INDEX

S.NO
NO

CONTENT

PAGE

1.

Definition

1-2

2.

2-input And Gate

3-4

3.

Implementation

4.

Properties

5.

2-Input Transistor AND Gate

6.

3-Input AND Gate

7.

4-6
7-8

11-12

Making an AND Gate

8.

Uses

9.

Applications

9-10

12-15
15-16
17-19

AND Gate
A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit .
Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. At any given
moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low
(0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels. The logic
state of a terminal can, and generally does, change often, as the
circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low state is
approximately

zero

volts

(0

V),

while

the

high

state

is

approximately five volts positive (+5 V).

There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XNOR.

The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is

called "true," the gate acts in the same way as the logical "and"
operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol,
the input terminals are at left and the output terminal is at right.)
The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the
output is "false."

AND gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

0

A Logic AND Gate is a type of digital logic gate that has an

output which is normally at logic level "0" and only goes "HIGH" to
a logic level "1" when ALL of its inputs are at logic level "1". The
output of a Logic AND Gate only returns "LOW" again when ANY
of its inputs are at a logic level "0". The logic or Boolean
expression given for a logic AND gate is that for Logical
Multiplication which is denoted by a single dot or full stop symbol,
(.) giving us the Boolean expression of: A.B = Q.
Then we can define the operation of a 2-input logic AND gate as
being:
"If both A and B are true, then Q is true"
The AND gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical
conjunction - it behaves according to the truth table to the right. A
HIGH output (1) results only if both the inputs to the AND gate are
3

HIGH (1). If neither or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a
LOW output results. In another sense, the function of AND
effectively finds the minimum between two binary digits, just as
the OR function finds the maximum.
AND

Basic idea
AND logic gates are implemented by series connected normally
open switches. So, diode AND logic gates should be implemented
by series connected diode switches (like an NMOS AND gate that
is

implemented

by

series

connected

transistor

switches).

However, in contrast to transistors, diodes are two-terminal

switching elements, in which the input and output are not
separated but they are the same. As a result, series connected
diode switches cannot be driven by grounded input voltage
sources. To solve this problem, diode AND gates are constructed
4

in the same manner as OR diode gates - by parallel connected

diode switches.[nb

1]

However, to obtain AND instead OR function

according to De Morgan's laws, the input and output logical

variables are inverted:
Y = NOT ((NOT (X1) OR NOT (X2)) = NOT (NOT (X1 AND X2))
= X1 AND X2,
where X1 and X2 are the two input logical variables; Y is the
output variable.
Therefore, the diode AND logic gate is a modified diode OR logic
gate: the diode AND gate is actually a diode OR gate with
inverted inputs and output.
Implementation

In a diode AND gate, the output voltage is high if all the input
voltages are high. The output voltage is low if only one input
voltage is low.

To realize the basic idea, the diodes are reverse connected and
forward biased by an additional voltage source +V (a power
supply) through the pull-up resistor R1. The input voltage sources
are connected in opposite direction to the supplying voltage
source (traveling along the loop +V - R1 - D - Vin). To invert the
output voltage and to get a grounded output, the complementary
voltage drop (+V - VR1) between the output and ground is taken as
an output instead the floating voltage drop VR1 across the resistor.
Input logical ones. When all the input voltages are high, they
"neutralize" the biasing supply voltage +V. The voltage drops
across the diodes are zero and these diode switches are open.
The output voltage is high (output logical 1) since no current flows
through the resistor and there is no voltage drop across it. The
output resistance is R1. Hence, the behavior of the diode switches
is reversed - whereas in diode OR logic gates diodes act as
normally open switches, in diode AND logic gates diodes act as
normally closed switches.
Input logical zero. If the voltage of some input voltage source is
low (input logical 0), the power supply passes current through the
resistor, diode and the input source. The diode is forward biased
(the diode switch is closed) and the output voltage drop across
the diode is low (output logical 0). The output resistance is low
and is determined by the input source. The rest of diodes
connected to high input voltages (input logical 1s) are backward

biased and their input sources are disconnected from the output
Node 1.
If two diode AND logic gates are cascaded, they behave as
current-sinking logic gates: if the first gate produces high output
voltage, the second gate does not consume current from the first
one; if the first gate produces low output voltage, the second gate
injects current into the output of the first one. A diode AND gate
uses its own power supply to drive the load through the pull-up
resistor.

Switch Representation of AND Gate

In the figure below, X and Y are two switches which have been
connected in series (or just cascaded) with the load LED and
source battery. When both switches are closed, current flows to
LED.

Properties
Non-restoring logic

In cascaded AND-OR diode gates, the high voltage level is

decreased more than two times.
Digital logic implemented by active elements is characterized by
signal restoration. True and false or 1 and 0 are represented by
two specific voltage levels. If the inputs to a digital logic gate is
close to their respective levels, the output will be closer or exactly
equal to its desired level. Active logic gates may be integrated in
large numbers because each gate tends to remove noise at its
input. Diode logic gates are implemented by passive elements;
so, they have two restoration problems.
Forward voltage drop. The first restoration problem of diode
logic is that there is a voltage drop VF about 0.6 V across the
forward-biased diode. This voltage is added to or subtracted from
8

the input of every gate so that it accumulates when identical

diode gates are cascaded. In an OR gate, V F decreases the high
voltage level (the logical 1) while in an AND gate, it increases the
low voltage level (the logical 0). The feasible number of logic
stages thus depends on the difference between the high and low
voltages.
Source resistance. Another problem of diode logic is the
internal resistance of the input voltage sources. Together with the
gate resistor, it constitues a voltage divider that worsens the
voltage levels. In an OR gate, the source resistance decreases the
high voltage level (the logical 1) while in an AND gate, it increases
the low voltage level (the logical 0). In the cascaded AND-OR
diode gates in the picture on the right, the AND high output
voltages are decreased because of the internal voltage drops
across the AND pull-up resistances.[1]
Non-inverting logic
Diode

logic

is

non-inverting

in

both

the

OR

and

AND

configurations: a diode OR gate is true non-inverting (Y = X in the

case of one-input OR gate) while a diode AND gate is noninverting since it is double inverting (Y = NOT ((NOT (X)) = X in
the case of one-input AND gate - see the considerations above).
Diode AND gate would be inverting if the voltage drop across the
resistor is taken as an output but the load would be not grounded
in this case.

2-input Transistor AND Gate

A simple 2-input logic AND gate can be constructed using RTL
Resistor-transistor switches connected together as shown below
with the inputs connected directly to the transistor bases. Both
transistors must be saturated "ON" for an output at Q.

Logic AND Gates are available using digital circuits to produce

the desired logical function and is given a symbol whose shape
represents the logical operation of the AND gate.

The Digital Logic "AND" Gate

2-input AND Gate
Symbol

Truth Table

10

2-input AND Gate

Boolean Expression Q = A.B

Read as A AND B gives Q

3-input AND Gate

Symbol

3-input AND Gate

Truth Table
C

11

Boolean
Q = A.B.C

Expression Read as A AND B AND C gives

Q

Because the Boolean expression for the logic AND function is

defined as (.), which is a binary operation, AND gates can be
cascaded together to form any number of individual inputs.
However, commercial available AND gate IC's are only available in
standard 2, 3, or 4-input packages. If additional inputs are
required, then standard AND gates will need to be cascaded
together to obtain the required input value, for example.

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Making an AND Gate

These are ways to make an AND gate from transistor switches or
diodes.

IC7408 AND Gates

13

This is an example of convenient packaging of AND gates in

integrated circuit form.

Substituting one type of gate for another

Logic gates are available on ICs which usually contain several
gates of the same type, for example four 2-input NAND gates or
three 3-input NAND gates. This can be wasteful if only a few gates
are required unless they are all the same type. To avoid using too
many ICs you can reduce the number of gate inputs or substitute
one type of gate for another.
Reducing the number of inputs
The number of inputs to a gate can be reduced
by connecting two (or more) inputs together. The
diagram shows a 3-input AND gate operating as a 2-input AND
gate.

Making a NOT gate from a NAND or NOR

gate
Reducing a NAND or NOR gate to just one input
creates a NOT gate. The diagram shows this for a 2-input NAND
14

gate.

Any gate can be built from NAND or NOR gates

As well as making a NOT gate, NAND or NOR gates can be
combined to create any type of gate! This enables a circuit to be
built from just one type of gate, either NAND or NOR. For example
an AND gate is a NAND gate then a NOT gate (to undo the
inverting function). Note that AND and OR gates cannot be used
to create other gates because they lack the inverting (NOT)
function.
To change the type of gate, such as changing OR to AND,
you must do three things:
Invert (NOT) each input.
Change the gate type (OR to AND, or AND to OR)
Invert (NOT) the output.
For example an OR gate can be built from NOTed inputs
fed into a NAND (AND + NOT) gate

Three-state logic gates

15

A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch. If B is on, the

switch is closed. If B is off, the switch is open.
Three-state, or 3-state, logic gates are a type of logic gates that
have three states of the output: high (H), low (L) and highimpedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role in the
logic, which remains strictly binary. These devices are used on
buses also known as the Data Buses of the CPU to allow multiple
chips to send data. A group of three-states driving a line with a
suitable control circuit is basically equivalent to a multiplexer,
which may be physically distributed over separate devices or
plug-in cards.
In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing
current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low
output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative
power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that
the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit.
'Tri-state', a widely-used synonym of 'three-state', is a trademark
of the National Semiconductor Corporation.
Uses
AND gates are used to combine multiple signals, if all the signals
are TRUE then the output will also be TRUE. If any of the signals
are FALSE, then the output will be false.
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ANDs aren't used as much as NAND gates; NAND gates use less
components and have the advantage that they be used as an
inverter.
And is a logical function of two or more implication. To make a
statement to be true all inputs must be true otherwise the output
is false. While the applications are extensively used in computer.
This function was used long before computer as a logic discussion
or statement. JFK believe in equality the Russians also believe in
equality does it make JFK a communist? by implication it does.

Applications
1. Diode logic gates were used to build diode-transistor logic
gates

(DTL)

as

integrated

circuits.The

outputs

of

conventional ICs (with complementary output stages) must

never be directly connected together since they act as
voltage sources.] However, diodes can be used to combine
two or more digital (high/low) outputs from an IC such as a
counter. This wired logic connection can be a useful way of
producing simple logic functions without using additional
logic gates.
2. Most security lights and garden floodlights have a PIR, or
passive infra-red device which is sensitive to heat radiation.
When a hot object such as an intruder or the neighbour's cat,
is detected the heat sensor gives a HIGH voltage, logic 1.
17

During the day, the floodlight doesn't light up, but, when it is
dark, the floodlight comes on if the heat sensor is triggered.
Typically, the floodlight remains on for a few moments after
the intruder/cat has gone.A system like this requires an AND
gate:

Block diagram of a garden floodlight system

The floodlight is triggered when it is dark AND an intruder/cat is
detected.
The monostable provides a single pulse when triggered. The
output of the AND gate goes HIGH briefly, but the monostable
output goes HIGH and stays HIGH for a definite interval known as
the period of the monostable. The transducer driver is needed
because the floodlight is a high current device. The output of the
monostable will not provide enough current. The transducer driver
boosts the current so that the floodlight will illuminate correctly.
In commercial systems, a relay is used to switch the floodlight ON
and OFF. A mains floodlight is used. This is safe provided the

18

floodlight is installed by a competent and suitably qualified

electrician.
Applications in computer engineering

AND

logic gate

In high-level computer programming and digital electronics, logical

conjunction is commonly represented by an infix operator, usually
as a keyword such as "AND", an algebraic multiplication, or the
ampersand symbol "&". Many languages also provide short-circuit
control structures corresponding to logical conjunction.
Logical conjunction is often used for bitwise operations, where 0
corresponds to false and 1 to true:

0 AND 0 = 0,

0 AND 1 = 0,

1 AND 0 = 0,

1 AND 1

1.

The operation can also be applied to two binary

bitstrings

words

viewed as

of equal length, by taking the bitwise AND of each pair of

bits at corresponding positions. For example:

19

11000110 AND 10100011

10000010.

This can be used to select part of a bitstring using a

example,

10011101 AND 00001000

00001000

bit mask.

For

extracts the fifth bit of

an 8-bit bitstring.
In

computer networking,

address of a
address,

subnet

bit masks are used to derive the network

within an existing network from a given

by ANDing the IP address and the

IP

subnet mask.

Logical conjunction "AND" is also used in SQL operations to form

database

queries.

The Curry-Howard correspondence relates logical conjunction to

product types.

20