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Manolis Doxastakis
University of Houston
Fall 2013
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Outline
1
Introduction
Imperfections in solids
Diffusion
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Introduction
I
I
iron tools
formation of cities
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Introduction
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Introduction
Example
Optical properties of
thin disk speciments
of aluminum oxide
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
Density
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
Stiffness
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
Strength
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
Resistance to fracture
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
Electrical conductivity
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
Advanced materials
Semiconductors
I
Composites
I
mixture of 2 or more materials from the above list (get the best of
the properties of both and/or new properties)
e.g. fiberglass (epoxy (polymer) + glass fibers)
Bio-materials
I
Nano-materials
I
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Introduction
Classification of Materials
Amorphous
I
Composites
I
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Introduction
Example
Electrical Resistivity of Copper:
Adding impurity atoms to
Cu increases resistivity
Deforming Cu increases
resistivity
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Electrons in atoms
Bohr model:
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Electrons in atoms
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Quantum numbers
Quantum numbers
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Designation
K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, etc.)
s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,. . ., n-1)
1, 3, 5, 7 (-l to +l)
1
1
2, 2
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Quantum numbers
increasing distance
from nucleus
increasing orbital
energy
increasing energy
to remove electron
from atom (i.e. to form
ion )
l=0
ml = 0
l=1
ml = 0, 1
l=2
ml = 0, 1, 2
no magnetic field
(equal energy)
px , py , px
magnetic field
(energies split)
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Quantum numbers
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Electron configuration
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Electron configuration
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Electron configuration
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Electron configuration
Example
Fe - atomic number = 26
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Periodic table
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Periodic table
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Ionic bonding
Ionic bond
metal
donates electrons
nonmetal
accepts electrons
Dissimilar electronegativities
Example
Mg
MgO:
Mg
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Ionic bonding
Occurs between + and - ions (requires electron transfer)
Net charge remains zero.
All (+) ions surrounded by (-) ions and vice versa.
Example
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Repulsive energy:
B
ER = n
r
B: empirical constant
n: empirical constant
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Ar2
nBr0
=0
0
1
1n
A
r0 =
nB
E0 is the minimum
potential energy:
A B
E0 = + n
r0 r0
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Example
Calculate the attractive force between K+ and O2 at r = 1.5 nm
F=
d
A
A
dEA
z1 z2 e2
=
= 2 F=
dr
dr
r
r
40 r2
F=
2
(1)(2)(1.6 1019 C)2
10 C
=
2.05
10
Fm
4(8.85 1012 F/m)(1.5 109 m)2
F = 2.05 1010 N
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Covalent bonding
Example
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Metallic Bonding
Example
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Example
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Introduction
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Introduction
Example
metals
many ceramics
some polymers
Noncrystalline materials. . .
atoms have no periodic
packing
occurs for:
I
I
complex structures
rapid cooling
Amorphous=Noncrystalline
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Introduction
Unit cell
Smallest repetitive volume which contains the complete lattice
pattern of a crystal
When translated 1 unit cell distance along each edge will create
the complete crystal.
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Read more:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CirclePacking.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_packing
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Definition
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) =
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Definition
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) =
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Definition
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) =
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Three crystal structures are found for most of the common metals:
face-centered cubic (FCC)
body-centered cubic (BCC)
hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
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a2 + a2 = (4R)2 a = 2R 2
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4R =
3a
APF =
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Density computations
Density computations
A knowledge of the crystal structure permits computation of
theoretical density :
nA
=
VC NA
where
n =number of atoms associated with each unit cell
A =atomic weight
VC =volume of the unit cell
NA =Avogadros number 6.023 1023 atoms/mol
Example
Cr: A=52 g/mol, BCC, R=0.125 nm
252 g/mol
=
= 7.17g/cm3
8
3
NA (41.2510 m/ 3)
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Polymorphism
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Crystal systems
Crystal systems
Lattice parameters: a, b, c, , ,
All crystal systems can be described by these parameters
Seven different combinations: cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal,
orthorhombic, rhombohedral, monoclinic, and triclinic
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Crystal systems
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point coordinates: q (along x), r (along y), and s (along z), are
multiples or fractions of unit cell lengths.
e.g. unit cell center:
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1 1 1
2 2 2,
corner 1 1 1
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Crystallographic directions
Vector connecting two points q r s and q0 r0 s0 . The length q0 q,
r0 r and s0 s define the vector components
Position such that it passes through origin.
Measure length in unit cell dimensions a, b and c.
Reduce to smallest integer values u, v and w.
Enclose in brackets [u v w]. Negative - overbar.
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[001]
are equivalent
[100],
[010],
[1 10],
[10
1],
[01 1]
etc.
and [110], [101], [011], [110],
[101],
[011],
Families, grouped together, enclosed in brackets: < 100 > and
< 110 >.
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Crystallographic planes
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Example
Intercepts
Reciprocals
Reduction
Miller indices
a
1
1/1
1
(110)
b
1
1/1
1
1/
0
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Example
Intercepts
Reciprocals
Reduction
Miller indices
a
1/2
1/ 12
2
(100) equiv. to (200) ?
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1/
0
1/
0
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Example
Intercepts
Reciprocals
Reduction
Miller indices
a
1/2
1/ 12
2
6
(634)
b
1
1/1
1
3
c
3/4
1/ 34
4/3
4
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Example
What if plane passes through origin?
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Crystallographic planes
all parallel planes are
equivalent, e.g. (010) and
(010).
as with directions,
symmetry makes many
planes equivalent.
e.g. for cubic lattices (BCC,
FCC, SC) (100), (010), (001),
and (001)
are
(100),
(010),
an equivalent family of
planes, {100}
(hjk) perpendicular to [h j k]
for cubic lattices only
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Atomic arrangement
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Atomic arrangement
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Example
Linear density of the [110] direction for FCC
LD110 = 2
+1+
4R
1
2
1
2R
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Example
Planar density of the (110) for FCC
PD110 =
1
4R2
1
4
+2
1
2
2R 2 4R
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Example
Planar Density of (100) Iron
Solution: At T < 912 C iron has the BCC structure.
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Example
Planar Density of (111) Iron
2
area= 2ah = 3a2 = 3 4 3 3 R =
Planar Density =
16 3 2
3 R
=7
16 3 2
3 R
atoms/nm2 =0.71019
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Example
Planar Density of (111) Iron
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HCP
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HCP
Stacking sequence: ABABABAB . . .
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FCC
Stacking sequence: ABCABCABCABC . . .
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Polycrystalline
I
Noncrystalline solids
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X-ray diffraction
n = 2dhkl sin
For cubic symmetry dhkl =
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a
h2 +k2 +l2
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X-ray diffraction
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Imperfections in solids
Imperfections in solids
There is no such thing as a perfect crystal.
Many of the important properties of materials are due to the
presence of imperfections.
Imperfection:
Chemical - foreign element - e.g. Ni in Cu, P in Si
Structural
I
I
I
Vacancy atoms
Interstitial atoms
Substitutional atoms
1D - dislocation
2D - grain boundary, surface
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
Example
Estimating vacancy concentration:
Find the equil. number of vacancies in 1 m3 of Cu at 1000 C
Given:
= 8.4 g/cm3 , ACu = 63.5 g/mol, NA = 6.02 1023 atoms/mol,
QV = 0.9 ev/atom.
NA
N =
= 8.0 1028 atoms/m3
ACu
At 1000 C (1273 K):
Qv
Nv = N exp
= 2.2 1025 vacancies/m3
kT
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
Impurities in solids
increased strength
increased hardness
corrosion resistance
increased electrical conductivity (for semiconductors)
desired optical properties
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
Proximity in periodic
table i.e., similar
electronegativities
Valency
Example
Copper and Nickel?
Carbon and Iron?
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
Specification of composition
Definition
Weight Percent, wt%
i.e. for two components
m1
100
m1 + m2
C1 =
where mi mass of component i
Definition
Atom Percent, at%
i.e. for two components
C01 =
nm1
100
nm1 + nm2
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mi
Ai
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
C1 A2
100 where Ai atomic weight of i
C1 A2 + C2 A1
C1 M0
100A1
C1 M0
C2 M0
100A1 + 100A2
m01
A1
m01
A1
100 =
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m02
100
A1
C1 A2
100
C1 A2 + C2 A1
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
Example
Alloy is 3wt% C, 48wt% Fe, 49wt% Ni.
Calculate atom (mole) percent composition.
Assume 100g total mass:
moles C =
3g
12.01 g/mole
moles Fe =
48 g
55.85 g/mole
moles Ni =
49 g
58.69 g/mole
% moles C =
= 0.835
= 0.250
0.250
1.944
100 = 12.9%
% moles Fe =
0.859
1.944
100 = 44.2%
% moles Ni =
0.835
1.944
100 = 42.9%
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Imperfections in solids
Point defects
Example
Alloy has 1 g C, 2 moles Fe and 0.1 moles Ni per cm3 of alloy.
Find wt%. Given: C = 2.25 g/cm3 , Fe = 7.87 g/cm3 , Ni = 8.90 g/cm3 .
1 g of C
2 moles of Fe 55.85 g/mole =111.7 g Fe
wNi g of Ni: 0.1 moles/cm3 alloy 58.69 g/mole = 5.869 g/cm3 alloy =
Assume Va = V1 + V2 + V3 =
Va = 14.6375 +
w
5.869 = VNia
wNi
8.90
w1
1
wNi
5.869
+ w22 +
w3
3
= 14.6375 +
1g C
2.25 g/cm3
wNi
8.90
wNi
Va
111.7 g Fe
7.87 g/cm3
+ 8.90 gNi/cm3
wNi = 252 g
1
111.7
wt% C= 1+111.7+252
100 = 0.27, wt% F= 364.7
100 = 30.6,
252
wt% Ni= 364.7 100 = 69.1
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Imperfections in solids
Line defects
Line defects
Screw dislocation:
I
I
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Imperfections in solids
Line defects
Edge dislocation
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Imperfections in solids
Line defects
Screw dislocation
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Imperfections in solids
Planar defects
Planar defects
Boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions
of materials that have different crystallographic orientations:
external surfaces
grain boundaries
stacking faults (e.g. for FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing
sequence :ABCABABC)
phase boundaries
twin boundaries
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Imperfections in solids
Planar defects
Grain boundaries
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Imperfections in solids
Microscopic examination
Optical microscopy
Useful up to 2000 magnification.
Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal orientation.
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Imperfections in solids
Microscopic examination
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Imperfections in solids
Microscopic examination
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Diffusion
Introduction
Diffusion
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Diffusion
Introduction
Interdiffusion
In an alloy, atoms tend to migrate from regions of high concentration
to regions of low concentration
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Diffusion
Introduction
Self-diffusion
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Diffusion
Diffusion mechanisms
Vacancy diffusion
atoms exchange with vacancies
applies to substitutional impurities atoms
rate depends on:
I
I
number of vacancies
activation energy to exchange.
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Diffusion
Diffusion mechanisms
Interstitial diffusion
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Diffusion
Diffusion mechanisms
Example
Case Hardening:
Diffuse carbon atoms into the
host iron atoms at the surface.
Example of interstitial
diffusion is a case hardened
gear.
Result: The presence of C
atoms makes iron (steel)
harder.
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Diffusion
Steady-state diffusion
Steady-state diffusion
Definition
J = Flux =
kg
moles (or mass) diffusing
mol
=
or 2
2
(surface area)(time)
cm s
m s
Measured empirically:
Make thin film (membrane) of known surface area
Impose concentration gradient
Measure how fast atoms or molecules diffuse through the
membrane
M
1 dM
=
J=
At A dt
If the diffusion flux does not change with time, a steady-state condition
exists.
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Diffusion
Steady-state diffusion
=
dx
x
xB xA
Ficks first law: J = D
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dC
dx
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Diffusion
Steady-state diffusion
Example
Methylene chloride is a common ingredient of paint removers. Besides
being an irritant, it also may be absorbed through skin. When using
this paint remover, protective gloves should be worn. If butyl rubber
gloves (0.04 cm thick) are used, what is the diffusive flux of methylene
chloride through the glove? Given data:
diffusion coefficient in butyl rubber: D = 110 108 cm2/s
surface concentrations: C1 = 0.44 g/cm3 , C2 = 0.02 g/cm3
Assuming linear concentration gradient:
J = D
dC
C2 C1
D
with x2 x1 =0.04 cm
dx
x2 x1
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Diffusion
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Diffusion
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Diffusion
Example
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Diffusion
Example
At 300 C the diffusion coefficient and activation energy for Cu in Si
are:
D(300 C) = 7.8 1011 m2/s
Qd = 41.5 kJ/mol
What is the diffusion coefficient at 350 C?
T1 = 273 + 300 = 573 K,
Q
ln D2 = ln D0 Rd T12
Q
ln D1 = ln D0 Rd T11
Qd 1
D2
1
ln
D
ln
D
=
ln
=
2
1
D1
R T2 T1
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
The concentration of diffusing species is a function of both time
and position C = C(x, t)
Time-dependent (non-steady-state) is described by Ficks second
law. In 1D:
!
J
C
C
=
=
D
t
x x
x
If D is not a function of x (1D), then:
C
2 C
=D 2
t
x
Can solve equations for a number of different boundary
conditions and geometries. Numerical methods can often be used
when analytical solution not possible.
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
Semi-infinite slab
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
Semi-infinite slab
x
Cx C0
= 1 erf
Cs C0
2 Dt
where erf(z)=Gaussian
error function defined by
Z z
2
2
erf(z) =
ey dy
0
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
x
Cx C0
= 1 erf
Cs C0
2 Dt
Example
Compute Cx /Cs at t = 100 s, x = 1 104 cm, for D = 1 108 cm2/s,
C0 = 0:
4 cm
10
Cx
= 1 erf(0.05) 1 0.05 = 0.95
= 1 erf p
Cs
2 1 108 cm2/s 100 s
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
Suppose you want to know how long it will take for a species to
diffuse a distance x, such that the concentration Cx is half that of the
surface concentration:
(C0 = 0):
!
!
Cx (x, t) C0 1
x
x
1
= = 1 erf
erf
=
Cs C0
2
2
2 Dt
2 Dt
from table 5.1 with interpolation, when erf(z)=0.5, z=0.48:
1
x
x Dt
2 2 Dt
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
Cadmium (Cd) is sometimes used as p-type dopant in indium phospide
(InP), a semiconductor. Start with an InP wafer that is doped with zinc (Zn),
an n-type dopant. The Zn atom concentration throughout the wafer is
uniform and equal to 1 1018 cm3 . Now instantaneously introduce Cd vapor
on one side of the wafer and instantaneously heat the wafer to 650 C (923K)
such that the concentration of Cd at the surface is 2 1018 cm3 . Since this Cd
concentration exceeds the Zn concentration, the surface now is p-type. As
time passes, the surface Cd concentration remains fixed at 2 1018 cm3 ,
while Cd diffuses increasingly deeper into the InP wafer. The sub-surface
planar boundary separating p-type and n-type InP occurs at a depth at which
the concentration of Cd equals that of Zn (i.e. 1 1018 cm3 ). The distance
between the plane and the surface is referred to as the p-n junction depth.
Given that the diffusion coefficient of Cd in InP is 2.7 1011 cm2/s, what are
the p-n junction depths at times of 10 seconds, 20 minutes and 2 hours after
introducing Cd vapor at the surface?
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
(cont.)
Surface concentration of Cd: Cs = 2 1018 cm3
Cs
p-n junction at concentration: 1 1018 cm3 =
2
distance given in previous example... x Dt
q
10 seconds: x = 2.7 1011 cm2/s 10 s = 1.64 105 cm
q
20 minutes: x = 2.7 1011 cm2/s 20 60 s = 1.8 104 cm
q
2 hours: x = 2.7 1011 cm2/s 2 3600 s = 4.4 104 cm
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
A surface hardening process requires that an impurity diffuses into a work
piece. Starting with a surface concentration, Cs = 2 1019 cm3 independent
of temperature, and no impurity in the work piece initially (C0 = 0), it is
observed that 30 minutes is required at 500 C to achieve the desired result of
Cx = 1 1019 cm3 at x = 104 cm. It is further observed that the same result
can be obtained in 20 minutes at 550 C.
Assuming the usual Arrhenius temperature-activated behavior for the
diffusion coefficient a) first find Qd /R, the activation energy for diffusion
divided by the gas constant. For the manufacturing of this treated work piece
to be profitable, the diffusion step must be completed in 10 minutes b) What
temperature should be used to complete the diffusion step with the desired
result in 10 minutes?
Cx =
Cs
, x Dt
2
t1 = 30 min T1 = 773 K
t2 = 20 min T2 = 823 K
t3 = 10 min T3 =?K
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D1 t1 = D2 t2 = D3 t3
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
(cont.)
Q
d
Qd
Qd
D1 t2 D0 exp RT1
20
20
Q =
=
=
exp
D2 t1 D0 exp d
30
RT2 RT1
30
RT2
Qd
Qd 1
1
2
= ln
= 5158.9 K
R T2 T1
3
R
Q
!
d
Qd
Qd
20
D3 t2 D0 exp RT3
=
=
=
exp
=2
D2 t3 D0 exp Qd
10
RT3 RT2
RT2
Qd
Qd /R
Qd
=
ln 2 T3 =
= 924 K
RT3 RT2
Qd /RT2 ln 2
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
An FCC iron-carbon alloy initially containing 0.20 wt% C is carburized
at an elevated temperature and in an atmosphere that gives a surface
carbon concentration constant at 1.0 wt%. If after 49.5h the
concentration of carbon is 0.35 wt% at a position 4.0 mm below the
surface, determine the temperature at which the treatment was carried
out.
! z= x
Cx (x, t) C0 0.35 0.20
x
2 Dt
= 1 erf
erf(z) = 0.8125
=
Cs C0
1.0 0.20
2 Dt
Table z = 0.90 : erf(z) = 0.7970, z = 0.95 : erf(z) = 0.8209, interpolation:
0.8125 0.7970
z 0.90
=
z = 0.93
0.95 0.90 0.8209 0.7970
(4 103 m)2
x
x2
1h
= 2.6 1011 m2/s
= 0.93 D = 2 =
2 (49.5 h) 3600 s
4z
t
(4)(0.93)
2 Dt
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Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion
Example
(cont.)
To solve for temperature we rearrange the following equation:
Qd 1
Qd
Qd
ln D = ln D0
T=
D = D0 exp
RT
R T
R(ln D0 ln D)
from Table 5.2, for diffusion of C in FCC Fe:
D0 = 2.3 105 m2/s, Qd = 148, 000 J/mol
T=
D=2.61011 m2/s
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COMPRESSION
TENSION l
TORSIONAL
SHEAR
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Tension Tests
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Engineering stress
Shear stress
Tensile stress
lbf
N
Ft
=
or 2
A0 in2
m
=
Fs
A0
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Engineering strain
li l0 l
=
l0
l0
Shear strain
Lateral strain
x
L
=
= tan
L =
y
w0
=
Tensile strain
=
L0
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F0
F cos
= A
0
0
A
cos
0 = cos2 =
1 + cos 2
2
0 = sin cos =
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2
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Elastic deformation
Deformation
Elastic deformation (reversible)
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Elastic deformation
Elastic deformation
Described by the modulus of elasticity, E (or Youngs modulus)
Hookes law:
= E E =
For shear stress and strain, the shear modulus, G, is defined as:
G=
Bulk modulus K: P = K V
V0
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Elastic deformation
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Elastic deformation
E, G
dF
dr
r=r0
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Elastic deformation
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Elastic deformation
Example
A 500 lb pendulum is to be hung from the ceiling in the large foyer of a
Science and Technology museum. The plan is to hang it, using a 100 ft. long,
1/8 inch diameter, steel rod. How much will the rod expand (in inches) when
the pendulum is attached to it? The modulus of elasticity (aka Youngs
modulus) for steel is 3 107 psi.
=
F
=
A0
40744 psi
500 lbs
= 40744 psi = =
= 0.001358
2
E 3 107 psi
1
16
in2
` = `0 = 100 ft 12 in/ft = 1.63 inches
r=
1
16
2.54
= 1.5875 103 m
100
mg 500 0.45359 kg 9.8 m2/s
F
=
=
=
= 2.807 108 N/m2 = 0.2807 GPa
A0
A0
(1.5875 103 m)2
0.2807 GPa
= =
= 1.356 103 ` = `0 = 1.356 103 100 12 = 1.63
E
207 GPa
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Elastic deformation
Poissons ratio
=
y
x
=
z
z
metals 0.33
ceramics 0.25
polymers 0.40
> 0.5 density increases
< 0.5 density decreases
(voids form)
For isotropic materials:
E = 2G(1 + )
E = 3K(1 2)
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Elastic deformation
Example
A tensile stress is to be applied along the axis of a cylindrical brass rod that
has a diameter of 10 mm (0.4in). Determine the magnitude of the load
required to produce a 2.5 103 mm (104 in.) change in diameter if the
deformation is entirely elastic ( = 0.34, E = 97 103 MPa for brass)
d 2.5 103 mm
= 2.5 104
=
d0
10 mm
2.5 104
x
z = =
= 7.35 104
0.34
= z E = (7.35 104 )(97 103 MPa = 71.3 MPa
2
d0
=
F = A0 =
2
!2
10 103 m
6N 2
(71.3 10 /m )
= 5600 N
2
x =
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Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation
Simple tension experiment:
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Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation
permanent
deformation
proportional limit,
yielding
yield strength (stress
at which noticeable
plastic deformation
has occurred - 0.002)
yield point
phenomenon
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Plastic deformation
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Plastic deformation
Tensile Strength
The tensile strength (TS) is the stress at the maximum on the
engineering stress-strain curve
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Plastic deformation
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Plastic deformation
Example
Mechanical properties from stress-strain plot (Ex. 6.3)
1
E = slope = 22
1 = 0.00160 =
93.8 GPa
yield strength at strain offset of
0.002 250 MPa
maximum load F of cylindrical
specimen with d0 = 12.8 mm
2
F = A0 = (450 MPa) d20 =
57, 900 N
(1500) MPa
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Plastic deformation
Ductility
Measure of degree of plastic deformation
Percent elongation (l0
commonly 50mm):
!
lf l0
%EL =
100
l0
Percent reduction in
area:
!
A0 Af
%RA =
100
A0
Brittle materials are approximately considered to be those having a
fracture strain of less than about 5%.
indicates degree of plastic deformation before fracture
specifies allowable deformation during fabrication
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Plastic deformation
Resilience
Ability of a material to store energy (best in elastic region)
Modulus of resilience
Z y
Ur =
d
0
Linear:
!
2y
1
1 y
Ur y y =
=
2
2 y
2E
Units: F/A=g cm s2 /cm2 =
g cm2 s2 /cm3 (energy/volume)
Resilient materials are those having high yield strenghts and low
moduli of elasticity
Toughness: measure of ability to absorb energy up to fracture
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Plastic deformation
F
Ai
T = ln
li
l0
l1 l0
l0
l2 l1
l1
l2 l1
l1
+ ... =
Pi
j=1
lj lj1 li li1 0
lj1
T =
R l0
l0
dl
l
= ln
l
i
l0
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Plastic deformation
Example
Cylindrical specimen of steel with original diameter d0 = 12.8 mm,
engineering fracture strength f = 460 MPa. If cross sectional diameter
at fracture is 10.7 mm:
Ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
%RA =
12.8 mm 2
10.7 mm 2
2
2
12.8 mm
100 = 30%
T =
f A0
F
=
= 660 MPa
Af
Af
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Plastic deformation
Hardness
Measure of materials resistance to localized plastic deformation. Push
a very hard ball or pyramid into the material and measure its
indentation. The smaller the indentation, the harder the material.
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Plastic deformation
Hardness measurements
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Plastic deformation
Rule of thumb:
TS(MPa)=3.45HB
TS(psi)=500HB
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