Biofilter

(Redirected from Biofilters)

Biofiltration is a pollution control technique using living material to capture and biologically
degrade process pollutants. Common uses include processing waste water, capturing harmful
chemicals or silt from surface runoff, and microbiotic oxidation of contaminants in air.

Biofilter installation at a commercial composting facility.

Examples of biofiltration include;

Bioswales, Biostrips, Biobags, Bioscrubbers, and Trickling filters

Constructed wetlands and Natural wetlands

Slow sand filters

Treatment ponds

Green belts

Living walls

Riparian zones, Riparian forests, Bosques

Contents

1 Control of air pollution

2 Water treatment

3 Drinking water

4 Wastewater

5 Use in aquaculture

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

Control of air pollution

When applied to air filtration and purification, biofilters use microorganisms to remove air
pollution.[1] The air flows through a packed bed and the pollutant transfers into a thin biofilm on
the surface of the packing material. Microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi are
immobilized in the biofilm and degrade the pollutant. Trickling filters and bioscrubbers rely on a
biofilm and the bacterial action in their recirculating waters.
The technology finds greatest application in treating malodorous compounds and water-soluble
volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Industries employing the technology include food and
animal products, off-gas from wastewater treatment facilities, pharmaceuticals, wood products
manufacturing, paint and coatings application and manufacturing and resin manufacturing and
application, etc. Compounds treated are typically mixed VOCs and various sulfur compounds,
including hydrogen sulfide. Very large airflows may be treated and although a large area
(footprint) has typically been requireda large biofilter (>200,000 acfm) may occupy as much
or more land than a football fieldthis has been one of the principal drawbacks of the
technology. Engineered biofilters, designed and built since the early 1990s, have provided
significant footprint reductions over the conventional flat-bed, organic media type.

Air cycle system at biosolids composting plant. Large duct in foreground is exhaust
air into biofilter shown in next photo

Biosolids composting plant biofilter mound - note sprinkler visible front right to
maintain proper moisture level for optimum functioning

One of the main challenges to optimum biofilter operation is maintaining proper moisture
throughout the system. The air is normally humidified before it enters the bed with a watering

(spray) system, humidification chamber, bioscrubber, or biotrickling filter. Properly maintained,

a natural, organic packing media like peat, vegetable mulch, bark or wood chips may last for
several years but engineered, combined natural organic and synthetic component packing
materials will generally last much longer, up to 10 years. A number of companies offer these
types or proprietary packing materials and multi-year guarantees, not usually provided with a
conventional compost or wood chip bed biofilter.
Although widely employed, the scientific community is still unsure of the physical phenomena
underpinning biofilter operation, and information about the microorganisms involved continues
to be developed. A biofilter/bio-oxidation system is a fairly simple device to construct and
operate and offers a cost-effective solution provided the pollutant is biodegradable within a
moderate time frame (increasing residence time = increased size and capital costs), at reasonable
concentrations (and lb/hr loading rates) and that the airstream is at an organism-viable
temperature. For large volumes of air, a biofilter may be the only cost-effective solution. There is
no secondary pollution (unlike the case of incineration where additional CO2 and NOx are
produced from burning fuels) and degradation products form additional biomass, carbon dioxide
and water. Media irrigation water, although many systems recycle part of it to reduce operating
costs, has a moderately high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and may require treatment
before disposal. However, this "blowdown water", necessary for proper maintenance of any biooxidation system, is generally accepted by municipal publicly owned treatment works without
any pretreatment.
Biofilters are being utilized in Columbia Falls, Montana at Plum Creek Timber Company's
fiberboard plant.[2] The biofilters decrease the pollution emitted by the manufacturing process
and the exhaust emitted is 98% clean. The newest, and largest, biofilter addition to Plum Creek
cost $9.5 million, yet even though this new technology is expensive, in the long run it will cost
less overtime than the alternative exhaust-cleaning incinerators fueled by natural gas (which are
not as environmentally friendly). The biofilters use trillions of microscopic bacteria that cleanse
the air being released from the plant.

Water treatment

A typical complete trickling filter system for treating wastewaters. [3]

Image 1: A schematic cross-section of the contact face of the bed media in a

trickling filter.

Biofilter[4] was first introduced in England in 1893 as a trickling filter for wastewater treatment
and has since been successfully used for the treatment of different types of water. Biological
treatment has been used in Europe to filter surface water for drinking purposes since the early
1900s and is now receiving more interest worldwide. Biofiltration is also common in wastewater
treatment, aquaculture and greywater recycling as a way to minimize water replacement while
increasing water quality.
Biofiltration process
A biofilter is a bed of media on which microorganisms attach and grow to form a biological layer
called biofilm. Biofiltration is thus usually referred to as a fixedfilm process. Generally, the
biofilm is formed by a community of different microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, yeast, etc.),
macro-organisms (protozoa, worms, insects larvae, etc.) and extracellular polymeric substances
(EPS) (Flemming and Wingender, 2010). The aspect of the biofilm[5] is usually slimy and muddy.
Water to be treated can be applied intermittently or continuously over the media, upflow or
downflow. Typically, a biofilter has two or three phases, depending on the feeding strategy
(percolating or submerged biofilter):
1.a solid phase (media);
2.a liquid phase (water);
3.a gaseous phase (air).
Organic matter and other water components diffuse into the biofilm where the treatment occurs,
mostly by biodegradation. Biofiltration processes are usually aerobic, which means that
microorganisms require oxygen for their metabolism. Oxygen can be supplied to the biofilm,
either concurrently or counter currently with water flow. Aeration occurs passively by the natural
flow of air through the process (three phases biofilter) or by forced air supplied by blowers.

Microorganisms' activity is a key-factor of the process performance. The main influencing

factors are the water composition, the biofilter hydraulic loading, the type of media, the feeding
strategy (percolation or submerged media), the age of the biofilm, temperature, aeration, etc.
Types of filtering media
Originally, biofilter was developed using rock or slag as filter media, but different types of
material are used today. These materials are categorized as inorganic media (sand, gravel,
geotextile, different shapes of plastic media, glass beads, etc.) and organic media (peat, wood
chips, coco shell fragments, compost, etc.)
Advantages
Although biological filters have simple superficial structures, their internal hydrodynamics and
the microorganisms' biology and ecology are complex and variable.[6] These characteristics
confer robustness to the process. In other words, the process has the capacity to maintain its
performance or rapidly return to initial levels following a period of no flow, of intense use, toxic
shocks, media backwash (high rate biofiltration processes), etc.
The structure of the biofilm protects microorganisms from difficult environmental conditions and
retains the biomass inside the process, even when conditions are not optimal for its growth.
Biofiltration processes offer the following advantages: (Rittmann et al., 1988):
Because microorganisms are retained within the biofilm, biofiltration allows the development
of microorganisms with relatively low specific growth rates; Biofilters are less subject to
variable or intermittent loadings and to hydraulic shock;[7] Operational costs are usually lower
than for activated sludge; Final treatment result is less influenced by biomass separation since
the biomass concentration at the effluent is much lower than for suspended biomass processes;
Attached biomass becomes more specialized (higher concentration of relevant organisms) at a
given point in the process train because there is no biomass return.[8]
Drawbacks
Because filtration and growth of biomass leads to an accumulation of matter in the filtering
media, this type of fixed-film process is subject to clogging and flow channeling. Depending on
the type of application and on the media used for microbial growth, clogging can be controlled
using physical and/or chemical methods. Whenever possible, backwash steps can be
implemented using air and/or water to disrupt the biomat and recover flow. Chemicals such as
oxidizing (peroxide, ozone) or biocide agents can also be used.
For drinking water, biological water treatment involves the use of naturally occurring microorganisms in the surface water to improve water quality. Under optimum conditions, including
relatively low turbidity and high oxygen content, the organisms break down material in the water
and thus improve water quality. Slow sand filters or carbon filters are used to provide a place on

which these micro-organisms grow. These biological treatment systems effectively reduce waterborne diseases, dissolved organic carbon, turbidity and colour in surface water, improving
overall water quality.

Drinking water
For drinking water, biological water treatment involves the use of naturally-occurring
microorganisms in the surface water to improve water quality. Under optimum conditions,
including relatively low turbidity and high oxygen content, the organisms break down material in
the water and thus improve water quality. Slow sand filters or carbon filters are used to provide a
support on which these microorganisms grow. These biological treatment systems effectively
reduce water-borne diseases, dissolved organic carbon, turbidity and color in surface water, thus
improving overall water quality.

Wastewater
Biofiltration is used to treat wastewater from a wide range of sources, with varying organic
compositions and concentrations. Many examples of biofiltration applications are described in
the literature. As a non-exhaustive list of applications, and notwithstanding the type of media,
biofilters were developed and commercialized for the treatment of animal wastes,[9] landfill
leachates,[10] dairy wastewater,[11] domestic wastewater.[12]
This process is versatile as it can be adapted to small flows (< 1 m3/d), such as onsite domestic
wastewater[13] as well as to flows generated by a municipality (> 240 000 m3/d).[14] For
decentralized domestic wastewater production, such as for isolated dwellings, it has been
demonstrated that there are important daily, weekly and yearly fluctuations of hydraulic and
organic production rates related to modern families' lifestyle.[15] In this context, a biofilter located
after a septic tank constitutes a robust process able to sustain the variability observed without
compromising the treatment performance.

Use in aquaculture
The use of biofilters are commonly used on closed aquaculture systems, such as recirculating
aquaculture systems (RAS). Many designs are used, with different benefits and drawbacks,
however the function is the same: reducing water exchanges by converting ammonia to nitrate.
Ammonia (NH4+ and NH3) originates from the brachial excretion from the gills of aquatic
animals and from the decomposition of organic matter. As ammonia-N is highly toxic, this is
converted to a less toxic form of nitrite (by Nitrosomonas sp.) and then to an even less toxic form
of nitrate (by Nitrobacter sp.). This "nitrification" process requires oxygen (aerobic conditions),
without which the biofilter can crash. Furthermore, as this nitrification cycle produces H+, the pH
can decrease which necessitates the use of buffers such as lime.

See also
ete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no
alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops.

Health hazards of polluted irrigation water

There can be significant health hazards related to using the water in this way. Wastewater from
cities can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there
are often high levels of pathogens from excreta, while in emerging nations, where industrial
development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and
organic chemicals. The World Health Organization, in collaboration with the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Environmental
Program (UNEP), has developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater.
The International Water Management Institute has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana,
Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks
of wastewater irrigation. They advocate a multiple-barrier approach to wastewater use, where
farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing
irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying
water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with
disinfectant or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human
manure.[6]

Etymology
The words "sewage" and "sewer" came from Old French essouier = "to drain", which came from
Latin exaqure. Their formal Latin antecedents are exaquticum and exaqurium.

Legislation
European Union
Main article: Directive on Urban Waste Water Treatment

Council Directive 91/271/EEC on Urban Wastewater Treatment was adopted on 21 May 1991,[7]
amended by the Commission Directive 98/15/EC.[8] Commissio

Hydrological principles of strip cropping to control the depth of the water table and
the soil salinity

In irrigated lands with scarce water resources suffering from drainage (high water table) and soil
salinity problems, strip cropping is sometimes practiced with strips of land where every other
strip is irrigated while the strips in between are left permanently fallow.[14]

Owing to the water application in the irrigated strips they have a higher watertable which induces
flow of groundwater to the unirrigated strips. This flow functions as subsurface drainage for the
irrigated strips, whereby the water table is maintained at a not-too-shallow depth, leaching of the
soil is possible, and the soil salinity can be controlled at an acceptably low level.
In the unirrigated (sacrificial) strips the soil is dry and the groundwater comes up by capillary
rise and evaporates leaving the salts behind, so that here the soil salinizes. Nevertheless, they can
have some use for livestock, sowing salinity resistant grasses or weeds. Moreover, useful salt
resistant trees can be planted like Casuarina, Eucalyptus or Atriplex, keeping in mind that the
trees have deep rooting systems and the salinity of the wet subsoil is less than of the topsoil. In
these ways wind erosion can be controlled. The unirrigated strips can also be used for salt
harvesting.

Soil salinity models

This section requires expansion. (October 2007)

SaltMod components

The majority of the computer models available for water and solute transport in the soil (e.g.
SWAP,[15] DrainMod-S,[16] UnSatChem,[17] and Hydrus [18] ) are based on Richard's differential
equation for the movement of water in unsaturated soil in combination with Fick's differential
convectiondiffusion equation for advection and dispersion of salts.
The models require input of soil characteristics like the relations between variable unsaturated
soil moisture content, water tension, water retention curve, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity,
dispersivity and diffusivity. These relations vary to a great extent from place to place and from
time to time and are not easy to measure. Further, the models are difficult to calibrate under
farmer's field conditions because the soil salinity here is spatially very variable. The models use
short time steps and need at least a daily, if not an hourly, data base of hydrological phenomena.

Altogether this makes model application to a fairly large project the job of a team of specialists
with ample facilities.
Simpler models, like SaltMod,[5] based on monthly or seasonal water and soil balances and an
empirical capillary rise function, are also available. They are useful for long-term salinity
predictions in relation to irrigation and drainage practices.
LeachMod,[19] using the SaltMod principles, he
where: [ ] stands for concentration in milliequivalents/liter (briefly meq/l), and { } stands for
concentration in mg/l.
It is seen that Mg (Magnesium) is thought to play a similar role as Ca (Calcium).
The SAR should not be much higher than 20 and preferably less than 10;
When the soil has been exposed to water with a certain SAR value for some time, the ESP value
tends to become about equal to the SAR value.
2) The residual sodium carbonate (RSC, meq/l,[6]):
The formula for calculating residual sodium carbonate is:
RSC = [HCO3 + CO3=] [Ca+++ Mg++]

= {HCO3/61 + CO3=/30} {Ca++/20 + Mg++/12}

which must not be much higher than 1 and preferably less than 0.5.
The above expression recognizes the presence of bicarbonates (HCO3), the form in which most
carbonates are dissolved.
While calculating SAR and RSC, the water quality present at the root zone of the crop should be
considered which would take into account the leaching factor in the field.[8] The partial pressure
of dissolved CO2 at the plants root zone also decides the Calcium present in dissolved form in the
field water. USDA follows the adjusted SAR[9] for calculating water sodicity.

Solutions
Alkaline soils with solid CaCO3 can be reclaimed with grass cultures, organic compost, waste
hair / feathers, organic garbage, waste paper, etc. ensuring the incorporation of much acidifying
material (inorganic or organic material) into the soil, and enhancing dissolved Ca in the field
water by releasing CO2 gas.[10] Deep plowing and incorporating the calcareous subsoil into the
top soil also helps.

Many times salts' migration to the top soil takes place from the underground water sources rather
than surface sources.[11] Where the underground water table is high and the land is subjected to
high solar radiation, ground water oozes to the land surface due to capillary action and gets
evaporated leaving the dissolved salts in the top layer of the soil. Where the underground water
contains high salts, it leads to acute salinity problem. This problem can be reduced by applying
mulch to the land. Using poly-houses during summer for cultivating vegetables/crops is also
advised to mitigate soil salinity and conserve water / soil moisture. Poly-houses filter the intense
summer solar radiation in tropical countries to save the plants from water stress and leaf burns.
Where the ground water quality is not alkaline / saline and ground water table is high, salts build
up in the soil can be averted by using the land throughout the year for growing plantation trees /
permanent crops with the help of lift irrigation. When the ground water is used at required
leaching factor, the salts in the soil would not build up.
Plowing the field soon after cutting the crop is also advised to prevent salt migration to the top
soil and conserve the soil moisture during the intense summer months. This is done to break the
capillary pores in the soil to prevent water reaching the surface of the soil.
Clay soils in high annual rain fall (more than 100 cm) areas do not generally suffer from high
alkalinity as the rain water runoff is able to reduce/leach the soil salts to comfortable levels if
proper rain water harvesting methods are followed. In some agricultural areas, the use of
subsurface "tile lines" are used to facilitate drainage and leach salts. Continuous Drip irrigation
would lead to alkali soils formation in the absence of leaching / drainage water from the field.
It is also possible to reclaim alkaline soils by adding acidifying minerals like pyrite or cheaper
alum or Aluminium sulfate.
Alternatively, gypsum (calcium sulfate, CaSO4. 2H2O) can also be applied as a source of Ca++
ions to replace the sodium at the exchange complex.[10] Gypsum also reacts with sodium
carbonate to convert into sodium sulphate which is a neutral salt and does not contribute to high
pH. There must be enough natural drainage to the underground, or else an artificial subsurface
drainage system must be present, to permit leaching of the excess sodium by percolation of rain
and/or irrigation water through the soil profile.
Calcium Chloride is also used to reclaim alkali soils. CaCl2 converts Na2CO3 into NaCl
precipitating CaCO3. NaCl is drained off by leaching water. Spent acids (HCl, H2SO4, etc.) can
also be used to reduce the excess Na2CO3 in the soil.
Where urea is made available cheaply to farmers, it is also used to reduce the soil alkalinity /
salinity primarily.[12] The NH4 (Ammonium) present in urea which is a weak cation releases the
strong cation Na from the soil structure into water. Thus alkali soils absorb / consume more urea
compared to other soils.

To reclaim the soils completely one needs prohibitively high doses of amendments. Most efforts
are therefore directed to improving the top layer only (say the first 10 cm of the soils), as the top
layer is most sensitive to deterioration of the soil structure.[10] The treatments, however, need to
be repeated in a few (say 5) years time.Trees / plants follow gravitropism. It is difficult to survive
in alkali soils for the trees with deeper rooting system which can be more than 60 meters deep in
good non-alkali soils.
It will be important to refrain from irrigation (ground water or surface water) with poor quality
water.
One way of reducing sodium carbonate is to cultivate glasswort or saltwort or barilla plants.[13]
These plants sequester the sodium carbonate they absorb from alkali soil into their tissues. The
ash of these plants contains good quantity of sodium carbonate which can be commercially
extracted and used in place of sodium carbonate derived from common salt which is highly
energy intensive process. Thus alkali lands deterioration can be checked by cultivating barilla
plants which can serve as food source, biomass fuel and raw material for soda ash and potash,
etc.
Phosphorus soil components in relation to soil pH

Water Availability in relation to Soil pH

Further information: Water content and Water potential

Determining pH
Methods of determining pH include:

Observation of soil profile: Certain profile characteristics can be indicators of

either acid, saline, or sodic conditions. Strongly acidic soils often have poor
incorporation of the organic surface layer with the underlying mineral layer.
The mineral horizons are distinctively layered in many cases, with a pale
eluvial (E) horizon beneath the organic surface; this E is underlain by a darker
B horizon in a classic podzol horizon sequence. This is a very rough gauge of
acidity as there is no correlation between thickness of the E and soil pH. E
horizons a few feet thick in Florida usually have pH just above 5 (merely
"strongly acid") while E horizons a few inches thick in New England are
"extremely acid" with pH readings of 4.5 or below.[1][2] [3] In the southern
Blue Ridge Mountains there are "ultra acid" soils, pH below 3.5, which have
no E horizon.[4] Presence of a caliche layer indicates the presence of calcium
carbonates, which are present in alkaline conditions. Also, columnar structure
can be an indicator of sodic condition. [10]

Observation of predominant flora. Calcifuge plants (those that prefer an

acidic soil) include Erica, Rhododendron and nearly all other Ericaceae
species, many birch (Betula), foxglove (Digitalis), gorse (Ulex spp.), and Scots
Pine (Pinus sylvestris). Calcicole (lime loving) plants include ash trees
(Fraxinus spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera), Buddleja, dogwoods (Cornus spp.),
lilac (Syringa) and Clematis species.

Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit, where in a small sample of soil is mixed

with indicator solution which changes colour according to the
acidity/alkalinity.

Use of litmus paper. A small sample of soil is mixed with distilled water, into
which a strip of litmus paper is inserted. If the soil is acidic the paper turns
red, if alkaline, blue.

Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter, in which a rod is

inserted into moistened soil and measures the concentration of hydrogen
ions.

Examples of plant pH preferences

This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by
verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting
only of original research should be removed. (November 2010)

pH 4.55.0: Ericaceae (Azalea, Bilberry, Blueberry, Cranberry,

Heather[disambiguation needed]), Hydrangea for blue, (less acidic for pink),
Liquidambar or Sweet Gum, Orchid, Pin Oak,[citation needed],

pH 5.05.5: Boronia, Daphne, Ericaceae: (Camellia, Heather[disambiguation needed],

Rhododendron), Ferns, Iris, Orchids, Parsley, Conifers (e.g., Pine), Poaceae:
(Maize, Millet, Rye, Oat), Radish, Solanales: (Potato, Sweet potato)
Bromeliaceae (Pineapple).[11]

pH 5.56.0: Asteraceae: (Aster, Endive), Brassicaceae: (Brussels sprout,

Kohlrabi), Carrot, Cucurbitales: (Begonia, Chayote or Choko), Fabaceae:
(Bean, Crimson Clover, Peanut, Soybean), Petunia, Rhubarb, Violet, most
bulbs (Canna, Daffodil, Jonquil), Larkspur[disambiguation needed], Primrose[disambiguation
needed]

pH 6.06.5 Antirrhinum or Snapdragon, Brassicaceae: (Broccoli, Cabbage,

Candytuft, Cauliflower, Turnip, Wallflower), Cucurbitaceae: (Cucumber,
Pumpkin, Squash), Fabaceae: (Pea, Red Clover, White Clover), Gladiolus,
Iceland Poppy, Rosales: (Cannabis, Rose, Strawberry), Solanaceae: (Eggplant
or Aubergine, Tomato), Sweet corn, Violaceae: (Pansy, Viola), Zinnia or Zinnea

pH 6.57.0: Amaranthaceae: (Beet, Spinach), Apiaceae: (Celery, Parsnip),

Asparagales: (Asparagus, Onion), Asteraceae: (Chrysanthemum, Dahlia,
Lettuce), Carnation, Fabaceae: (Alfalfa, Sweet pea), Melon, Stock[disambiguation
needed]
, Tulip

pH 7.18.0 Lilac

Changing soil pH
Increasing pH of acidic soil

The most common amendment to increase soil pH is lime (CaCO3 or MgCO3), usually in the
form of finely ground agricultural lime. The amount of lime needed to change pH is determined
by the mesh size of the lime (how finely it is ground)and the buffering capacity of the soil. A
high mesh size (60100) indicates a finely ground lime, that will react quickly with soil acidity.
Buffering capacity of soils is a function of a soils cation exchange capacity, which is in turn
determined by the clay content of the soil, the type of clay and the amount of organic matter
present. Soils with high clay content, particularly shrinkswell clay, will have a higher buffering
capacity than soils with little clay. Soils with high organic matter will also have a higher
buffering capacity than those with low organic matter. Soils with high buffering capacity require
a greater amount of lime to be added than a soil with a lower buffering capacity for the same
incremental change in pH.
Other amendments that can be used to increase the pH of soil include wood ash, industrial CaO
(burnt lime), and oyster shells. White firewood ash includes metal salts which are important for
processes requiring ions such as Na+ (sodium), K+ (potassium), Ca2+ (calcium), which may or
may not be good for the select flora, but decreases the acidic quality of soil.
These products increase the pH of soils through the reaction of CO32 with H+ to produce CO2
and H2O. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in the soil by removing free hydrogen ions,
thereby increasing pH. As its silicate anion captures H+ ions (raising the pH), it forms
monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute.
Decreasing pH of alkaline soil

Iron sulphates or aluminium sulphate as well as elemental sulfur (S) reduce

pH through the formation of sulfuric acid.

Urea, urea phosphate, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphates,

ammonium sulphate and monopotassium phosphate fertilizers.

organic matter in the form of plant litter, compost, and manure will decrease
soil pH through the decomposition process. Certain acid organic matter such
as pine needles, pine sawdust and acid peat are effective at reducing pH. [12]

See also

Alkali soils

Cation-exchange capacity

Fertilizer

Liming (soil)

Organic gardening

Soil conservation

Acid mine drainage

Acid sulfate soil

Soil type

References
1.
Perry, Leonard. "pH for the Garden". Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Soil Survey Division Staff. "Soil survey manual.1993. Chapter 3, selected
chemical properties.". Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Handbook 18. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
Sparks, Donald; Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2003, Academic Press, London,
UK
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ch086
Finck, Arnold (1976). Pflanzenernhrung in Stichworten. Kiel: Hirt. p. 80.
ISBN 3-554-80197-6.
Brady, N. and Weil, R. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th ed. 2002
Hansson et al (2011) Differences in soil properties in adjacent stands of Scots
pine, Norway spruce and silver birch in SW Sweden. Forest Ecology and
Management 262 522530
Rout, GR; Samantaray, S; Das, P (2001). "Aluminium toxicity in plants: a
review". Agronomie 21 (1): 45. doi:10.1051/agro:2001105. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
http://www.extension.org/pages/9875/soil-ph-and-nutrient-availability
Buol, S. W., R. J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. Soil Genesis and
Classification. (5th) Edition, Ia. State Press p. 494. 2002
http://www2.hawaii.edu/~nv