Introduction and Overview

THE CHALLENGE
URBANIZATION, INFRASTRUCTURE AND ECONOMIC
GROWTH
In 1950, only 17% of the Asian population lived in urban
areas. However, by 2030, it is expected that 55% of the
1
population will live in urban environments. This amounts
to an increase of the total urban population in Asia from
232 million people to 2.7 billion a massive change. Within
the member states of the Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN), it is expected that by 2020, two-thirds of
the entire ASEAN urban population will reside in only five
2
Mega-Urban-Regions (MUR) : the Bangkok-centered MUR
(30 million); the Kuala Lumpur-Klang MUR (6 million); the
Singapore Triangle (10 million); the Java MUR (100 million);
and the Manila MUR (30 million). Nevertheless, despite this
concentration of populations in MURs, it is the second and
higher tier cities of ASEAN that are urbanizing the fastest.
3

Asia Urbanization Trends

% of Population Living in Urban Areas
1950
2005
Cambodia
10
20
Indonesia
12
48
Lao PDR
7
22
Malaysia
20
65
Philippines
27
63
Thailand
17
33
Vietnam
12
27

2030
37
68
38
78
76
47
43

trails below the Asian average and is still a fraction of that of

5
advanced economies. As summarized by the ADB, ASEANs
infrastructure needs are estimated at $60 billion a year from
2010-2020, and this is in addition to national projects with
significant cross-border impacts such as airports, seaports,
6
and roads to borders.
Notably, the urbanization trend in ASEAN has been
accompanied by an unparalleled decline in poverty. During
the early 1970s, more than half the population of Asia and the
Pacific was poor, average life expectancy was 48 years, and
only 40 per cent of the adult population was literate. Today,
the percentage of poor people has decreased to about 25
percent of the population, life expectancy has increased to
65 years, and about 70 percent of the adults are literate. The
proportion of poor in Indonesia declined from 60 percent in
1970 to 27 percent in the late 1990s. In Malaysia from 18 to
8 percent; and in Thailand from 26 to 14 percent.
Studies in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines
have shown that most of the decline in poverty rates has
been attributed to economic growth rather than to improved
7
distribution. Cities are the drivers of this economic growth,
and they are producing a rapidly increasing share of the gross
domestic product (GDP) of their respective nations. Within
ASEAN, the average share of urban economies in national
GDP is around 80%. In Malaysia and Thailand, cities contribute
more than 90% of GDP, and close to 100% in Singapore and
Hong Kong. But even in Asian countries with low urbanization
rates, as in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, more than 65% of
GDP is now produced in urban areas. Urbanization is now

This rapid urbanization of ASEAN is part of a global trend. By

the year 2030 world urban population will increase to nearly
5 billion persons (1.35 billion more than present), increasing
the urban area on Earth by 150% in less than 20 years. And
contrary to the trend of the 20th century, the majority of the
economic growth will occur in developing countries and
mainly in second-tier and higher cities. From now to 2030,
the world will need to build the equivalent of a city of one
million people in developing countries every five days.
The demand for infrastructure to support this urban growth is
massive. Sixty percent of the area that will be urban by 2030
4
has yet to be built. Although Southeast Asia has enjoyed
decades of robust economic growth, its infrastructure coverage

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/98057950@N00/2272291132

Introduction & Overview | 3

Photo credit: Sharada Prasad, http://www.flickr.com/photos/11124467@N02/9247868120

positively correlated with national GDP growth. Cities and

city regions have replaced the nation state as the principal
drivers of economic development in many Asian countries.
Logically, many governments believe that if cities are the
engines of growth, then countries should take full advantage
of urbanization and not hold back the opportunities it can
provide for economic growth and poverty reduction.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Despite the unquestionable urbanization trends, the
conventional models of urban development that have driven
economic and human progress are changing. They are being
challenged by new risks and uncertainties. Specifically,
the effects of climate change, such as rising temperatures,
increased precipitation and sea-level rise, are altering
8
both the risk and solution landscapes of cities. Climate
change is shifting the fundamental rules of city planning and
administration. The density of people, economic activities
in the coastal areas, rich biodiversity, and natural resource
based economies make ASEAN cities especially vulnerable
9
to climate change.
The observed climate change trends in Southeast Asia that
are impacting urbanization include:
Increase in temperature,
Decrease in rainfall,
Sea level rise,
Increased frequency, duration and intensity of
extreme weather events such as droughts, storms,
floods, typhoons, heat waves and heavy precipitation
events.

4 | Introduction & Overview

Direct or first order impacts from these climate changes

such as flooding, urban heat islands and salt water intrusion are
often felt as intense, acute, and unpredictable weather events.
These events have profound implications for conventional
infrastructure, which is typically designed under-capacity
for these new extremes and is therefore prone to failure.
In addition, the indirect and cascading impacts of climate
change in the region are important to consider. Although
discussions regarding infrastructure are generally focused
on physical structures, it is important to recognize that these
structures are means to social ends. In other words, it is
services not structures that are important to users and
decision makers. The extreme weather events in the ASEAN
region have caused not only extensive damage to human life
and infrastructure losses, but have also generated significant
economic disruptions. When critical infrastructure and thus
critical services are disrupted by severe flooding, cascading
impacts occur affecting part or all of the area, social and
economic activity and the health and quality of life of the
city residents. Other cascading climate change impacts
beyond infrastructure include impacts on biodiversity that
have exacerbated water shortages, affected agricultural
productivity and threatened food security in the region.
Climate change has also increased forest and peatland
fires, transboundary smoke haze, land/forest degradation
and soil erosion, damaged coastal and marine resources,
10
and increased the risk of outbreaks of infectious diseases.

As a result, under the increasing direct and cascading impacts

from climate change, the continued urbanization in ASEAN
countries and associated trends of poverty reduction may
become profoundly more difficult to maintain.
RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS
Another challenge to the trend of continued urbanization and
poverty reduction are the limits to resource availability and
the sustainable use of ecosystem services. Cross disciplinary
research demonstrates that economic growth is already 50%
12
in overshoot. This means that human systems are presently
using 50% more than the annual productivity and assimilating
capacity of the planets ecosystems. The unsustainable
consumption of ecosystem services to subsidize the growth
of cities has global implications. One result in South East
Asia is an ominous energy-water-food nexus confronting city,
regional and national decision makers. Water security, food
security and energy security are now inextricably linked; a
demand increase in one area has negative impacts in one or
both of the other areas. The need for integrated management
and improved cross-sectoral governance is driving new
interactions and collaborations, including payment for
ecosystem service schemes, subnational-national integration
of development strategies, transboundary dialogues, and the
power of equitable public-private partnerships.
THE ASEAN SUSTAINABLE CITY COMMITMENT
Spanning from the least to the most developed, the ability
of cities to make poverty history is being threatened by
climate change, resource limits and rapid population growth.
With the recognition that the cities of South East Asia are
among the most vulnerable in the world to climate change,

ASEAN shall promote sustainable development

so as to ensure the protection of the region's
environment, the sustainability of its natural
resources, and the preservation of its cultural
heritage and the high quality of life of its
people.

Future climate change impacts and vulnerabilities in ASEAN

countries include:
a continued increase in surface air temperature,
sea level rise leading to flooding and saltwater
intrusion,
increase in water demand for urbanization and
agricultural irrigation and losses in rain-fed
agriculture,
increases in endemic morbidity and mortality due to
diarrheal disease primarily associated with floods
and droughts,
negative impact on the fisheries sector,
negative impact on the tourism sector and,
increase in the intensity and spread of forest fires due
to rises in temperature and declines in precipitation in
11
combination with increasing intensity of land uses.

- ASEAN Charter

ASEAN has demonstrated global leadership by not only

including sustainable development in the ASEAN Charter,
but also by putting forward several official declarations
in support of climate change strategies since 2007. With
direct relevance to urban adaptation to climate change,
the East Asia Summit (AES) Environment Ministers adopted
Environmentally Sustainable Cities as a priority area for
environmental collaboration at its first meeting in 2008.
As a result of the challenges and ASEANs commitment to
transformation, city practitioners across Southeast Asia are
designing and building more resilient, ecologically integrated
urban infrastructure, engaging their populations in inclusive
decision making, and collaborating across jurisdictions.
These activities are generating innovations and investment
opportunities that are shaping the future of growth throughout
the region.

WHAT WE HEARD FROM YOU

To better understand the state of climate adaptation practice
in ASEAN cities, and the challenges that practitioners are
facing, the Institute for Sustainable Communities interviewed
each team that is participating in this Climate Leadership
Academy (CLA). These interviews revealed five big ideas
facing the field, and formed the foundation of the ASEAN
Climate Leadership Academy on Urban Adaptation.
BUILDING BROAD-BASED SUPPORT
Urban climate impacts are wide-ranging, affecting all sectors,
populations, and levels of government. To respond effectively,
cities must take systemic approaches that include all sectors,
while building broad-based support for adaptation efforts.
While this task is not easy, if done well it will build a necessary
foundation for successful adaptation strategies.
Many cities that we interviewed cited the value of establishing
cross-sector working groups for adaptation planning.
Palembang, Indonesia created a Climate Change Working

Introduction & Overview | 5

Group consisting of the Environment Ministry and Public

Works departments, academic institutions, and community
groups. This group is creating a Climate Strategy that strives
to be inclusive and widely endorsed.
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam established a Climate Change
Bureau, which coordinates a Climate Change Network
consisting of a Steering Board, and several working groups in
government departments. The Network successfully created a
draft Adaptation Action Plan that includes commitments from all
government departments. Ho Chi Minh has also participated
in several international adaptation networks, including the C40
Cities Climate Leadership Group, the Connecting Delta Cities
Network, and the Green Growth Network. These networks
have greatly increased their community of practice and
allowed for a rich exchange of best practices and lessons
learned across borders.
In June 2012, Jakarta, Indonesia launched their Planning
for Integrated Coastal Adaptation Strategy (PICAS). A major
initiative of the program is focused on community-based
adaptation planning: researchers from the University of
Indonesia consulted communities living in Jakartas urban
Kampung (neighborhoods of 10,000 or fewer people) to
better understand traditional strategies for living with flooding,
such as stilt construction. These strategies are now being
incorporated into the citys zoning regulations for floodplains.
RESTORING URBAN ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
ASEAN countries enjoy rich ecosystems and strong
biodiversity. On a national level, countries have committed
to ecosystem preservation, protecting forests, rivers and
lakes, and the quality of life they afford. This important work is
now being applied on the urban-scale with significant efforts
to identify, restore and sustainably use the provisioning,
regulating, supporting and cultural services i.e. clean air
and water, flood control, food security, fuel, soil formation,
nutrient cycling, reduced heat islands, recreation, etc. that
healthy ecosystems provide to urban systems.
Since 2008, Chiang Rai, Thailand has worked with the Asian
Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN) to
adapt to new flooding and landslide threats from increased
precipitation. They began work to restore the Kok River, a
main waterway through the city that suffers from unsanitary
conditions and that is prone to flooding. Restoring the river
is expected to simultaneously control flooding, improve water
quality, reduce disease vectors, and potentially serve urban
agriculture projects.

6 | Introduction & Overview

Kuantan, Malaysia committed to maintaining 80 percent land

use dedicated to green space: they have a plan for preserving
key urban ecosystems, including mangroves, wetlands, and
forests, while any future infrastructure development must
include at least 10 percent green space. In addition, the city
has been working with local communities to plant 10,000
trees annually, which help clean the air, provide shade, and
support healthy nutrient cycling.
Legazpi, Philippines has actively planted new mangrove
forests along the coast to help mitigate the effects of sealevel rise. Theyre also implementing an Urban Drainage
Master Plan to reduce flooding risk. The plan includes the
deepening and widening of drainage canals restoration of
river dikes, and the elevation of roads.
RE-THINKING URBANIZATION
All cities that we interviewed saw themselves at crossroads.
Conventional development pathways, while effective at
reducing poverty, are not adequately addressing new risks
from population growth, resource constraints, pollution,
public health, and other urban challenges. And the effects
of climate change exacerbate these risks substantially.
Increased precipitation, temperature, drought, sea-level
rise, and extreme weather affect cities on every level and
have the potential to push urban systems to the brink. Yet with
any change, there is opportunity. Cities better understand
their climate vulnerabilities and are investing in alternative,
adaptive infrastructure, that integrates urban systems with
natural and social systems.
Chiang Rai, Thailand undertook a systemic analysis of land
use and climate vulnerability in the city. They began making
fundamental changes to the design of the city, including
removing buildings that blocked watercourses to the Kok
River, and increasing natural buffer zones around the city.
They made fundamental changes to their land use plan that
define more adaptive approaches to development. Most
importantly, they revamped their systems to enforce this plan,
and worked closely with stakeholders to achieve buy-in. They
participate actively in the Urban & Environmental Learning
Network in Thailand to share lessons learned with five other
cities Thailand.
Legazpi, Philippines, together with other cities in the Province
of Albay, has been working with the Center for Initiatives
and Research on Climate Adaptation (CIRCA) to integrate
adaptation into its spatial plan. They are using sophisticated
software program called SimCLIM, which examines the effects
of climate variability over time and space. The software was

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/13658650@N04/1392355321

used to produce new climate hazard maps that have been

integrated into urban planning.
Kuantan, Malaysia developed a coastal line master plan with
guidelines on how to develop in a way that reduces erosion.
The plan includes protections for mangroves, wetlands, and
beaches along its coast.
ALIGNING FINANCIAL INVESTMENTS
The global financial crisis took its toll on most ASEAN cities,
resulting in more scarce government resources to fund
adaptation efforts. Yet with rapid urbanization across all of the
ASEAN cities, there is no shortage of investment potential. The
challenge is to find innovative ways to align existing financial
resources for adaptation efforts that reduce investment risks
and open new, adaptive development potential.
Most of the funding for Kuantan, Malaysias adaptation efforts
are derived from local government agencies. They found
success in leveraging resources from existing environmental
projects where there is significant overlap in mission and
goals. They found support from the Kuantan Local Agenda
21 projects, various government agencies Corporate
Social Responsibility projects, and from regional economic
development initiatives.
Chiang Rai, Thailands adaptation budget is derived primarily
from central government (65 percent) and from local taxes (35
percent). They have also worked across sectors, including
NGOs and academic institutions to help with fundraising.
Cooperation with other local governments has enabled them
pool resources to work across jurisdictions on common
adaptation issues.

Legazpi, Philippines leveraged private financing as well

as government and international funds for their adaptation
activities. To maintain a sustained level of investment, they
linked their climate adaptation plan with city legislation, a move
that reduced the risk that investments may be de-prioritized
by the city. In addition, following a national mandate, five
percent of the citys estimated revenues are allocated to a
Local Calamity Fund that is used for adaptation activities.
Beyond financial resources, Legazpi has received in-kind
technical services and the provision of equipment and facilities
to support their efforts.

ELEVATING SOCIAL EQUITY
As the populations of cities increase, so does the need to
engage citizens in participatory decision making. Climate
impacts tend to affect poor populations first, which typically
have less leverage in government policy-making. Yet,
providing opportunities for poor and vulnerable populations
to understand climate risks and identify local solutions also
enhances potential pathways from poverty and a strengthened
democratic process.
Jakarta, Indonesia is in the process of overlaying a database
of slum neighborhoods with areas most at risk for flooding.
That information is used to prioritize which neighborhoods
to engage in adaptation efforts. They work with community
members to create participatory adaptation measures,
tapping into local knowledge to determine the right adaptive
infrastructure approaches.
Paksane, Lao PDR works with the village leaders to coordinate
disaster response efforts after flooding. They arrange official
liaisons between government offices and citizens: local impacts

Introduction & Overview | 7

are communicated up to government offices, which help

inform appropriate government responses.
In Legazpi, Philippines, the climate-affected poor, women,
children, and persons with disabilities are explicitly identified
in the adaptation plan. Potential climate hazards for each
vulnerable group were quantified, with adaptation measures
for prevention and mitigation, preparedness, response, and
rehabilitation and recovery. The plan also identified four
primary areas of social equity: 1) access to due process; 2)
equal protection; 3) the right to quality and consistency in
goods and services; and 4) equal policy outcomes. Examples
of equitable adaptation services include housing for at-risk
populations; availability of safe schools; temporary evacuation
facilities; and support for adaptive farming practices; and a
zero-casualty disaster response policy.

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE GUIDE

This Resource Guide represents a synthesis of information
selected for the practitioners participating in our Climate
Leadership Academy on Urban Climate Adaptation
and Infrastructure: From Risk Barriers to Results. The
Resource Guide is intended to help practitioners in cities
and metropolitan areas resolve local challenges related to
managing the social, political, environmental and financial
risks of urban infrastructure to improve climate adaptation
and urban resilience, by showcasing promising practices
and by providing efficient access to some of the very best
information and resources available.
The Resource Guide is not an exhaustive compilation of
available information a near-impossible task given the
growing volume of international studies, reports, websites,
books and blogs on the topic of climate resilience. Still,
this document reflects an effort to identify, compile, vet and
synthesize useful information on innovative policies, programs
and practices being deployed throughout the world.
THIS RESOURCE GUIDE INCLUDES:
Case Studies that discuss how various local government
practitioners in the US have made progress on climate
adaptation planning and surmounting associated social,
political, financial and environmental challenges.
Resource lists that direct practitioners toward the topicspecific sources of information studies, reports, articles, and
websites that we believe are most likely to help them improve,
expand and accelerate their adaptation and resilience efforts.

8 | Introduction & Overview

Written by Scott Muller and Michael Crowley, Institute for

Sustainable Communities

REFERENCES
1.

ADB, Competitive Cities in the 21st Century, Cluster-Based

Local Economic Development.
2. Changes in Asias fast growing cities are closely watched
across the world. A report by UN-Habitat http://www.
citymayors.com/society/asian_cities.html
3. ADB, Competitive Cities in the 21st Century, Cluster-Based
Local Economic Development. Sources UN (2002,2003);
UNDP (2005)
4. Karen C. Seto, Burak Gneralp, and Lucy R. Hutyra, Global
forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on
biodiversity and carbon pools, PNAS 2012; published ahead of
print September 17, 2012, doi:10.1073/pnas.1211658109
5. On a per capita basis, ASEAN nations have only a fraction
of the roads and railways found in OECD nations, with
dramatically lower electricity and clean water coverage.
6. http://www.adb.org/news/asean-infrastructure-fund-readies1-billion-pipeline-lending-operations?ref=themes/urbandevelopment/news
7. Changes in Asias fast growing cities are closely watched
across the world. A report by UN-Habitat http://www.
citymayors.com/society/asian_cities.html
8. Uncertainty is now a fundamental core element of urban
development, along with non-linear growth patterns, runaway
positive feedback/ cascading failures, hidden thresholds and
irrevocable tipping points.
9. Letchuman, R. (201 Is there an ASEAN policy on Climate
Change? Asia Indigenous Peoples CCMIN 10. International Centre for Environmental Management (ICEM),
Climate Change Adaptation in the Lower Mekong Basin
Countries Regional Synthesis Report (Hanoi: ICEM, 2009);
Republic of Indonesia, Indonesia Country Report: Climate
Variability and Climate Change, and their Implication (Jakarta:
Ministry of Environment, 2007); Than Myint and San Hla Thaw,
Climate Change Adaptation in Myanmar, Presentation at
the Second Workshop of the Asian University Network of
Environment and Disaster Management, February 2009,
available on the Internet at <http://www.auedm.net/Data/
activities/1st%20Workshop/Workshop/U%20Than%20Myint/
SecondMyanmar- Climate%20change.pdf> (last accessed on
22 September 2010); Manila Observatory for the Congressional
Commission on Science & Technology and Engineering,
Technical Primer on Climate Change in the Philippines (Manila:
COMSTE, 2010); and Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment, Government of Vietnam (MNRE), Climate Change,
Sea Level Rise Scenarios for Vietnam (Hanoi: MNRE, 2009).
11. IPCC, Climate Change 2007, supra, note 2
12. Wackernagael, M. et. al. 2002. Tracking the ecological
overshoot of the human economcy. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences. July 9, 2002 vol. 99 no. 14