cm3 of a hydrochloric acid solution for complete neutralisation. [atomic
masses: Ba = 137, O = 16, H = 1)
(a) write the equation for the titration reaction.
Ba(OH)2 + 2HCl BaCl2 + 2H20
(b) calculate the molarity of the barium hydroxide solution.
amount Ba(OH)2 = 2.74g/171gmol-1 = 0.160 mol
conc Ba(OH)2 = 0.160/100/1000 = 1.6moldm-3
(c) calculate the moles of barium hydroxide neutralised.
amount Ba(OH)2 neutralised = conc * vol = 1.6 * 20/1000 =0.032mol
(d) calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid neutralised.
amount HCl = amount Ba(OH)2 *2/1 = 0.032*2/1 = 0.064mol
(e) calculate the molarity of the hydrochloric acid.
Conc HCl = amount HCl/vol HCl = 0.064/18.7/1000 = 3.42moldm-3