CHMISTRY

Questions Based on This Concept

Distillation: This is very useful for low boiling metals

like zinc and mercury. The impure metal is evaporated
to ob tain the pure metal as distil late.

Q.1.

Copper can be extracted by hydrometallurgy but not zinc. Explain.

Ans.

value of Zn 2+ / Zn =
E

0.76 V is less than that of Cu 2+ /Cu =

+
0.34 V. This
means that zinc is a stronger reducing agent than copper and can easily displace

Liquation: In this method, a low melt ing metal like

ions.
Cu from the solution of Cu 2 +

tin can be made to flow on a sloping surface. In this

way, it is separated from higher melting impurities.

Zn (s) +
Cu 2 +
(aq)

Zn 2 +
(aq) +
Cu (s)
On the other hand, to displace zinc from the solution of Zn 2 +
ions, we need a
stronger reducing agent like Ca, Mg or Al. But all these metals react with water to
evolve hydrogen gas. Thus, these metals cannot be used for this purpose. Hence,
zinc cannot be extracted by hydro-metallurgy.

Electrolyticrefining: In this method, the im pure metal

is made to act as anode. A strip of the same metal in
pure form is used as cathode. They are put in a suitable
electrolytic bath containing soluble salt of the same
metal. The more basic, metal remains in the solution
and the less basic ones go to the anode mud.

Q.2.

What is the role of depressant in froth floatation process ?

Ans.

It is a substance which suppresses or depresses the tendency of a particular metal

sulphide to form froth in the froth floatation process by combining with it e. g .,
NaCN forms a layer of zinc complex Na 2[ Zn(CN) 4 ] on the surface of ZnS and
thereby prevent it from forming the froth.

(Pb. Board 2011, C.B.S.E . Sample Paper 2011, 2012)

Zone Refining: This method is based on the principle

that the impurities are more soluble in the melt than
the solid state of the metal. This m ethod is very useful
for producing semi-conductor and other metals of very
highpurity e.g., germanium, silicon, boron, gallium
and indium.

4NaCN + ZnS

Na 2[ Zn(CN) 4 ] + Na S
Under these conditions, only PbS forms froth and hence can be separated from
ZnS ore.
Q.3.

State the role of silica in the metallurgy of copper.

Ans.

Silica (SiO2 ) acts as an acidic flux in the metallurgy of copper. It helps in the
removal of basic impurity, FeO as iron silicate slag, while copper is produced in the
form of copper matte.

Vapour Phase Refining: In this method, the metal is

converted into its vol atile compound and col lected
else where. It is then decomposed to give pure metal mond
process is one of the method under this technique

Mond's process: It is used for re fin ing of nickel. When

impure nickel is heated in a stream of CO at 330-350
K, the metal forms volatile nickel carbonyl Ni(CO) 4 .
The nickel carbonyl on further heating de composes to
give pure nickel.

(C.B.S.E. 2010)

SiO 2 + FeO
FeSiO 3

(Flux)

(Slag)

Q.4.

Differentiate between minerals and ores.

Ans.

Both ores and minerals are the compounds of metal occurring in the earths crust
but from the ore the metal can be extracted profitably and conveniently. The
extraction of metal from the mineral may be very tedius e. g ., Bauxite and clay are
the two minerals of aluminium occurring in the earths crust. Out of these two
minerals, bauxite is the ore of aluminium because Al can be extracted profitably
and conveniently from bauxite.

(C.B.S.E. 2011)

10. The number of nearest neighbours with which a given sphere is in contact is
called coordination number.

Chapter-1: The Solid State

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The solids are of two typesamorphous solids and crystalline solids. In

amorphous solids, constituents do not possess orderly arrangement over the
long range and do not have sharp melting points while in crystalline solids
constituents are arranged in an orderly manner over long distances and have
sharp melting points. Crystalline solids are anisotropic while amorphous solids
are isotropic.
Depending upon the nature of interparticle forces, the solids are classified into
four groupsionic solids (ionic forces) e.g. NaCl, KCl, KNO3 etc, metallic
solids (metallic bonds) e.g., Na, Cu, Fe etc; covalent solids (covalent bonds)
e.g. diamond, quartz etc., and molecular solids (hydrogen bonds or van der
Waals forces) e.g. solid CO2 I2 etc.
A crystal possesses three types of symmetryPlane of symmetry, axis of
symmetry and centre of symmetry. In a cubical crystal, there are 9 plane of
symmetry, 13 axis of symmetry and 1 centre of symmetry.
A regular array of points (showing atoms or ions) in three dimensions is
commonly called as space lattice or crystal lattice and three dimensional group
of lattice points which when repeated in space generates the crystal called unit
cell.

(a)

In simple cubic structure coordination number is 6 : 6

(b)

If F.C.C. Structure : Coordination number 6 : 6 For salt like structure.

(c)

For B.C.C. Structure Coordination number is 8 : 8.

(d)

For H.C.P and C.C.P. Coordination number is 12 : 12

11. For ionic solids, the ratio of the radius of cation to that of anion is called radius
ratio.
Crystals of AB type with different structural arrangement
Radius ratio
Above 0.732
0.7320.414
0.4140.225
0.2250.155

Coordination
number
8
6
4
3

Structural
arrangement

Example
CsCl, CsBr, NH 4
Br
NaCl, NaBr, CaS
HgS, ZnS, BaS
Boron oxide

Cubic
Octahedral
Tetrahedral
Triangular

Each unit cell is characterised by distance, c,b and a along three edges and angles , and y between these edges.
Seven Primitive Unit Cells
System

Primitives or axial
distance

1. Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Monoclinic
5. Triclinic
6. Hexagonal
7. Rhombohedral or Trigonal

6.
7.

8.

a=
a=
a
a
a
a=
a=

b
b
b
b
b
b
b

c
c
c
c
c
c
c

Interfacial or axial angles

=
=
=
=

=
=

= = 90
= = 90
= = 90
= 90 , 90
90
= 90 , = 120
= 90 , 90

For a cubic system, there are only three types of unit cells. Simple cubic unit
cell, body centred cubic unit cell and face centred cubic unit cell.
The two common types of close packing in two dimensions are square close
packing and hexagonal close packing. In square close packing about 52.4% of
available space is occupied by spheres whereas hexagonal close packing
occupies only 60.4% of the space by spheres.
In case of three dimensional close packing, the two common types of close
packing are obtained from hexagonal close packed layers are

23.

Maximum elements of
symmetry
9 planes, 13 axis, 1 centre
5 planes, 5 axis
3 planes, 3 axis
1 plane, 1 axis
No plane, no axis
7 planes, 7 axis
7 planes, 7 axis

Examples
NaCI, KCl, ZnS, Ag
SnO 2 , NiSO 4 , ZnO2 , Sn
Rhombic S. BaSO 4 , KMO 3 , PbCO 3
Monoclinic S, CaSO 4 . 2H 2 O
CuSO 4 5H 2 O, H 3 BO 3
ZnO, SiO 2 (silica), HgS
Calcite, NaNO 3

12. Braggs equations: (X-ray diffraction) n = 2d sin , where, n is the order of

reflection, is the wavelength of X-ray light used, d is the distance between
two planes.
13. Calculation of number of particles per unit cell
Contribution of each atom at the corner =

1
8

Contribution of each atom at the face centre =

Hexagonal Closed Packing (HCP)

(a)

AB AB AB type

(b)

Coordination number 12

(c)

Packing fraction 74%

(d)

Total atoms in unit cell 6

(e)

Volume V = 24 2r 3

Contribution of each atom at the edge centre =

ABC ABC type

(c)

Packing fraction 74%

(e)

Volume V = 16 2r 3

1
4

Contribution of each atom at the body centre = 1

Contribution of each atom at the edge centre =

Cubic Closed Packing (CCP)

(a)

1
2

1
4

Contribution of each atom at center = 1

(b)
(d)

Coordination number 12
In HCP contribution at each corner of the hexagon =

Total atoms 4

Contribution of each atom at the body center = 1

1
6

Relation between

If A' at corner B at face C at edge and D at centre in cubic then formula is.
Cubic System
A
8
8

B
6
2

C
12
4

D
1
1

r=

$
$

For F.C.C. (salt like) NaCl, etc. Then Cl at corner and face Na at edge and

Simple Cubic

Na
Cl
Cl
center then formula
12 + Na +
8+
6 4Na + 4Cl = 4NaCl.
4
8
2

Fromcenter

Fromedge

Body Simple
Cubic

2.

r=

At. wt.
d = No
a3

a
2

a 3
4

d=

FaCl centre
Cubic
r=

14. Void- It is 3D space in the solid.

1.

Density

edge length

AB3C3D

A
B
For F.C.C. A at corner B at face then formula 8,
6 AB3
B
2

Tetrahedral void-

radius and

a 2
4

d=

At. wt.
No
a3
At. wt.
No
a3

Number of
atom per
unit cell.

Packing
fraction

0.52

0.68

0.74

Coordination number = 4
rvoid
= 0.225
ratom

or

17. Defects in crystalline solids :

= 0.225

Electronic imperfections result from the loss of electrons from their atoms
and ions in covalent compounds and ionic crystals respectively. This

Octahedral void-

3.

Number of voids = 2x Number of atoms

1.

Coordination number = 6

2.

rvoid
= 0.414
ratom

3.

results in formation of hole.

periodic arrangements in crystals. These are known as point defects.

$
$

Schoattky defect is caused when equal number of cations and anions

are missing from their lattice sites. Due to this defect density of the crystal

packing of n spheres.

decreases.

No of octahedral voids = n

No of tetrahedral voids = 2n

Frenkel defect is caused when cations are missing from their lattice sites
and occupy interstitial sites. Density of the crystal remains same but
dielectric constant increases.

If an oxide is formed in which A' in tertahedral void and B in octahedral then

2A

The most common lattice imperfections are line defects or dislocation.

These defects arise due to displacement of row of lattice sites.

Number of voids = Number of atoms

15. Relation between number of voids and spheres in close packing. In close

formula is

Atomic imperfections result from displacement or loss of atoms or ions in their

i.e.

A2BO.

F-centres are the sites from where anions are missing and the vacant
sites are occupied by electrons. F-centres contribute to colour of the

because for one oxide 2 tetrahedral void and one octahedral.

crystal.
Diamond coordinate number is four, and unit cell has eight carbon atoms, 4
atoms form FCC lattice and 4 atoms occupy half of the tetrahedral voids

increase its electrical conductivity.

alternately.

In Diamond

In doping, small amount of foreign impurity is added in the host crystal to

Doping of group 14 elements with group 15 elements produces excess of

electrons (n type semiconductors) and doping of group 14 elements with

1.

Coordination number = 4

2.

In a unit cells eight carbon atoms

group 13 elements produces holes (p-type semiconductors) in the crystal.

18. Paramagnetic substances are attracted by the magnetic field and have

3. 4 atoms form FCC lattice and 4 atoms occupy half of the tetrahedral voids
alternately.
16. Relation between nearest neighbours distance (d), atomic radius (r ) and edge
length (a) of cubic unit cell.

unpaired electrons while diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled

by magnetic field and do not have any unpaired electron.

In metals, valence band is partially filled or it overlaps with conduction

band. This results in movement of electrons under an applied electric field

Simple cubic

Body centred cubic

d =a
a
r =
2

3a
d=
= 0.866 a
2
a
r = 3 = 0.433 a
4

Face centred cubic

d=
r =

a
2
a

2 2

= 0.707 a

and metals show conductivity.

In semiconductors, there is a small energy gap between valence band

and conduction band.

Due to this some electrons may jump to

conduction band and show some conductivity. Their conductivity

= 0.3535 a

increases with rise in temperature.

In insulators such as diamond there is large energy gap and electrons can
not jump to conduction band.

Chapter-2: Solutions
1.

Molal solution = 1m

Deci normal =

Deci molal =

If weigth percentage is given then

Normality N =

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances (one phase

system). The component which is present in the greater quantity is called
solvent while the other component is called the solute.

Note: Solvent is that which is having less boiling point. It may have less or
more amount.
2.

3.

A solution is unsaturated if it can still dissolve more solute at the same

temperature, when it can dissolve no more of the solute at the same
temperature it is saturated. Super saturated solution contain more dissolved
solute than it should at a particular temperature and is known as meta stable.

1
m Normal solution = 1N
10

1
m
10

wt% density 10
wt% density 10
Molarity M =
equivalent weight
Molecular weight

Molality (m) =

1000 Molarity
(1000 density) (Molarity Mol. wt.of solute)

Molality, mole fraction and mass fraction do not change with temperature
as they involve mass.

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of

the gas. p x or p = K H x . Where p is the partial pressure of a gas in solution,

Relationship between molality (m) of a solution and mole fraction of solute

(X B ).

x is its mole fraction and KH is Henrys law constant. Higher the value of KH at a
given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid.
4.

xB =

Methods of expressing concentration of a solution;

mass of solute (g)
volume of solution (L)

Strength of solution =

WB
Mass percentage =
100 (Where WB and WA are the mass of
WA + WB

(where M A is the molar mass of solvent)

Relationship between molarity (M), molality (m) and density (d) of a solution
M. MA
xB =
;
M (M A M B ) + d

solute and solvent respectively)

$
$

Molarity =
Molality =

WB (g)
(Where M A is the molecular mass of solute)
M B V (L)

(where M Aand M B are molar masses of solvent and solute respectively)

5.

WB (g)
(Where WA is the mass of solvent).
M B WA ( kg )

temperature. It depends upon the nature of the liquid, temperature and purity

WB
gram equivalent mass of solute V (L)

of the liquid. Addition of a miscible solute pure solvent results in lowering in its

Normality =

ppm =

molarity molar mass

N
Normality =
or = f F = No. of H+ = Charge on
equivalent mass
M

vapour pressure

WB
106
WA + WB

6.

containing non-volatile solute is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

Mathematically pS = PA x A

Mole fraction of A, x A =
xA + xB = 1 ,

nA
nA + nB

N1V1 = N2V2

Mole fraction of A in vapour phase, x A =

M1V1 = M 2V2

(b)

Normality equation for total normality of two non reacting solutions.

10% means 10g solute in 100g solution.

W
10% means, 10g solute in 100ml solution.
V

If both components are volatile At a given temperature, the partial vapour

vapour pressure of the pure component and its mole fraction in the solution

pA = pA x A and pB = pB x B

(where NT ,VT are total normality and total volume of two solutions)

nA
nA + nB

pressure of any component of the solution is equal of the product of the

NTVT = N1V1 + N2V2

Raults law (a) If only solvent (A) is volatile.

At a given temperature, the partial pressure of a solvent in a solution

cation on salt.

$
$

The vapour pressure of a solvent is defined as the pressure exerted by the

vapours of solvent when they are in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid at a

mMA
1 + m.MA

p total = pA + pB = pA x A + pB x B = pA x A + (1 x A ) pB
(where p A and p B are vapour pressures of pure components and x A and x B

1
molar solution = 1M Deci molar solution =
M Centi molar solution
10
1
=
M
100

are mole fractions of components A and B.

7.

Ideal solution is one which obeys Raoults law for all range of concentrations
and temperatures. For an ideal solution,
Hmixing = 0 and Vmixing = 0

1
Hemi molar solution = M
2

8.

In such solutions, solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions are

MB = molar mass of solute

almost of same type as solvent-solute interactions.

WA = mass of solventing

Non-ideal solution is one which do not obey Raoults for all concentrations and

WB = given mass of solute

temperature.

MB =
Hmixing 0 and Vmixing 0

These non-ideal solutions show two types of deviations from the ideal

Kb WB 1000
(where Kb is molal elevation constant)
Tb WA

Depression in freezing point

behaviour.
(a)
(b)

9.

Tf = Kf m

Non-ideal solutions showing positive deviations (new interactions are

weaker than those in the pure component) Vmixing > 0 and Hmixing > 0.
Non-ideal solutions showing negative deviations (new interactions are
stronger than those in the pure component) Hmixing < 0
and
Vmixing < 0.

Azeotropes are defined as the mixture of liquids which boils at constant

MB =

$
$

temperature like a pure liquid and possess same composition of components in

Minimum boiling azeotrope: For the solution with positive deviation there

The molal elevation constant (Kb ) and molar depression constant (Kf ) are
given as
RTb2
RTf2
and Kf =
Kb =
; where Ly is the latent heat of vaporisation
1000Ly
1000Lf
and Lf is the latent heat of fusion.

liquid as well as in vapour phase. Azeotropes are also called constant boiling.

Osmotic pressure, = CRT

is an intermediate composition for which the vapour pressure of the

solution is maximum and hence, boiling point is minimum. At this

composition the solution distills at constant temperature without change in
composition. This type of solutions are called minimum boiling azeotrope.

Kf WB 1000
(where Kb is molal depression constant)
Tf WA

$
$

e.g.,

n
RT
V

MB =

WBRT
V

Osmotic pressure of mixture of two solutions:

Case I: let two solutions of same substance having different osmotic
pressure 1 and 2 are mixed.

H2O + C2H5OH; H2O + C2H5CH2OH

1V1 + 2 V2 = R (V1 + V2 )

CHCl3 + C2H5OH; (CH3 )2 CO + CS2

Maximum boiling azeotrope: For the solutions with negative deviations

there is an intermediate composition for which the vapour pressure of the
solution is minimum and hence, boiling point is maximum. At this
composition the solution distills at constant temperature without the
change in composition. This type of solution are called maximum boiling

Where V1 and V2 are volume of two solutions and R is the resultant osmotic
pressure.

Case II: Let n1 and n2 are number of moles of two different solutes present
in V1 and V2 volumes respectively.
= 1 + 2 =

azeotrope. e.g.,

n11
i Rt
n i RT
+ 22
V1 + V2 V1 + V2
n i + n i
= 11 2 2 RT
V1 + V2

H2O + HCl, H2O + HNO3 , H2O + HClO 4

10. Colligative properties depend only on number of solute particle present in the
solution.

Isotonic, Hypertonic and Hypotonic Solutions

These properties are

(a)

Relative lowerring of vapour pressure

(b)

Elevation in boiling point

(c)

Depression in freezing point

(d)

Osmotic pressure.

Isotonic or iso-osmotic solutions : Two solutions of different substance

having same osmotic pressure at same temperature are known as isotonic
solutions.
For isotonic solutions, 1 = 2 Primary Conditions
C1 = C2

Relative lowering of vapour pressure

p pS
= xB
p

n1 n2
=
v1 v2

......(i)
.....(ii)

Holds good only for those solutes which neither possess the tendency to get
associate nor dissociate in solution, e.g.,

ni
P P
=
ni + N
P

Hypertonic and hypotonic solution; The solution which has more osmotic
pressure than the other solution is called as hypertonic solution and the
solution which has lesser osmotic pressure than the other is called as
hypotonic solution.

= Vant Hoff factor

n = moles of solute
N = moles of solvent

The flow of solvent is always from lower osmotic pressure to higher osmotic
pressure i,e. from hypotonic to hypertonic solution.

Elevation in boiling point

Tb = Kb m