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UNIT NUMBER
6.1
COMPLEX NUMBERS 1
(Definitions and algebra)
by
A.J.Hobson
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
d2 y
dy
+b
+ cy = f (x),
2
dx
dx
which are called Differential Equations, have wide-reaching applications in science and
engineering. They are particularly applicable to problems involving either electrical circuits
or mechanical vibrations.
It is possible to show that, in order to determine a formula (without derivatives) giving the
variable y in terms of the variable x, one method is to solve, first, the quadratic equation
whose coefficents are a, b and c and whose solutions are therefore
b
b2 4ac
.
2a
Note:
Students who are not already familiar with the Differential Calculus should consider only
the quadratic equation whose coefficients are a, b and c, ignoring references to differential
equations.
ILLUSTRATION
One method of solving the differential equation
d2 y
dy
6
+ 13 = 2 sin x
2
dx
dx
would be to solve, first, the quadratic equation whose coefficients are 1, 6 and 13.
Its solutions are
36 52
6 16
=
2
2
which clearly do not exist since we cannot find the square root of a negative number in
elementary arithmetic.
6
However, if we assume that the differential equation represents a genuine scientific problem
with a genuine scientific solution, we cannot simply dismiss the result obtained from the
quadratic formula.
The difficulty seems to be, not so much with the 16 but with the minus sign in front of the
16. We shall therefore write the solutions in the form
6 4 1
= 3 2 1.
2
Notes:
discussion at the same time, it is convenient to denote real and imaginary parts by the
symbols x and y respectively, rather than a and b. It is also convenient, on some occasions,
to denote the whole complex number x + jy by the symbol z in which case the conjugate,
x jy, will be denoted by z.
6.1.2 THE ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
INTRODUCTION
An Algebra (coming from the Arabic word AL-JABR) refers to any mathematical system
which uses the concepts of equality, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For
example, the algebra of real numbers is what we normally call arithmetic; but algebraical
concepts can be applied to other mathematical systems of which the system of complex
numbers is one.
In meeting a new mathematical system for the first time, the concepts of equality, addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division need to be properly defined, and that is the purpose
of the present section. In some cases, the definitions are fairly obvious, but need to be made
without contradicting ideas already established in the system of real numbers which complex
numbers include.
(a) EQUALITY
Unlike a real number, a complex number does not have a value; and so the word equality
must take on a meaning, here, which is different from that used in elementary arithmetic.
In fact two complex numbers are defined to be equal if they have the same real part and the
same imaginary part.
That is
a + jb = c + jd if and only if a = c and b = d
EXAMPLE
Determine x and y such that
(2x 3y) + j(x + 5y) = 11 j14.
Solution
From the definition of equality, we may
EQUATE REAL AND IMAGINARY PARTS.
Thus,
2x 3y = 11,
x + 5y = 14
(c) MULTIPLICATION
The definition of multiplication essentially treats j in the same way as any other algebraic
symbol, but uses the fact that j 2 = 1.
Thus,
(a + jb)(c + jd) = (ac bd) + j(bc + ad);
but this is not so much a formula to be learned off-by-heart as a technique to be applied in
future examples.
EXAMPLES
1.
(5 + j9)(2 + j6) = (10 54) + j(18 + 30) = 44 + j48.
2.
(3 j8)(1 + j4) = (3 + 32) + j(8 + 12) = 35 + j4.
3.
(a + jb)(a jb) = a2 + b2 .
Note:
The third example above will be useful in the next section. It shows that the product of
a complex number and its complex conjugate is always a real number consisting
of the sum of the squares of the real and imaginary parts.
(d) DIVISION
The objective here is to make a definition which provides the real and imaginary parts of
the complex expression
a + jb
.
c + jd
Once again, we make this definition in accordance with what would be obtained algebraically
by treating j in the same way as any other algebraic symbol, but using the fact that j 2 = 1.
5
The method is to multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the complex ratio
by the conjugate of the denominator giving
a + jb c jd
(ac + bd) + j(bc ad)
.
=
.
c + jd c jd
c2 + d2
The required definition is thus
a + jb
(ac + bd) + j(bc ad)
=
,
c + jd
c2 + d2
which, again, is not so much a formula to be learned off-by-heart as a technique to be applied
in future examples.
EXAMPLES
1.
5 + j3
5 + j3 2 j7
=
.
2 + j7
2 + j7 2 j7
=
Hence, the real part is
31
53
2.
6+j
6 + j j2 4
=
.
j2 4
j2 4 j2 4
6.1.3 EXERCISES
1. Simplify the following:
(a) j 3 ; (b) j 4 ; (c) j 5 ; (d) j 15 ; (e) j 22 .
2. If z1 = 2 j5, z2 = 1 + j7 and z3 = 3 j4, determine the following in the form a + jb:
(a)
z1 z2 + z3 ;
(b)
2z1 + z2 z3 ;
(c)
z1 (4z2 z3 );
(d)
z1
;
z2
(e)
z2
;
z3
(f)
z3
.
z1
3. Determine the values of x and y such that
(3x 5y) + j(x + 3y) = 20 + j2.
4. Determine the real and imaginary parts of the expression
(1 j3)2 + j(2 + j5)
3(4 j)
.
1j
1
1
and y = .
2
2
Introduction
Graphical addition and subtraction
Multiplication by j
Modulus and argument
Exercises
Answers to exercises
y
6
......................... (x, y)
..
.
..
.
..
. -x
O
DEFINITIONS:
1. The x-axis is called the real axis since the points on it represent real numbers.
2. The y-axis is called the imaginary axis since the points on it represent purely
imaginary numbers.
6.2.2 GRAPHICAL ADDITON AND SUBTRACTION
If two complex numbers, z1 = x1 + jy1 and z2 = x2 + jy2 , are represented in the Argand
Diagram by the points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) respectively, then the sum, z1 + z2 , of the
complex numbers will be represented by the point Q(x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).
If O is the origin, it is possible to show that Q is the fourth vertex of the parallelogram
having OP1 and OP2 as adjacent sides.
1
y
Q
P1
S
1
P2
- x
O
6
In the diagram, the triangle ORP1 has exactly the same shape as the triangle P2 SQ. Hence,
the co-ordinates of Q must be (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).
Note:
The difference z1 z2 of the two complex numbers may similarly be found by completing the
parallelogram of which two adjacent sides are the straight line segments joining the origin
to the points with co-ordinates (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).
6.2.3 MULTIPLICATION BY j OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Given any complex number z = x + jy, we observe that
jz = j(x + jy) = y + jx.
Thus, if z is represented in the Argand Diagram by the point with co-ordinates A(x, y), then
jz is represented by the point with co-ordinates B(y, x).
6
A
A
A
A
A
A
AO
-x
P(x, y)
*
r
-x
O
6
(a) Modulus
If a complex number, z = x + jy is represented in the Argand Diagram by the point, P,
3
with cartesian co-ordinates (x, y) then the distance, r, of P from the origin is called the
modulus of z and is denoted by either |z| or |x + jy|.
Using the theorem of Pythagoras in the diagram, we conclude that
r = |z| = |x + jy| =
x2 + y 2 .
Note:
This definition of modulus is consistent with the definition of modulus for real numbers
(which are included in the system of complex numbers). For any real number x, we may say
that
|x| = |x + j0| =
x2 + 02 =
x2 ,
32 + (4)2 =
25 = 5.
2.
|1 + j| =
12 + 12 =
2.
3.
|j7| = |0 + j7| =
02 + 72 =
49 = 7.
Note:
The result of the last example above is obvious from the Argand Diagram since the point on
the y-axis representing j7 is a distance of exactly 7 units from the origin. In the same way,
a real number is represented by a point on the x-axis whose distance from the origin is the
numerical value of the real number.
(b) Argument
The argument (or amplitude) of a complex number, z, is defined to be the angle, ,
which the straight line segment OP makes with the positive real axis (measuring positively
from this axis in a counter-clockwise sense).
4
In the diagram,
tan =
y
y
; that is, = tan1 .
x
x
Note:
For a given complex number, there will be infinitely many possible values of the argument,
any two of which will differ by a whole multiple of 360 . The complete set of possible values
is denoted by Argz, using an upper-case A.
The particular value of the argument which lies in the interval 180 < 180 is called
the principal value of the argument and is denoted by arg z using a lower-case a. The
particular value, 180 , in preference to 180 , represents the principal value of the argument
of a negative real number.
ILLUSTRATIONS
1.
1
Arg( 3 + j) = tan1
3
= 30 + k360 ,
arg( 3 + j) = 30 only.
2.
Arg(1 + j) = tan1 (1) = 135 + k360
but not 45 + k360 , since the complex number 1 + j is represented by a point in
the second quadrant of the Argand Diagram.
We note also that
arg(1 + j) = 135 only.
3.
Arg(1 j) = tan1 (1) = 225 + k360 or 135 + k360
but not 45 + k360 since the complex number 1 j is represented by a point in the
third quadrant of the Argand Diagram.
We note also that
arg(1 j) = 135 only.
Note:
It is worth mentioning here that, in the Argand Diagram, the directed straight line segment
described from the point P1 (representing the complex number z1 = x1 + jy1 ) to the point
P2 (representing the complex number z2 = x2 + jy2 ) has length, r, equal to |z2 z1 |, and is
inclined to the positive direction of the real axis at an angle, , equal to arg(z2 z1 ). This
follows from the relationship
z2 z1 = (x2 x1 ) + j(y2 y1 )
in which x2 x1 and y2 y1 are the distances separating the two points, parallel to the real
axis and the imaginary axis respectively.
P2
y2 y1
-x
O
P1
x2 x1
6.2.5 EXERCISES
1. Determine the modulus (in decimals, where appropriate, correct to three significant
figures) and the principal value of the argument (in degrees, correct to the nearest
degree) of the following complex numbers:
(a)
1 j;
(b)
3 + j4;
(c)
2 j 2;
6
(d)
1
3
j
;
2
2
(e)
7 j9.
2. If z = 4 j5, verify that jz has the same modulus as z but that the principal value of
the argument of jz is greater, by 90 than the principal value of the argument of z.
3. Illustrate the following statements in the Argand Diagram:
(a)
(6 j11) + (5 + j3) = 11 j8;
(b)
(6 j11) (5 + j3) = 1 j14.
6.2.6 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
1. (a) 1.41 and 45 ;
(b) 5 and 127 ;
(c) 2 and 135 ;
(d) 1 and 60 ;
(e) 11.4 and 128 .
P(x, y)
*
r
O
-x
y = r sin ,
which means that the complex number x + jy may be written as r cos + jr sin . In other
words,
x + jy = r(cos + j sin ).
The left-hand-side of this relationship is called the rectangular form or cartesian
form of the complex number while the right-hand-side is called the polar form.
1
Note:
For convenience, the polar form may be abbreviated to r6 , where may be positive, negative
or zero and may be expressed in either degrees or radians.
EXAMPLES
1. Express the complex number z =
3 + j in polar form.
Solution
|z| = r =
3+1=2
and
1
Argz = = tan1 = 30 + k360 ,
3
where k may be any integer.
Alternatively, using radians,
Argz =
+ k2,
6
z = 2 cos
+ k2 + j sin
+ k2
6
6
= 26
+ k2 .
6
|z| = r = 1 + 1 = 2
and
Argz = = tan1 (1) = 135 + k360 ,
where k may be any integer.
2
Alternatively,
Argz =
3
+ k2,
4
26 [135 + k360 ]
or
3
3
3
6
z = 2 cos
+ k2 + j sin
+ k2 = 2
+ k2 .
4
4
4
Note:
If it is required that the polar form should contain only the principal value of the argument,
, then, provided 180 < 180 or < , the component k360 or k2 of the
result is simply omitted.
6.3.2 THE EXPONENTIAL FORM
Using some theory from the differential calculus of complex variables (not included here) it
is possible to show that, for any complex number, z,
ez = 1 +
z
z2 z3 z4
+
+
+
+ ...,
1! 2!
3!
4!
sin z = z
z3 z5 z7
+
+ ...
3!
5!
7!
cos z = 1
z2 z4 z6
+
+ ...
2!
4!
6!
and
These are, in fact, taken as the definitions of the functions ez , sin z and cos z.
Students who are already familiar with the differential calculus of a real variable, x, may
recognise similarities between the above formulae and the MacLaurin Series for the functions ex , sin x and cos x. In the case of the series for sin x and cos x, the value, x, must be
expressed in radians and not degrees.
A useful deduction can be made from the three formulae if we make the substitution z = j
into the first one, obtaining:
3
ej = 1 +
2
3 4
e =1+j
j +
+ ...
1! 2!
3!
4!
j
On regrouping this into real and imaginary parts, then using the sine and cosine series, we
obtain
ej = cos + j sin ,
provided is expressed in radians and not degrees.
The complex number x+jy, having modulus r and argument +k2, may thus be expressed
not only in polar form but also in
the exponential form, rej .
ILLUSTRATIONS
Using the examples of the previous section
1.
3 + j = 2ej ( 6 +k2) .
2.
1 + j =
2ej ( 4 +k2) .
3.
1 j =
2ej ( 4 +k2) .
Note:
If it is required that the exponential form should contain only the principal value of the
argument, , then, provided < , the component k2 of the result is simply omitted.
4
r1
z1
= ([cos 1 . cos 2 + sin 1 . sin 2 ] + j[sin 1 . cos 2 cos 1 . sin 2 ]).
z2
r2
Using trigonometric identities, this reduces to
z1
r1
r1
= (cos[1 2 ] + j sin[1 2 ]) = 6 [1 2 ].
z2
r2
r2
We have shown that, to determine the quotient of two complex numbers in polar form, we
construct the quotient of their modulus values and the difference of their argument values.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Using results from earlier examples:
1.
3+j
26 30
=
=
26 165 .
1 j
26 (135 )
Again, for all of the complex numbers in this example, including the result, the argument
appears as the principal value.
Note:
It will not always turn out that the argument of a product or quotient of two complex
numbers appears as the principal value. For instance,
3.
which must be converted to 2 26 (75 ) if the principal value of the argument is required.
6.3.4 EXERCISES
In the following cases, express the complex numbers z1 and z2 in
(a) the polar form, r6
and
(b) the exponential form, rej
using only the principal value of .
(c) For each case, determine also the product, z1 .z2 , and the quotient,
only the principal value of the argument.
1.
z1 = 1 + j, z2 =
3 j.
2.
z1 = 2 + j 2, z2 = 3 j4.
3.
z1 = 4 j5, z2 = 7 j9.
6.3.5 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
1. (a)
z1 =
26 45 z2 = 26 (30 );
(b)
z1 =
2ej 4 z2 = 2ej 6 ;
(c)
z1
2
6 75 .
z1 .z2 = 2 26 15
=
z2
2
2. (a)
z1 = 26 (135 ) z2 = 56 (127 );
7
z1
,
z2
(b)
z1 = 2ej
3
4
z2 = 5ej2.22 ;
(c)
z1 .z2 = 106 8
z1
2
= 6 (98 ).
z2
5
3. (a)
z1 = 6.406 (128.66 ) z2 = 11.406 (55.13 );
(b)
z1 = 6.40ej2.25 z2 = 11.40ej0.96 ;
(c)
z1 .z2 = 72.966 176.21
z1
= 0.566 (73.53 ).
z2
z 3 = z.z 2 = r.r2 6 ( + 2) = r3 6 3;
and, by continuing this process,
z n = rn 6 n.
This result is due to De Moivre, but other aspects of it will need to be discussed before we
may formalise what is called De Moivres Theorem.
EXAMPLE
1
1
+ j
2
2
!19
19
) = 16
4
(16
19
= 16
4
3
1
1
= + j .
4
2
2
z n = z m =
1
1
= m
.
m
6
z
r m
In more detail,
zn =
1
,
rm (cos m + j sin m)
giving
zn =
1 (cos m j sin m)
.
= rm (cos[m] + j sin[m]).
rm cos2 m + sin2 m
But m = n, and so
z n = rn (cos n + j sin n) = rn 6 n,
showing that the result of the previous section remains true for negative whole number
powers.
EXAMPLE
1
j
( 3 + j)3 = (26 30 )3 = 6 (90 ) = .
8
8
6.4.3 FRACTIONAL POWERS AND DE MOIVRES THEOREM
To begin with, here, we consider the complex number
1
zn,
where n is a positive whole number and z = r6 .
1
We define z n to be any complex number which gives z itself when raised to the power n.
Such a complex number is called an n-th root of z.
,
n
rn6
where k may be any integer; and this suggests other possibilities for z n , namely
1
n6
+ k360
.
n
However, this set of n-th roots is not an infinite set because the roots which are given by
k = 0, 1, 2, 3............n 1 are also given by k = n, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, ......., 2n 1, 2n,
2n + 1, 2n + 2, 2n + 3, ..... and so on, respectively.
We conclude that there are precisely n n-th roots given by k = 0, 1, 2, 3........., n 1.
EXAMPLE
Determine the cube roots (i.e. 3rd roots) of the complex number j8.
Solution
We first write
j8 = 86 (90 + k360 ).
Hence,
1
3
(j8) = 8
1
36
(90 + k360 )
,
3
where k = 0, 1, 2
m
n
zn
to be either z n
m
or (z m ) n both of which turn out to give the same set of n distinct results.
The discussion, so far, on powers of complex numbers leads us to the following statement:
DE MOIVRES THEOREM
If z = r6 , then, for any rational number n, one value of z n is rn 6 n.
6.4.4 EXERCISES
1. Determine the following in the form a + jb, expressing a and b in decimals correct to
four significant figures:
(a)
(1 + j 3)10 ;
(b)
(2 j5)4 .
2. Determine the fourth roots of j81 in exponential form rej where r > 0 and < .
3. Determine the fifth roots of the complex number 4 + j4 in the form a + jb expressing
a and b in decimals, where appropriate, correct to two places. State also which root is
the principal root.
4
(3 + j4) 2
in polar form.
6.4.5 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
1. (a)
3e 8 , 3e 8 , 3e 8 , 3e 8 .
3. The fifth roots are
1.26 + j0.64,
0.22 + j1.40,
1.40 + j0.22,
0.64 j1.26, 1 j.
1
2
3
4
1
3
1
4
provides the coefficients in the expansion of (A + B)n which contains the sequence of terms
An , An1 B, An2 B 2 , An3 B 3 , ........., B n .
6.5.2 EXPRESSIONS FOR cos n AND sin n IN TERMS OF cos AND sin .
From De Moivres Theorem
(cos + j sin )n cos n + j sin n,
from which we may deduce that, in the expansion of the left-hand-side, using Pascals Triangle, the real part will coincide with cos n and the imaginary part will coincide with sin n.
EXAMPLE
(cos + j sin )3 cos3 + 3cos2 .(j sin ) + 3 cos .(j sin )2 + (j sin )3 .
That is,
cos 3 cos3 3 cos .sin2 or 4cos3 3 cos ,
1
(1)
(2).
Adding (1) and (2) together, then subtracting (2) from (1), we obtain
z+
1
z
2 cos
1
z
j2 sin
(3)
1
cos n j sin n
zn
(4).
and
Adding (3) and (4) together, then subtracting (4) from (3), we obtain
zn +
1
zn
zn
2 cos n
1
zn
j2 sin n
We are now in a position to discuss some examples on finding trigonometric identities for
whole number powers of sin or cos .
EXAMPLES
1. Determine an identity for sin3 .
Solution
We use the result
j 3 23 sin3 z
1
z
3
1
1
j8sin3 z 3 3z 2 . + 3z.
z
z
1
z3
which gives
j8sin3 j2 sin 3 j6 sin .
Hence,
sin3
1
(3 sin sin 3) .
4
4
1
1
16cos4 z 4 + 4z 3 . + 6z 2 .
z
z
3
+ 4z.
1
z
4
1
z
which gives
16cos4 2 cos 4 + 8 cos 2 + 6.
Hence,
cos4
1
(cos 4 + 4 cos 2 + 3)
8
6.5.4 EXERCISES
1. Use a complex number method to determine identities for cos 4 and sin 4 in terms of
sin and cos .
2. Use a complex number method to determine an identity for sin5 in terms of sines of
whole multiples of .
3. Use a complex number method to deternine an identity for cos6 in terms of cosines of
whole multiples of .
1
(sin 5 5 sin 3 + 10 sin ].
16
3.
cos6
1
(cos 6 + 6 cos 4 + 15 cos 2 + 10).
32
Introduction
The circle
The half-straight-line
More general loci
Exercises
Answers to exercises
z0
Then the distance between these two points will always be equal to a. In other words,
|z z0 | = a
and this is the standard equation of the circle in terms of complex numbers.
Note:
By substituting z = x + jy and z0 = x0 + jy0 in the above equation, we may obtain the
equivalent equation in terms of cartesian co-ordinates, namely,
|(x x0 ) + j(y y0 )| = a.
That is,
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = a2 .
ILLUSTRATION
The equation
|z 3 + j4| = 7
represents a circle, with radius 7, whose centre is the point representing the complex number
3 j4.
In cartesian co-ordinates, it is the circle with equation
(x 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 49.
6.6.3 THE HALF-STRAIGHT-LINE
Suppose now that the directed straight line segment described from the fixed point
representing z0 to the moving point representing z is inclined at an angle to the positive
direction of the real axis.
Then,
arg(z z0 ) =
and this equation is satisfied by all of the values of z for which the inclination of the directed
line segment is genuinely and not 180 . The latter angle would correspond to points
on the other half of the straight line joining the two points.
6
*
-x
O
z0
Note:
If we substitute z = x + jy and z0 = x0 + jy0 , we obtain
arg([x x0 ] + j[y y0 ]) = .
That is,
tan1
y y0
=
x x0
or
y y0 = tan (x x0 ),
which is certainly the equation of a straight line with gradient tan passing through the
point (x0 , y0 ); but it represents only that half of the straight line for which x x0 and y y0
correspond, in sign as well as value, to the real and imaginary parts of a complex number
whose argument is genuinely and not 180 .
3
ILLUSTRATION
The equation
arg(z + 1 j5) =
y
z0P
6
PP
PP
P
PP
q
P
-x
y 5 = tan
1
(x + 1) = (x + 1)
6
3
which lies to the right of, and below the point (1, 5).
may be written
|z 1| =
3 |z + 2|.
That is,
(x 1)2 + y 2 = 3[(x + 2)2 + y 2 ],
which simplifies to
2x2 + 2y 2 + 14x + 13 = 0
or
7
x+
2
2
+ y2 =
23
,
4
23
.
4
2. The equation
arg
z3
=
z
4
may be written
arg(z 3) arg z =
.
4
That is,
arg([x 3] + jy) arg(x + jy) =
.
4
Taking tangents of both sides and using the trigonometric identity for tan(A B), we
obtain
y
xy
x3
y y = 1.
1 + x3
x
On simplification, the equation becomes
x2 + y 2 3x 3y = 0
or
3
x
2
2
3
+ y
2
3 3
,
2 2
2
9
= ,
2
and radius
3 .
2
z3
,
z
unless its real and imaginary parts are both positive.
(x 3) + jy x jy
x(x 3) + y 2 + j3
z3
=
.
=
z
x + jy
x jy
x2 + y 2
which requires, therefore, that
x(x 3) + y 2 > 0.
That is,
x2 + y 2 3x > 0
or
3
x
2
2
9
+ y2 > .
4
Conclusion
The locus is that part of the circle with centre 32 , 23 and radius
the circle with centre
3
,0
2
and radius
3
.
2
3
2
y
6
this region
6.6.5 EXERCISES
1. Identify the loci whose equations are
(a)
|z 3| = 4;
(b)
|z 4 + j7| = 2.
2. Identify the loci whose equations are
(a)
arg(z + 1) =
;
3
(b)
arg(z 2 j3) =
3
.
2
+ j2
= 1;
j3
(b)
arg
z+j
= .
z1
4
1
, 12
2
Note:
Examples like No. 3(b) are often quite difficult and will not normally be included in the
more elementary first year courses in mathematics.