AN OUTLINE OF THE YOGACARA- VUNANAV ADA

"
SCHOOL OF INDIAN BUDDHISM
PART ONE
ERIC CHE ETHAM
Introduction
This article is concerned with describing the essential teachings of
the Yogacara school in a structured way. The whole substance of
this work is drawn from the writings of the founder of the school,
Asar'lga, and of his brother, Vasubandhu. In addition, an extensive
commentary on one of the earlier works has been used, that of the
celebrated scholar-pilgrim, Hsuan-tsang.
Also, in the course of the article, reference will be made to
some of the first Mahayana sutras. These are not Yogacara texts
in the strict sense, but as the Yogacara doctrine 1S often an
expansion of sutra themes, e.g. the Two Truths, the Great Way to
Buddhahood and the dharmakiiya, the Mahayana sutras need to
figure at times.
Two main themes occur throughout this article. One is the
incidence of terminology, formulas and basic topics which Yoga
cara retained from the earlier IncJian Buddhist schools wh1ch
preceded it and also from some of Sakyamuni's earliest recorded
pronouncements.
The other theme will purport to show how Yogacara further
developed the deep (gambhfra) Dharma of the first Mahayana
sutras further to uncover the real nature of the Mahayana mes
sage. From that to construct a coherent and accessible system of
doctrine and practice to achieve an expressed purpose of those
Mahayana sutras - Buddhahood for the
, Buddha's followers, and
The author acknowledges with appreciation the critical suggestions received
from Dr John Powers of the Australian National University, Canberra, during
the preparation of this article.

35

Buddhist Studies Review 21, 1 (2004)

to reveal the true nature of the world (saIpsara).

ASANGA

There seems to be a general consensus among most Buddhist

scholars today that Asari.ga was the founder of the Yogacara
Vijilanavada (abbrev. Yogacara) school. He is believed to have
lived in parts of North-West Indian during the fifth century CEo At
a later stage in his life he had the co-operation of his younger
brother Vasubandhu in the development of the new school.
According to Paramartha's 'Life of Vasubandhu' \ Asari.ga's
teachings from Maitreya persuaded him of the authenticity of the
Mahayana branch of Buddhism and of the special sutras.
Although Asari.ga had long been a monk in the Sarvastivadin
order, his encounter with Maitreya changed his doctrinal outlook
and thereafter he became an ardent expositor and protagonist of
the early Mahayana sutras.
The tradition recorded by Paramartha tells us that Asari.ga
gained access to the Tuita heaven because of his mastery of
special powers through meditation practice.. There he found
Maitreya, who answered Asari.ga's longtime puzzlement over the
real meaning of sunyata. The supernatural exposition resolved all
Asari.ga's difficulties and provided an advanced degree of enlight
enment. The sunyata explanation he received was the Mahayana
tmya. Of
version of dharmanajratmya, as well as pudgaJanaJia
course, this new radical theme had already been systematised
when Nagarjuna founded the earlier Madhyamaka school.
Also, with the aid of Maitreya's tuition, Asari.ga began to per
ceive and to develop the characteristic doctrines of the new school
of Y ogacara. Among others, one particular early ahayana sutra
received his attention, the SaIpdhlnjrmocanaSl1tra , which set out
lOne of Walpola Rahula's sources in his entry on 'Asailga' in EncycJopaedia of
BuddhismII,l (1966), pp.133-46.
2

E. Lamotte, tr. L'Expjication des Mysteres (SaIpdhinmnocanasutrOl) (= EM),

Louvain 1935. [There is an English trans I. from the original Tibetan by John
Powers,

Wisdom of the Buddha, The SadJdhinmnocana Maluiyana Sutra,

36

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijnanavada School

several major doctrines associated with Yogacara. In the course of

a long career Asailga wrote commentaries on several Mahayana
sutras as well as a number of original works, several of which have
been used here as source material.
THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS

(1aka1}a)

Each of our main source books contains a description of the three

Jaksa1}as (characteristics). Direct quotations will, however be
avoided as much as possible though the footnotes will provide the
necessary references. But, of course, the explanations provided
will be drawn from, and based upon, the texts mdicated.

Parikaipita Generally speaking, this word means: false i 91agin

ings, something which is only a figment of the imagination . The
word has other connected meanings. As the lowest of the three
Jaksanas it is the most defiled. Consequently, unwarranted impu
tatIons are projected on to both 'external' and 'internal' dharmas.
Basic to thiS common realm of existence is the major falsity (in
terms of reality) of the bifurcation of subject and object, or of 'self'
and 'other'. Another factor is the acceptance of general informa
tion about the nature of something and the need of language to
S
communicate about it .
-

Berkeley 1994, and from the Chinese by John P. Keenan, The Scriprure of the
ExpHcation of Underlyjng Meaning, Berkeley 2000.]

These are: E. Lamotte, tr., La Somme du Gra.nd Vihicule d:4saJiga (Maha

yanllSa!pgraha) (= SGV), 2 vols, 2nd ed., Louvain 1973 [in the course of trans!.
into English by S. Boin-Webb; there is an Engl. trans!' from the original
Chinese by

John P. Keenan, The Summary of the Great Vehicle, Berkeley

1992]; Wei Tat, The Doctrine of Mere Consclousness (Ch'eng Wei Sili LW1)
[Sanskrit Vijiiaptimiitratiisiddhij of Hsiian tsang (= DMC), Hong Kong 1973 ;
E. Lamotte, EM (cf. n.2.) . [There is a further trans!. from the Chinese by
Francis H. Cook, including the Trllpilka, in Three Texts on Consciollsness
Only, Berkeley 1999, as well as from the Sanskrit in Stefan Anacker, Seven
Works of VllSubandhu, Delhi 1984J

F. Edgerton, Buddhist Hybnd Sanskrit Dictionary (=BHSD), lSI Indian ed.,

Delhi 1970, pp.320-1.

EM, ell.VI, section 3.

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Buddhist Studies Review 21,1 (2004)

Vasubandhu indicates that various mental objects arise due to

karmic propensity. Imaginary notions are attachd to these. In
fact, these false attributions have no real nature . ParikaJpjta
Jaka1Ja can thus be generally characterised as sensory or mental
objects imagined as real and conceived in terms of self and others.
All of it is therefore deceptive and illusory. In Yogacara terms this
applies to the whole everyday world of people, places, ideas and
events.
Paratantra. - The second of the characteristics is

paratantra
JakaIJa. The Yogacaa texts describe this in similar ways. Pro

duction due to causes , or, in more detail, whatever is depende1};t

on others, discriminations produced by causes and conditions.
This can be interpreted as referring to the formula of dependent
arising (pratityasamutpada), in other words, the operatil.Jn of the
conditioned dharmas (sarpsk(tadharma).

Ordinarily the operation of the dharmas is obscured by the

dominant worldly features of parikaJpjta. A proportion of the
practice schemes of early IndIan Buddhist schools was aimed
specifically at bringing dharma perception within. This was in
order to accentuate the effects of employing the four right efforts
(samyakpradhana) in weakening the activity of defiled (akusaJa)
dharmas and strengthening the presence of undefiled/good
(kusaJa) dharmas. And this, If successful, led the way to acqUIring
insight-knowledge (prajiia) in mainstream Hinayana. In Maha
yana and in Y ogacara it was arrived at through prajiiaparamjta,
which is a much more enhanced and somewhat differently
orientated version.
PaI1njpanna. - This is the third

Jakana, sometimes called 'own

nature' (svabhava). Simply stated, it is uftimate reality. The BHSD
gives it several meanings: completely perfected, arrived at the
9
supreme goal, nature based on knowledge of absolute truth .

8
9

Vasubandhu's TriIpiikii, w.1920. quoted in DMC, p.cxxxiii.

EM, Ch. VI, section 3.

TriIpiikii, v.25 quoted in DMC, p.cxxxiii, and BHSD, p.318.

.

BHSD, pp.325-6.

38

Cheetham

- The Yogacara- Vijiianavada School

. Vasubandhu's Tnipsika and Hsuan-tsang's Vljfiaptimatratasl'ddhi

have more detailed descriptions. It is perfected knowledge, or
prajna, which sees into th suchness (tathata) of things, perceiving
them as they really arel . More explicitly, painjpanna is the
'complete and perfect nature of all dharmas WhICh IS revealed by
the two emptinesses ( sim ya ta) ' 1. The name parinipanna is also
given to the purified form o( paratantra, but it is etern lly free
from parikaJpita-nature or false imagination and illusionl . It can
thus be inferred that this ultimate reality has to do with the true
nature (dharmata) of dharmas and with the perfected prajna of
thei emp H ness (sunyata), sometimes referred to as 'purity'

(anasrava) .

Finally, we are told in the Vljnaptimatratasiddh}4 that all three

natures or characteristics (svabhavalak$ana) are inseparable from
mind/mentals (citta) and their associates (caitta). These mentals
(citta) conditioned and perfumed by false nature of self and others
are really deceptive and they obscure the totally dependent and
impermanent nature (paratantra) of the dharmas, the basic
constituents. But this too is not completely perfected. Only
parinispanna reveals the real emptiness of all dharmas and dis
sipates the wrong view of subject and object. The text concludes:
'These ree natures are all inseparable from mind etc. (dtta,

caitta)'l .

THE EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES IN YOGACARA

One of Yogacara's important innovations was to add two more
consciousnesses to the already existing six. The original six go back
!O

DMC, pp.623-4.
Ibid, p.633.
12
Ibid, p.635.
13
L. de La Vallee POllssin, tr. L'Abhidhmmakosa de VasubandJw (= Kosa), 6
vois, repro Brussels 1980 [English trans!. by Leo M. Pruden, Abhldhannakosa
bha$yam, 4 vo\s, Berkeley 1988-901, Ch.2, p.309, gives the basic view of 'pure'
and 'impure' related to dharmas.
14 DMC, p.637.
11

15

Ibid.

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Buddhist Studies Review 21, 1 (2004)

to the Buddha's ,recorded words in the old Pflli texts on the

eighteen dhatus. Sakyamuni explained that the All is just six triads .
of eye, visibles and vIsual consciousness dependently arising. And
so on for hearing, smell, taste, touch and the mentals. The
particular consciousnesses connected with each of these sensory
and mental faculties aft the six consciousnesses as part of the
eighteen dhatu scheme . Because each of the dhatus IS a dharma
or a collection of dharmas this formula represents the world and
its beings.

Manas is the first addition

Manas, the .seventh ronsciousness
made by Yogacara to the original formula of six consciousnesses
as part of the dhatu scheme. It is placed in the sixth of the triads,
alongside manodhatu, the mental organ element, and in certain
aspects substitutes for it. According to the textual ddinitions
manas is a dharma but it has mUltiple functions and associates.
Primar \lf' it has two functions. It can cogitate and reflect upon its
objects . This object is constantly supposed to be the atman.
When it is transformed anjv!ttJ), however, it can cognise ab
l
sence of self (nairatmya) .
-

In its normal condition manas has four particular features: self

delusion (atmamoha)
self belief Wtmad!fj{1)
self conceit
(atmamana) self regard (atmasneha) .
-

These four, in their turn, produce various defiled associates (all

upaklifj{adharmas) and because of this constantly enhanced com

bmation become an obstacle to the practice of the Way. Such a

centre, controlling forms of thought and cognition, is doubtless
the reason why manas is the location of the idea of 'self' and 'me'.
As already indicated, however, manas is capable of trans
formation and refinement. This can result from fundamental
Buddhist practices plus special Mahayana practices (more of this
anon). But it seems to occur in the upper reaches of the bodhi16
17
18
19

S8Ipyu tta-nikflya IV, 14 and 32.

Trimsika, quoted in DMC, p.287.
DMC, p.287.

Ibid.,

p.289.
40

Cheetham - The Yogacara- Vijnanavada School

sattva stages and leads on to one of the end goals, full and perfect
knowledge (sarvajiiiina). This implies a considerable degree of
preparation for full implementation. In Yogacara terms, however,
the disturbed and restricted state of manas in its defiled state is
the general condition of everyone.
From this textual information manas can be generally de
scribed as a mental focus and an intellectual faculty producing
responses, decisions and judgements based on data supJ?lied by
the first six consciousnesses and mental objects. All tbls takes
place within a particular dharma stream (pudgala, dharma
sarptiina), but the same process occurs in every person'.

Alayavijiiiina (store consciousness). - The most important addi

tion that Yogacara made in the set of consciousnesses was the
eighth, the store consciousness.

It should be noted that this eighth consciousness does not

appear i5b the element of the eighteen dhiitu scheme of all the
dhannas . Thus it is something special needing much e.p lanation.
Our textual sources provided this in abundant measure ..
Vasubandhu's verse is concise when he says that this iilaya
vijfiiina is also called retribution consciousness (villFavljiiiina)
and seed-carrier consciousness (sarvabIjakavijfjiina) . Further
more, according to its main title, iilayavljiiiina, it is the receptacle
consciousness because it receives and retains all the traces
(viisana) of every dharma activity. These deposits are seeds (bija)
which remain in !he iilayavijiiiina as potential causes until their
2
eventual fruition .

Alayavljfiiina is the generative cause of all dharmas arising

because its seeds (bija) produce dharmas as and when conditions
are favourable. Thus it is the medium of karmic actuation and so is

20
21

.A diagram of the eighteen dhatuswill follow in

EM, DMC and SGV.

TriIp.sika,

v.2b, quoted in DMC, p.103.

DMC, p.1OS.
41

Part

Two.

Buddhist Studies Review

21, 1 (2004)

24

also called vipakajiiana

The aJayavijiiana itself is said to be regarded by manas as the
'inner self'. As such, the aJayavijiiana is grpeo by manas in the
same way that manas grasps everything else .
Asanga makes a point emphatically in a new direction. He
writes that dharmas arise due to the pratityasamutpada, the
twelve-linked chain of dependent arising. The twelve links dis
tribute pleasure and pain. They also qtermine the existences in
good or bad destinies (sugatidurgatl) . Asanga then concludes:
the aJayavfjiiana is a retribution consciousness provided with all
the seeds sarvabijakavipakavijiiana) which produce the pratitya
samutpada and so all the existences ip the triple world and all
destimes arise from this consciousness2 .
All these processes, actions producing seeds, seeds producing
actions, show the aJayavljiiana to be a universal and unending
conscious 'atmosphere' in which everything lives and dies accord
ing to karmic seed production and fruition. The Mahayanasa1p
graha expresses this in difficult lan Uage. Asanga says that all
defiled (samkJesika) dharmas lodge asmin alijante) in the aJaya
vijiiana as fruit (phaJabhavana) and t e aJayavijiiana ispresent in
these dharmas III the form of causes (hetubhavena) . Further
more, it is described as being like a violent torrent proceeding with
all the seeds. This has not been revealed before, the Buddha is
said to explain, because the aJayavljiiana is profound aq subtle
beyond the understanding of the uninstructed and foolish .

On this textual evidence it can be said that the store conscious

ness is a stream of continuous consciousness of universal dimen
sions. The seed elements (bija) stored in it are forever being
activated into dharmas which by their actions and associations
24
25

26

27
28
29

p.32.
p.l05.
SOY, p.37.
Ibld., pp.37-9.
Ibid., pp.12-13.
Ibid., p.14, quoting the SaI[ldhininnocana V, 7.

SOY,

DMC,

42

Cheetham - The Yogacara- Vijrianavada School

\

produce patterns and constructions of both 'internal' and

'external' composites. All this produces the beings, worldly per
ceptions and the responses to perceptions, of Sarp.sara.
This profound penetration to the aJayavijiiana gives rise; in

Yogacara, to a further significant doctrine, the teaching of

vijiiaptimatrata, with a literal meaning of 'mere notional pro

jections', sometimes referred to as 'representation only'. This has
two main meanings. First, that all perceptions of 'externals' are
the result of seeds and dharmas arising from the store con
sciousness (aJayavijiiana), so that all sensory perception is mind
produced and has no mdependent existence. The Mahayana
saIJ1graha quotes the Dasabhrlmlkasrltra, jying ' ... in the Three
Worlds there is nothing but mind (citta) .' . Hsiian-tsang himself
says: 'The word "mere" (matra) does not drPy dharmas so long as
they are inseparable from consciousness ... .
. .

'

The second main meaning has to do with the ultimately false

bifurcation of subject and object, sometimes given as atman and
dharmas. From this false apprehension arise all the defilements
connected with grasping and selfhood. Vasubandhu's verses are
terse as usual. He says that when no idea of object is considered
this is the state of vJjiiaptimatrata, in which the a:prehension of
each object and the act of apprehension are absent .
The actual apprehension of vljiiaptimatrata is not a matter of
reasoning or acceptance of scripture. Asari.ga tells us in dtail how
this 'higher knowledge' is gained. It becomes accessible in one of
the more advanced stages of the bodhisattva process and results
from training in the special insights concerning the nature of
mental processes.
In fact, vijiiaptimatrata or mere notional projections, as a
penetration into a part of suchness (tathata), occurs in the bodhi
sattva stage of darsanamarga, where deep insight examination of
30

3l

32

DMC,p.507.
Ibid., p.505.

TriIpsikii, v.28, quoted in Ibid., p.xxxvii.

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Buddhist Studies Review

2 1, 1 (2004)

mental and external objects reveals the true nature (dharmata)33.

Asanga tells us that at this stage the bodhisattva uses four
exammations to realise that objects are simpl)J mental words and
the names of these objects are conceptual only 4. This is the actual
full knowledge of vijjjciptimatrata and, when gained, all ideas of
self and others are dissIpated because inner and outer no longer
obtain, all is mind-made.
The indication here is that within the defiled realm of pan"
kalpita, i.e., most of the time, whatever is attributed to conscious
experience has little to do with what is actually there. For vijjjapti
matrata, externals and internals are simply names and concepts,
part of sfinyata.

Bijas (seeds, potentialities)

It has been seen above that the alayavijjjana carries all the seeds
(sarvabIjaka). These seeds (bIja), or potentialities, are deposited
by past actions of the stream and each of them will enge?der a
particular dharma when the conditions are appropriate3 . The
seeds are like dharmas, part of a cluster and series which resides in
the alayavljjjana. Unlike dharmas, they are not momentary. They
can persist for aeons or moments, depending upon the presence of
suitable conditio, i.e., existing dharmas, for them to fructify as a
retributive cause .
In fact, the bIjas are the Yogacara medium for the transmission
of karmic retribution, because the qualities deposited at their
inception are retained and when the bijas engender a new dharma
the results of these qualities are injected into that particular
dharma. The moment tbat is done the bIja disappears.
The combined result of the process is an unending cycle. The

Vljjjaptimatratasiddhj summarises that bIjas engender conscious

ness.
33

34

35

36

This

engendered consciousness creates and deposits!

SGV, p.155, plus Hsuan-tsang's commentary.

Ibid, p.161, plus Hsuan-tsang's commentary.
DMC, pp.127 and 169; also Triqlsika, vv. 18,19, quoted in
Ibid, p.81.
44

ibid, p.xxxiii.

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijftanavada School

influences new bijas. Bijas thus created and increased by this

imprinting (viisanii) influence the engendered consciousness . The
proce9 evolves in a reciprocal cycle in the manner of cause and
effect .
For the inhabitants of the Darikaipita realm all, or most, of
these arising seeds . will be of the efiled (kii${a) variety. But
because they all denve from past actIons some of these may have
been deposited by Dharma practice in past existences. Con
sequently, some seeds could be outflows of insight-knowledge
(prajiia). They too will surface when conditions are suitable. So
any present Dharma practice could well be augmented by exercise
in the distant past. Or, as one might say, one may have inherent
capabilities only realised under certain CIrcumstances.
Seeds (bija) are not special to Yogacara, although their modus
operandj certainly is. The question is asked by the Sarvastivadins
in the Abhidharmakosa, 'What is meant by "seed" (bija)?' The
answer given by Vasubandhu is that it is the five skandhascapable
of producing a fruit by means of pariIJiimavise$a. The latter is
defmed as the evolution of the series (s{ptiina) to the point when
the necessary fruit comes into existence .

In this context of Buddhist schools prior to Yogacara the bija

seems to serve the same purpose. It is the medium of transmitting
karmic effects, i.e. retributIon (vjpaka). Here it operates in a
linear dimension by evolution of the elements of the stream of
consciousness (dharmasaIptiina). For Yogacara, however, the
seed (bija) is deposited in the iliayavijiiiina, which retains it out
side the evolving stream until that particular stream produces
conditions suitable for the seed to engender the dharma fruit.

Viisanii (deposit, influence)

Closely connected with the aiayavijiiiina and the bijas is another
important Yogacara doctrine. This is viisanii, which has several
meanings as noted above. It also has two main functions; the first
37
38

ibJd., p.B5.
Kosa, Ch.2, p.l85.

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has already been mentioned in connection with the seeds (bija).

Vasana concerns the traces or impressions deposited in the alaya
vijiiana by every active dharma, i.e., every thought, word and deed
of conSCIOUS beings. By this deposit or trace a seed (bija) is
delivered into the custody of the alayavijiiana. This seed carries
the potentiality of a later result imbued with the karmic quality of
the original act, or dharma . This is the first of the functions of
vasana. Such a seed, in company with many others, remains in the
alayavijiiana indefinitely until appropriate conditions obtain in the
active world which would allow the seed to delivel its full
potentiality by engenderinf particular dharma as a retribution
(vjpaka) for the past actions .
The second function of vasana is its capacity to influence
(increase or diminish) previously deposited seeds in the alaya
vijiiana. Such influence (vasana) IS thus capable of augmenting or
weakening seeds or clusters of seeds already held in the alaya
vijiiana for future emergence as dharmas.
This influence, sometimes rendered as perfuming, can of
course be of either a good or bad variety. Activity of a bad or
depraved kind can be sustained or dispersed by the impact of
appropriate actions and their outflow of mfluence4o. The constant
resurgence of the I?assions is actually . br?ught about by rel.evant
_
seeds and the ongomg sustenance by simIlar vasana
41. In this way
the seeds (bija), following further influence (vasana), combine
within the alayavijiiana to project the karmic results into a future
existence. ThiS occurs when suitable conditions, already existing,
stimulate and encourage the seed clusters, reinforced by vasana,
to emerge and engender new dharmas.
Such a karmic procedure of action and reaction, of short or
long duration, has consequences for all the practice systems of
Buddhist teaching, both mainstream and Mahayana. Asanga
elaborates on this m his explanations of the special Mahayana and

:
41

TrUpsika, w.18,19, quoted in DMC, p.cxxxiii,

IbJd., p.135.
Ibid., pp.581-5.

46

also p.109.

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijfianaviida School

Yogaara forms of practice to be described here later. Asari.ga sets

out the recommended methods a being based upon and drawn
from the sutra texts themselves 2. The special topics of the
Mahayana deep-teaching sutras have to be assimilated, pondered
upon and absorbed by hearing (iruta), or by reading them in such
a way that seeds and future imprenation is channelled into and
stored within the alayavijiiana. This is called srutavasanabija and
Asari.ga states that deposits of this kind we also the seed of the
dharmakaya, the real body of the Buddha .
From what the text explains later it seems to be the case that if
some seeds are 'cultivated' by right J?ractice they will grow into the
dharmakaya itself, i.e. into full enhghtenment. Asari.ga describes
one of the main rocedures which can produce this result. The
texts and topics the contents of the Mahayana sutras) contain
deep Dharma an insight-knowledge. These need to be accessed
by close attention to them and allowing the impregnation of
hearing (irutavasana) to saturate the mental series. Correct
reflection (yonjiomanaskara) on the words and their import gives
access to unfettered knowledge (nkvikaJpakajiiana) 4. This is part
of the special practices of the bodhisattva process leading to
Buddha-hood. In this manner vasana, bija and the aJayavljiiana all
have a practice dimension when allied to the gambhira Dharma of
the early Mahayana sutras.

As with the seeds (bija) the idea and function of vasana are not
a Yogacara innovation. Vasubandhu, writing about the teaching of
the Sarvastivadins and others, says that bhavana perfumes and
!mpregnats thought. Thus pavana , or recIliI?g n cultivating,
IS the equivalent of vasana
. As well as this similanty of usage,
the Sarvastivadins had another special term which prefigures the
Yogacara use of vasana. This term is upadta, or accumulted act,
i. e., an action reinforced by deliberate further approval 6. With
42

43

44

4S

46

SOY, p.3.

Ibid., p.68.

IbId., pp.68, 16l.

Kasa, Ch.2, p.lS7; Ch 4, pp.248-9.
Ibid., ChA, p.242.

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Buddhist Studies Review

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more technical precision this is a dharma-element followed by

other dharmas of approval and, lacking any regret, thereby
increases the retribution (vipaka) of the first dharma.
This procedure is almost identical to the effects of vasana on
the bIjas. The difference in Yogacara is that this takes place in the
alayavijiiana, and not in the dharmasaIptana. Here IS one indi
cation of the origin of this particular process.
The triple gnosis (sruta, dnta, bhavana)47

The Yogacara elaboration and combination of the a!ayavijiiana,

bIja and vasana set down markers for the right practice necessary
to fulfil the basic goal of all Mahayana: Buddhahood, or full
enlightenment. This goal is often expressed in the early Mahayana
sutras, especially the Lotu (Saddharmapum;1adkasutra), the
Vimalakirtinirdda and the SDramgamasamadhisDtra. Such right
practic is generall):, known as te stages of th odhisattva pth.
Yogacara was mamly responsIble for provldmg the detaIled
sequence of these practices contained in the whole extent of the
bodhisattva path or process.
One of these is bahusruta, literally meaning 'much hearing',
but in this context meaning well-versed and well-acquainted with
the content of the sutras. Bahusruta is also an umbrella term
covering several other special teaching formulas. One of these is
the title of this section. But bahusruta needs to be presented first
so that the intended purpose of the others can be perceived.
The basic notion of bahuSruta was well-known in pre-Buddhist
times. It was then understood s referring to one who was learned
and well-versed in the Vedas . In the earliest Buddhist records
Ananda is portrayed as the highest example of Buddhjt erudition
in that he c<:!n recall all the teachings he had heard . For early
Mahayana, Ananda was completely surpassed by the great bodhi
sattva MaiijusrI, who could recall and expound all the teachings of
47

48

49

G. Tucci, Minor Buddhist Texts, Part II, Rome 1958, p.160.

M. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, repr. Delhi 1981, p.726.
Ariguttara-nikaya II, pp.28-9.
48

Cheetham - The Yogii.cii.ra-Vijiiii.navii.da School

every Buddha, not just Sakyamuni5o Asanga is explicit on the
Yogacara application of this word. He says that the bodhisattva
perfumes his mental states (cittasa1J1tana) by much hearing (bahu
irota) of the Mahayana teaching . He reiterates the point by saying
that these mental states (cittacajttasa1J1tana) are perfumed by
much healJing (bahuirota) of the texts and topics of the
Mahayana 1.
The primary formula associated with bahusruta is the so-called
triple gnosis of hearing or reading Mahayana topics (irota),
considering and {Jondenng them (cinta) and meditative contem
plation of all thIS (bhavana). As with several other key terms
already mentioned, this formula was well known to the early
Buddhist schools, particularly the Sarvastivada. Vasubandhu
describes all three elements in his Abhjdharmakosa. He describes
sruta thus, ' . . . a certainty which procee9s by means of knowledge
called the speech of a qualified person's . Cita is given as, ' . . . t:he
certainty born from internal examination' . The third factor,
bhavana, is rendered as, ' .. . a certainty born from meditation .. . so
that the specific marks of all three are established' .
Even before the time of the Abhjdharmakosa some early Pali
suttas proclaim the same theme as the Buddha's word. Thus we
have the Buddha's admonition to his monks that they should listen
to th suttas attentively so as to understand, recite and master
them 5. The AIiguttara is more specific and comes close to the
tripe gnosis above . It recommended JJstening to, reflecting upon
and understanding the inner meaning .

50

E. Lamotte, tr. SliramgamasamadhiS(itra, The Concentration ofHeroic Pro

Engl. trans!. by S. Boin-Webb, Riclunond!London 1998, p.208 ff and
n.278
51 SGV, pp.154-5, 159.
52 Kosa, Ch.6, p.143.
53
Ibid., pp.143-4.
gress,

54

55

56

Ibid.
SaIpyutta-fllkaya II, 267.
AJiguttara-nikaY;i V, 26.

49

Buddhist Studies Review 21,1 (2004)

Yogacara inherited all this as common practice. Asanga puts

the whole procedure in its wider context. He tells us that the slitras
teach Dharma meaning while the Vinaya puts it all into action.
The aim is to liberate from Sarpsara and that is done by vasana,
This influence or impregnation is achieved by srota, cinta and, in
place of the usual bhavana, Asanga gives us ' .. . by cultivating
tranquillity (samatha) there i calming, and through insight
(vipasyana) there is penetration' 7.
Further on in the same text Asanga expands on this by saying
that the vasana necessary for enlightenment arises from the
Dharma heard from the slitras and received and understood
correctly. These deposits (seeds) are c[fied forward by the
retributIon-consciousness (vipakavijiiana) . The reason for the
replacement of bhavana in the old triple formula is not stated.
One possible reason may be the prominence given to samatha and
vipasyana in the Sarpdhmirmocanasutra.
This slitra was highly regarded by' early Y ogacara and the text
devotes a whole chapter to a detaII exposition of the various
processes involved in these practices . It also defines the triple
gnosis but s Mbstitutes samatha and vipasyana for bhavana as the
third factor . Because of the extensive mstructions given in the
Samdhinirmocanasutra and because of the usual contextual
pattern of close and progressive attention to the contents of the
Mahayana scriptures (and earlier Canons), Asanga may well have
followed its example.
Whatever the reasons for the change they must have been
strong to warrant altering such a well-established formula. At least
part of the reason can be found in samatha and vipasyana them
selves. Not only does the Samdhinirmocanasutra deal in
considerable detail with samatha and vipasyana (the third part of
the triple formula), it also sets out clearly what it is all for. The
57

. 58
59
60

SOY,

p 3.
Ibid., pp.67-8.
EM, Ch.8, sections 1-35.
Ibid., section 24.
.

50

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijiianavada School

,

opening of Chapter 8 has the Buddha listing the twelve sub

dIvisions of the Canon from sutras through birth stories and
exploits (avadana) to instructions and explanations (upadeSa).
The text continues that all this is listened to attentively.
Recollecting extracts all this is reflected upon and persistently
recalled. The result is said to be a bodily and mental attitude
1
called samatha, or calm tranquillit/ . Moving to vipaiyaml, the
text tells us that once having gamed the calm of samatha a
penetrating examination of the Dharma extracts follows. This .
consists of perceived images in interior concentration which arise
from what has been heard and recollected. These are subjected to
investigation, examination, a survey nd a judgement which is
called vipasyana or penetrating insight
The purpose is reiterated further on in the text. Here it says
that samatha and vipasyana should be based on the Dhara m
6
conformity with the teachings already received and adopted . The
Samdhinirmocanasl1tra continues to analyse the various types and
groups of these practices and their topics. Later, it tells usf the
expected progression of this formulation of the triple gnosis .
This sutra again presents the third factor of the triple gnosis

(ruta, cinta, bhavana) as the pair of samatha and vipasyana. It

also reminds us that only this pair is capable of genetrating the

meaning and intention of the text in question. Sruta a nd6finta
contribute to 'deliverance' but cannot, on their own, reach it .
All of this indicates the basic purpose of these special practices.
In effect, the necessity of 'much hearing' (of the textual topics of
Mahayana) called bahusIuta is brought about by the triple gnosis
of srota and cinta and completed by samatha and vipasyana. Here
we have one of the principle Yogacara practice methods. A
method which is a constant requirement throughout the process of
61

62
63

6
4

IbJd., Ch.8, Nos 2 and 3.

Ibid., No.4.
Ibid., No.2.
Ibid., No.24.
IbJd.

51

Buddhist Studies Review 21, 1 (2004)

the bodhisattva stages (bhiiml). The combination of bahusruta

and the triple gnosis is based upon and employs the co-ordination
of the alayaVljIlana, the bijas and vasana in a practice manner
adaptable to all capabilities. And it is aimed at the realisation of
the deep (gambhira) teaching of the Mahayana siitras and the
subsequent explanation of them. Eventually, by means of the
bodhisattva process (which uses this technique) the ultimate goal,
also presented in the Mahayana texts, is broug h t within reach, i.e.,
full and perfect enlightenment.
At a much less elevated level the meaning of the word bahu
rota and its associated methods of the triple gnosis was expanded

from earlier times by early Mahayana and Yogacara. It was

intended to convey a being or beings, well acquainted with Maha
yana sutra contents and motivated to pursue deep Dharma. This
word also imp lies a stream of consciousness (dharmasaJptana),
impregnated (vasita) with, and saturated by, Dharma assimilation
from past existences. These propensities were accompanied by
good roots produced by long-term engagement in right conduct
and general outlook conducive to appreciating the content of the
Mahayana sutras.
THE THREE TURNINGS OF THE DHARMA WHEEL

Now that some of the main topics of Yogacara have been

presented, one of the matters with which this article is concerned
can be addressed. This, as mentioned in the introduction, is the
theme that Yogacara preserved and made use of a number of
technical terms and topics which were part of the corpus of early
Indian Buddhist doctnne well before the Mahayana appeared on
the scene as a distinct teaching. The importance of this feature, if
it can be shown, is that it would help to illustrate that Yogacara,
with Madhyamaka before it, is firmly linked to the doctrines and
practices of the first Indian Buddhist schools and in some cases to
the original itself. The situation can be likened to a kind of
evolution. Although the later forms are dissimilar in certain
resl?ects, they contain features or elements which point clearly to
. theIr parentage and to their part in a long development.
This picture is set out in a particular wa) by. on f;,h!,,,,,,'.?rJv}

Cheetham - The Yogacara-VijiHinavada School

66
Mahayana siitras, the Sarpdhinirmocanasutra . In this text the
special teaching of the three turnings of the Wheel of the Dharma
is explained. Tne first turning was at VaranaI, where the Buddha
pronounced the Four Noble Tr4ths (caturaryasatya) and other
original formulas. This so-called Sravak a teaching is said to have
been insufficiently explained and gave rise to some controversy.
As a result of this the Mahayana was enunciated, in particular the
doctrine of dhannanairatmya, i.e., all dharmas are without own
nature (sarvadharmanii)svabhava). This was the second turning of
the Wheel.
This too was considered as open to criticism and insufficiently
explicit. So the Wheel was turned for the thire} time. Now the
teaching of sunyata was explicit for both the Sravaka and the
Mahayana . .I!1 this tird exposition the text says it 4s unsurpassed,
6
has an explicit meanmg and causes no controversy .
What this does, amongst other things, is to show that the
Dharma, as an expressed teaching, is capable of development and
a deeper, more precise meaning. ThiS is just what Yogacara
perceived and revealed, and in this way Yogacara can be regarded
as the third turning of the Wheel. It is certamly true that Yogacara
followed on as a further teaching, requiring some knowledge of
the earlier corpus for its own right comprehension.
Some of the evidence for this can be seen in the special
terminology used here to set out the main doctrine of Yogacara.
For example, the alayavljiiana, perhaps the fundamental Yogacara
teaching: at first sight the descriptions of the alayavijiiana may be
disconcerting to anyone familiar with the earlier mainstream
teaching, even for some early Mahayanists. But it has to be noted
that a very similar theme formed part of the doctrine held by the
mainstream Mahasarp.ghika school. They called it the root con
sciousness (mulavijiiana) and it was spoken of as a 'hidden' teach
ing in much the same way as it is presented in the Sarpdhi
mrmocanasutra, where the Buddha stated that the alayavljiiana
66

6,

1fl0{.;"::-,,:9>_'
fhid.. C;Cl: Lion "10
1 .

53

Buddhist Studies Review

21, 1 (2004)

is not revealed to the uninstructed'. The wording used by

Professor A. Bareau deserves to be partly quoted to appreciate
the similarity: .
'There is a root-consciousness (miiJavijiiana) which serves as
support for the eye-consciousness and the other sense conscigts
nesses, just as the root of the tree is the basis for the leaves ... .
'

Whatever the date of origin of the MahasaI11ghika school it was

certainly well before Yogacara appeared, an this MahasaI11ghika
school undoubtedly formed part of the malllstream branches of
Indian Buddhism.

The next terminological linkage is the seeds (bija). It has

already been shown in previous pages that this term was used by
the Sarvastivadin school, as recorded in the Abhjdharmakosa.
Also, its actual usage by the Sarvastivadins is very similar to its
purpose in the Yogacara scheme, i.e., as the carrier of karmic
results into the future. Here we have another case of Yogacara
reaching back into an early mainstream Hlnayana school's
teaching to gain the basis for its own version.
Both vasaml and bahusruta, already presented earlier, are
further examples of terminological linking between Y ogacara and
the mainstream body of terminology. Vasana was part of the
Sarvastivadin technical terminology and it
defined in the Abhj
dharmakosa as the equivalent of bhavana . The meaning is also
very similar, as something that influences and impregnates the
mental series. But Yogacara applied this, not to the mental series,
but to the alayavljiiana.

j?

For bahusruta there is a similar correspondence. This term

was known and used from the earliest days of the Indian SaI11gha
as referring to a monk who was well-versed in the canonical texts
and who could recall them. In early Mahayana the word retained
this meaning, except that the great bodhisattvas could both recall
68

A.

Bareau, US Sectes bouddhiques du Petit VihicuJe,

Ps.n (my translation).

9

Kosa, ehA, p.248.

54

Paris/S<>igon 1955,

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijiianavada School

much more and express more deeply7o. Even more expansion in

application took place in Yogacara. Here the word bahuruta was
closely connected with Yogacara usage of bija and vasana to mean
someone who has applied themselves both deeply and positively to
the contents of the Mahayana siltras and sastras with the effect
that a permanent and transforming impression is made on their
mental series. This, in its turn, advances that person (pudgaJa)
towards and along the bodhisattva process.
There are more linking features needing a place at this point,
although they have not yet been presented III detail. They are the
eighteen dhatus and the dharma elements. Both will be set out in
Yogacara terms below. Now, these need to be discussed briefly
and set alongside the other terminology linking Yogacara with the
earlier Indian Buddhist schools and in some cases with the
recorded words of the Buddha himself.
First, the eighteen dhatus (realms and dOIRains) have been
specified by the Buddha as the all or everything . These eighteen
domains are the five senses, their respective realms, plus their
respective consciousnesses, as well as the mental organ and
consciousness and its mental objects (see eighteen dhatusdiagram
in Part Two).
This major formula is basic to all the early mainstream schools
and had to be known and understood. It is also fundamental to
Yogacara, which accepted it and employed it as central to the
Yogacara system. Asanga, in fact, used the formyJa as the overall
framework for his version of the dharma scheme , of which more
anon. Thus Yogacara employed this fundamental formula (with
certain additions and interpretations) going back to the recorded
words of the Buddha and the Canons of most, if not all, of the
mainstream schools.
70

S:l1raIpgamasamadhisl1tra trans., op.cit., p.208.

Sa.rpyutta-nikaya IV, 14 and 32.
The Compendium of tile Higher TeachIiIg (PhIlosophy) by Asanga (Abhidharmasamucc,7ya), Engl. trans!' by S Boin-Webb from the French of Walpola
Rahula, Fremont 2001, pp.23 ff.

71
72

55

Buddhist Studies Review

21, 1 (2004)

It is a similar, if rather more complicated, story with the

dharmas. The details of the particular Y ogacara dharma system
will be set out in later pages. At this point it needs to be shown
how Yogacara inherited the original dharma scheme, which had
been elaborated in the Abhidharma texts. Perhaps the most
significant item in the records of the Buddha's words on dharmas
is to be found in Dhammapada I, which has the Pali text of the
first verse: 'Manopubba1P,ama dhammiF etc., given as 'Mind
precedes all mental states' .

Another example is found in the AIiguttara: 'Whether or not

the Holy Ones appear in the world, the essential nature of Jpings
pertaining to things (dharma1}aIp dharmata) remains stable' .
More examples of this major topic will be given here later.
Suffice to say that a good proportion of the theses of the
Sarvastivadins concerns dharmas and citta and the Sarvastivadins
are one of the first separately identified schools of Indian
Buddhism. Other mainstream schools disagree on the quality and
substance of dharmas, e.g., Jpe Bahusrutas,. Lokottaravadins,
Andhakas and Prajiiaptivadins .
Furthermore, that great compendium of mainstream Hinayana
doctrine, the AbhjdharmakoSa by Vasubandhu, devotes significant
parts of Chapters 2 and 4 to defming dharmas.
Y ogacara also had a dharma scheme of its own, as we shall see,
which was derived from the earlier systems of the mainstream
Hinayana schools, earticularly the SarvastiYtada. This is confirmed
when the two detailed lists are compared 6. Of the 100 dharmas

73

Translated by Yen. Buddharakkhita, Kandy 1996, p.23.

From E. Lamotte's History ofIndian Buddhism, tr. S. Boin-Webb, Louvain
la-Neuve 1988, p.25 and n.25, quoting AIiguttara-nikaya I, p.126, and Visuddhi
magga, p.518
75 Cf. Bareau, Les Sectes bouddhiques ... , op. cit., for analysis and appendages.
76
J. Takakusu, The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy, Honolulu 1947.
Dharma sheets at pp.72 and 94. N.B. some items of the Hosso sheet have been
amended here (in the following pages) in the light of Asanga's own listing in the

74

56

Cheetham - The

Yogacara- Vijlianavada School

"
listed for Hoss6, i.e., the Japanese form of Yogacara, over sixty
are common to both Sarvastivada and Yogacara. The rest are
specific Yogacara additions to the old scheme. Not only that, but
many of the definitions of the dharmas in common use are
virtually unchanged by Yogacara. That is not to say that the Yoga
carins Just adopted the old dharma system. Far from it. Their
additions to it and their basic reinterpretation of the whole system
shows that the Yogacara scheme was substantially developed from
the previous dharma teachings.
All of these examples of change and evolution of the earlier
scheme of dharmas serve as an illustration of the topic of the three
turnings of the Dharma Wheel.
The teaching of the three turnings of the Dharma Wheel has
been described at the beginning of thIS section. In effect, it sets out
a three-stage progression of main teaching topics. These develop
the earliest formulas, i.e., the Four Noble Truths, into the Maha
yana form of sunyata. Furthermore, there is a development
between the second and third turns of the Wheel which involves a
more explicit exposition of sunffita for all the Buddha's followers,
both Hinayana and Mahayana . Such a progression is evident in
each of the six examples given above (aJayavijiiana, bija, vasana,
bahusruta, eighteen dhatus and the dharmas). Each of these
originated in the earliest Buddhist teachings and each of them was
revIsed and reformulated in the Yogacara system - they represent
g direct linkage with the early Buddhist schools and to some of
Sakyamuni's own recorded words. They are some of the first phase
doctrinal topics and special terms taken up by Yogacara. More of
the same are spread throughout Asanga's own works, especially
the Mahayanasmpgraha and the Abhldharmasamuccaya.
In the MahayanasaIpgraha, as an example, in the Introduction
(prastavana), the Abhidharma is discussed. In Chapter III Sarp
sara and Nirval).a feature, as wet! as the five margas. Chapter V
See also lists in the appendices to this article (Part
Two).
77 EM, XXX and XXXI.

AbhidhaI711asamuccaya,

57

Buddhist St udi es Review 21, 1 (2004)

focuses on siIa, dtta and prajiia. And in Chapter X the five

skandhas lppear and there is an exposition of the Buddha's
7
All these topics figure prominently in the earlier
attributes
Dharma teachings. Here, however, they are all reorientated and
expanded to conform to the Yogacara system.

In the light of this, it is possible to see Yogacara as a further

teaching, going deeper and more explicitly into the original
doctrines. Just as suggeted in the . Sarpdbimimocanasl1tra, in fact,
a pattern of a very anCIent practIce may also be seen here. The
Vimalakfrtinirdeasl1tra has an early section in which Vimalaklrti
questions the arhat Mahakatyayana on his pctice of explaining
in detail some of the Buddha's brief sayings . In a sense, early
Mahayana and Yogacara follow this same practice in a rather
more expanded manner, and developed in depth. Thus it can be
said that Yogacara, by retaining and developing the ancient
teachings and terminologies, demonstrates its ancestry. In so
doing it shows how it is firmly linked to and is part of the evolution
of Indian Buddhism as a whole.
(To be concluded)

78
79

SGY.

E. Lamotte, tr., The Teaching of Vimalakirti (VimalakirtJnirdeia), Engl.

trans!' by S. Boin, London 1976, p.63 and 11.50 , with Pali references.

58

AN OUtfLIN"E OF THE

YOOACARA-VIJNANA\/ADA

SCI-lOOil Of" INDIAN BUDDHISM

PARTT'WO
ERIC Cf-fEl::THAI\1
Part ()nt: of this article set out certain of the doctrinal features of
Yogacara as \vell as basic practices. Part 1\vo nO'N c.ompletes these
tOpICS hased on the same source rnatcrial as used in Part t)ne.
THE EIGHTEEN

DI-IATU51 (ELEMENTS);

THE ALL

It

has been sho\vn here alreauv that the SLX triads of the eighteen
dlJIltu scheme (sec diagrarn) are part of the Buddha's original set
of teaching fOrITIulas. These and the elaborations in toe Abhi
dharma texts, are part of Yogacara's pedigree frolnrhe early

mainsteam teachng. Asailg pr?sents he explicit vcrsion8f

.
same eIghteen dhatu schernc in hIS AbhldharmasamUCCCl}'8

this

Yogacara schenle of dllatlls combines with t\VO other

ancient forlnulas the five kaJ1dh8S and t\velve ayatanas (faculties
and fields). As the skal1dlJlls and ;}"vatrtnas are nan1es for particular
c?llections of dharma elen1ents, \vhcn brought together \vithin the
eIghteen dhiitu framework they represent all dharma activity as a
whole Indeed Chapter One of Asanga's AbhidhJ.rmas;zmuccaya
sets out this conlbined schen1e in detail, together \vith d,';finitions
of each of the dharlnas involved.
The formula of the eighteen dhlifu8 comprises six triads of
elements: the five senses i.e. organ, object and conscioLsness for
each sene faculty of seeing smclling tasting and touching. Added
to ,these lS the
sixth triad, \vhich consists of nlental organ mental
and n1ental consciousness. The cOlnplete layout i, given
in
"
e ollowing di
agram.
The

hbJefct
,QO

AhhidhanntlSi,lmllcCayn
_

tl-'("lllS'"
_

p.

'r" P ar t I Cl1. 0 ne.

CI

15]

Buddhist Studies Review

21, 2 (2004)

THE EIGHTEEN DHATUSIN YOGACARA

1. caksurdhatu
(eye element)

2. nJpadhatu
(form element)

3. caksurvljnanadhatu

(visual consciousness
element)
4. srotradhatu
5. sabdadhiitu
6. srotravljiianadhatu
(ear element)
(sound element)
(auditory consciousness
element)
7. ghranadhatu
8. gandhadhatu
9. ahranavljiiaIJadhatu
(nose element)
(odour element)
(offact6ry consciousness
element)
10. jihvadbatu
11. rasadhatu
12. jihvavljiianadhatu
(tongue element) (taste element)
(gustatory consciousness
element)
13. kayadhatu
14. sprastavyadbatu 15. kayavIjfjanadhiitu
(body element)
(tangibifi'ty element) (tactile consciousness
element)
16. manodhatu
17. dharmadhatu
18. manovijfjanadhatu
(mental organ
(mental objects
(mental consciousness
element, manas)
element)
element)
i.e. vin!y'ata (special)
kusaJa (wllOlesome)
akusaJa (defiled, unwholesome)
upakJesa (secondary defiled/unwholesome)
am'yata (indeterminate)
cittavjprayukta saIJlskara (distinct from
other mentals)
asaIJlskrta (unconditioned)

For the early schools the sensory objects were real entiLes which
existed externally. Similarly, all the other dhatu combinations con
sisted of real fundamental elements (dharma) which appeared in
consort with others and then disappeare51 only to be replaced
immediately by further clusters of dharmas .

Asanga and Vasubandhu only go along with this so far. Yoga

cara recognises all the dharmas, as we shall see, and even adds
some to the Sarvastivadin lists. In particular, Asanga uses the
81

Kosa,

CIl.l,

pp.5 and 6.

152

Cheetham

The

Yogacara-Vijfianavada School

eighteen dhatu scheme as an all-embracing framework for all

dharmas, i.e. Sarpsara. Again, an important dharma addition is
made. This is manas, the seventh consciousness. The fundamental
difference, however, is that Yogacara does not regard any of these
dharma elements as being independent and really existing exter
nals or internals. Instead, they are simply outflows from the
a!ayavijnana by means of engendering seeds (bija).
Vasubandhu expresses this in brief. He says that th, sensory
consciousnesses depend upon the f!ayavljnana and they manifest
subject to causes and conditions8 . This refers to the Yogacara
teaching of vijnaptlInatrata, sometimes called 'repre;entation
only'. This topic will be expanded below, but at thiS point it is
necessary to consider the main Yogacara additions, one of which
is witin the eighteen dflatus. They are the seventh and eighth
conSClousnesses.
Manas, the seventh consciousness, is a dharma and .'.S part of
the eighteen dJuitu scheme. It is located at number 16, the triad of
mentality. As such it is numbered among the Yogaca:a list of
dharmas (see appendi.,x Jist, No.89).
Although manas is listed as a dharma, its functions suggest it is
not a single momentary entity as described in the old Abhidharma
texts. Manas has W ultiple functions as described here earlier.
Vasubandhu states that manas; the seventh consciousness, cogi
tates and deliberates. It also receives input from all the other con
sCiousr,esses and is closely associated with a variety (If defile
ments 4 in its padka!pita state. So, as a thought-centre applying
examination and judgement to all this input, manas could be
argued to be more than a single entity. The texts do not expand on
thIS but it could be surmised that either manas is a 'c'uster' of
various dharmas, or the whole concept of dharmas was amended
in the Yogacara scheme of things. One thing is clearly c.xpressed
and that is that manas has the a!ayavijnfwa, the eighth CI >oscious82
83

84

Vasubandhu's TriIpllkii, v.lS, quoted

in DMC,

TriIpllkfJ, v.2, quoted in ,bid., p.cxxiii.

Ibid., pp.289-303.

153

p.cxxx i.

Buddhist Studies Review 21,2 (2004)

ness, as its basis and support as well as its object85.

The aJayavijij;jna, the eighth consciousness, however, does not
figure specifically in any of the eighteen dhatus. Thi IJ2ay be
because of its definition as being the cause and conditions of all
the elements. Here we probably have a reference to the bijas,
which constitute the aJayavijiiana, these being the progenitors of
all dharmas.
On the other hand, the eighteen dbatusdo not include the con
dition9/unconditioned dharmas within number 1 7, the dharma
dhatu . On this matter Yogacara diverges from the early schools.
In these, the asarpskrla dharmas were shown as distinctly separate
from the five skandhas which, in both Yogacara and mainstream,
are part of the eighteen dhiitus. There is some explanation of this
by Asanga, who says that all the dhatus are 'knowable' (jneya) nd
thus can presumably incorporate the eight asamskrta dharmas 8 A
point, however, not readily explained is this: if the asarpik(tas are
dharmas, they have to be engendered by bijas (seeds) which can
only come from the aJayavIjiiana. The question is how is this
possible for unconditioned elements which are said to have no
mdependence or relationship with anything else? For example, is
NirvaQ.a produced by a bija? Doubtless there is a quite satisfactory
answer to this but, so far, it has eluded this writer.
.

The accompanying dhatu diagram sets out the eighteen dhatu

scheme and its contents. The first five triads (Nos 1-5) nave suf
ficient operational clarity to make further explanation unneces
sary. Except in one regard. Again, Yogacara deviates from the
earlier Abhidharmas by placing the sensory organs in the first
place of the triads (Nos 1, 4, 7, 10 and 13). The early schools
explained the sensory process as a linkage between object, organ
and consciousness. The object impinging upon, or being sought
out by, the orga engende.rs a sensory result which is impi'essd on
the correspondmg conscIousness. It seems that the Yogacara
85
86
87
88

TrirpSikii, v.5, quoted in ibid., p.cxxv.

Abhidbarmasamuccaya trans., op. cit., p.59.
Ibid., p.23.
Ibid., p.30.

154

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijfianavada School

reverted to the Buddha's original seguence89 here. In any case, all

these elements arose from the bJjas In the aJayavijiiana In related
combinations, so that a primary, external object was redundant.
It is the last of the six triads that need some comment. With the
addition of the dharma manas to manodhatu, No.16, th(: number
of dharma consciousnesses within the eighteen dhatus is increased
from six to seven. The eighth consciousness, the alayavijiiana, is
not part of the dharma list or the dhatu scheme. The second item
of the sixth triad, i.e. No.17, is a collection of all the remainder of
the Yogacara dharmas as indicated by the headings appended to
it.
With all this in mind it seems to be the case that Yogacara
made abundant use of the Buddha's original eighteen dhatu
scheme, with modifications which were dictated by the deep
Dharma's revelations it unearthed. With Yogacara, then, the eigh
teen dhatus combine all the dharmas of Samsara, both condition
ed and unconditioned, As a consequence the skandhas and all the
iiyatanas, being collective names for particular dharmas, found a
place within the overall dhiitu scheme. The essential difference
between this and the earlier schemes is that all of it is dttamatra
(only mind-made), i.e., the product of bijas (seeds) emerging from
the iiJayav'jjjiina. In the pankaJpjta realm this situation is not
known although it is never absent. Only by progress through the
realm of paratantra to the pannjpanna perceptions can teality be
known.
It may be for this reason that Yogacara has ambivalent
attitudes towards these cl harmas, e.g., the asarpskrtas and the
vjprayuktas and manas. If all dharmas are empty and mind-made,
precision is superfluous except in the p,,?rikaJplta realm.
THE YOGACARA DHARMA S YSTEM, A SCHEME OF DOCTRINE
AND PRACTICE.

The Yogacara system of basic doctrine and practice, like all the
early schools of Indian Buddhism, incorporated a dharma scheme
of some kind. That is to say, a collection of fundamental elements
89

SaIf1yutta-mkaYil IV, 15.

155

Buddhist Studies Review

21,2 (2004)

of conscious existence (dharma), each of which had specific

functions and associations. At one time, opinions were expressed
that the dharma schemes were the work of later masters and were
not part of the original teachings of the Buddha. There are,
however, many references to dharmas in the Pali canonical texts
and a part of these has already been presented above. Some of
the difficulty has arisen because of the varied equ ivalents given for
the word dharma/dhamma in English textual translat ions. An
example of this can be seen in the various translations of the text
of the I?hammapada I, one of which is quoted in the previous
section . This fIrSt verse is critical evidence for dharmas being
part of the Budd ha's teaching, yet the Engl ish renderi ng
completely confused the meaning by not supplying the Pali term
and also by imprecise and various English words l ike 'thoughts'.
Another text can supply further evidence in &p is regar d . It is
related in the Pal i Vinaya-pitaka and elsewhere ,whef( Asvajit,
one of the Buddha's fIrst disciples at Varary.asi" met Sariputra
before the latter joined the Buddha's following. Sariputra asked
Asvajit who his teacher was and what teaching he followed. Asvajit
answered in a short verse as fol lows:
Ye dbarma hetll prabhava hetlln team tathagato aha
teaf!l ca yo nIi-odbo evaf!lvadi mahasramal}ai;

Translating from Lamotte's French, this can be rendered as:

'Of dharmas which arise from a cause
The Tathagata has proclaimed
The cause as well as their stopping'.
Thus teaches the great ascetic.
,

Sariputra was so impressed by this terse statement ,>,bout the

(}rising and stopping of dhannas that he went straight to
Sakyamuni for more. The rest, as they say, is history.
Bearing in mind the place and the persons involved in this
90
91

See Part One, The three turnings of the Dharma Wheel, p.[22], n.73.

Vi1laya I, pAD; also in E. Lamotte's translation of the MaJujprajiia

paramitopades,"I: Le haite de Ja gnwde vertu de sagesse de NltgaIjllflL"l II,
Louvain 1949, 1967, p.631, n.1., and in Mahiivastu III, p.62.

156

Cheetham - The Yogacara-VijiHinavada School

episode, one cannot get much closer to the original teaching than
this. But, as mentioned, there are considerably more textual
references to dharmas which can be found in the Buddha's
recorded pronouncements. They would be tedious to quote in
detail, but some of the reference getails are given in the footnote
below, to be consulted if required9 .
So again, Yogacara will be seen here as adopting and adapting
original and early canonical teaching to a deeper and more explicit
system, t hough one which is undisputedly derived from its Bud
dhist precursors and from Buddha originals.
On this evidence the dharmas and their groupings are not just
the product of academic embellishment by idle monks in a hot
climate. Doubtless this also took place. But it is clear that
dharmas were fundamental to the original teaching of the Buddha
as well as to the early Abhidharma masters.
Why then are dharmas so important? In the first placf; they are
the result of Buddhist psychological analysis which lays bare the
actual entities causing the suffering of all beings. Secondly, once
dharmas are brought into view they can be pacified by special
practices and, as a result, according to the final passag.es of the
Satiparthana, Nirva1).a can be attained within seven days.
For these and other reasons dharmas remain fundamental to
Yogacara just as they did with its forbears. The more profound
i nsights of Yogacara, however, required some changes to the old
usages. Nonetheless, Yogacara never lost sight of the primary
purpose of bringing dharmas into view. Dharmas always were the
basIs of right effort, and to facil itate this practical end., i .e., the
acquiring and sustaining of wholesome dharmas and the elimin
ation of the defiled and unwholesome variety, the dharma l istings
were divided into separate categories. For Yogacara these are:
citta (mentals)
92

The Hea rt of Buddhist Meditation (Satipayhiina),

tr. Nyanaponika Thera,

Colombo 1954, pp,125, 139-40; Sarpyutta-nikiiya II, 25, and Kosa, ,::::h,3, p,72;
Kosa, Ch,2, pp.215, 310; lbld., Ch.I, p.ll; Lamotte, Trlu'ti II, op. cit., p.912,
quoting the SutriiJilJpkalL1.
157

Buddhist Studies Review 21, 2 (2004)

caitaslka (mental associates)

rupa (physical faculties)
vlprayukta (distinct from other mentals)
asarpsk(ta (unconditioned)
The largest of these categories is the second, the caitaslka . This
is subdivided into sub-sections which comprise over fifty separate
dharmas. The sub-sections include dharmas classified as good/
wholesome, bad/defiled, and indeterminate. Such subdivisions are
intended as an aid to right cultivation, as mentioned earlier.
Before turning to a detailed presentation of the Yogacara
dharma scheme, it is necessary to set out one of tile major
Abhidharma developments which Yogacara accepted. The Abhi
dharmakosa explins the purpose of Dharma/dharma practice.
Vasubandhu says that without the discernment of dharmas, i.e.,
bringing then;. into awareness, thee is no subjugation of the
passions (klesa), and hence there IS no release from Sarrsara.
Here is a concise statement of doctrine and necessary practice
which AsaiJ.ga would rework later. Indeed it can be seen as the
raison d'etre of all dharma schemes in mainstream HTnayana and
Mahayana.
The dharma topics above which Yogacara took over had a
further outcome. It is the doctrine of the dharmasarptana, or
mental series. This is a combination of the basic themes \)f no-self
(anatman) and impermanence (anityata). It means, :1enerally
speaking, that although dharma elements are real (for the Abhi
dharmako::,a), they appear and disappear with minute ,juration.
Consequentally, change, rarid or otherwise, is a comtant and
therefore the dharmas exist 10 a related sequence with n:) perma
nent self/soul. Vasubandhu expressed the case precise'y, so his
short statements are worth quoting:

(saIptiina)

'By series
we understand material and mental elements
uninterruptedly succeeding each other in a procession which has
action as ori ginating cause.
The successive moments of the procession are different,

93

Kosa, ell.1, p.5,

v.3.
158

Che etham - The Yogacara- Vijnanavada School

therefore there is evolution

,94
senes.

(pan{Jiima),

transformation of the

Again, Vasubandhu notes:

.
'Dharmas,

. m
bemg momentary, eXIst

9S

serIes
. ... ,.

Yogacara would agree with the basic idea of this, which they
called dttasarptana, but its explanation of exactly what the
statements meant would differ. This is due to the emergence of its
special doctrine of the aJayavijiiana, bija and viisana which made a
llOear production of successive dharmas obsolete. For (ogacara
there certainly was succession and transformation, but these were
dependent upon the seeds (bija) from the develop-ments in the
aJayavijiiana and viisana. In this case, therefore, the result was
similar but the direction of the causal production differed.
Y

Another feature of dharma activity linked to the dharma

saJptana is the notion of 'clusters' of dharmas. This too is accepted
in the Yogacara dharma scheme. This notion is implicit in the
circumstance that no dharma is considered to arise singly and
alone. Always there are accompanying conditions (pratyaya) and
associates. The Abhidharma text specifies a basic twenty-seven
dharmas in evel), dharma c1uster96 A further ten dharmas are
added to this if one accounts for th category of mahabhumikas
which are present at every moment 7. Thus every singk dharma
becomes a multiple entity by reason of its necessary a'isociates.
One of the old categories of Sarvastivadin dharmas emphasises
this factor. This is the category of samprayuktas, i.e., mental
associates indicating the group of dharmas which are capable of
linkage to form a cluster. Yogacara employs the same theme by its
term cjtta/caitta, i.e., mentals and mental associates. An example
of Yogacara usage has been shown above concerning the multiple
entity of mantiS.
So much for similarities and adoptions by Yogacara from the
94

95

96

97

IbJd., Cll.9, p.296

Ibid., eh.3,

p.33.

IbJd., Ch.2, p.194 and n.3.

IbJd., Ch.2, p.l53.

159

Buddhist Studies Review 21,2 (2004)

Sarvastivadins and others. Now we can turn to what the Yoga

carins changed in their own dharma scheme to take account of its
deeper perceptions of the Dharma in general.
Perhaps the most important change by the Yogacarins to the
meaning of the dharma scheme was that they denied the existence
of external objecs a.s separate .r.?m !h min? , . cjtt. AS(llig puts
the case for thIS, I.e., for vljnaptJmatrata 10 hIS Nlahayana
samgraha. He quotes Mahayana siHras to the effect that the whole
wo'rld nothing but mind (citta) and that there is no external
object9 . In respect of dharmas and dhatus this means that the
nJpadharmas, i.e. dhatus Nos 2, 5, 8, 1 1 and 14, are not external to
the perceiver. This is emphasised, aoain by Asanga, when he
explains the form element (nJpadhatd) and visual consciousness
element (cakurvljfjanadhatu). What happens is that the eye
perceives torms and then visual consciousness reacts to that visible
form; it is also (and this is ucial) the result of accumulaed seeds
arising in the aJayavijfjana . Air the sense consciousne,;.ses arise
from the store consciousness &pd that is why all of that is projected
Even more radical is Vasubandhu
notions only (v{iJlaptimatra)l
when he writes that neither the atman nor dharmas exist and so
all is mere consciousness.
.

All the pre-Mahayana schools taught anatman but that

dharmas were real. In Yogacara (Vasubandhu) dharmas too are
not real existents. That is not to say that they are not tht':re. They
are 'mind-made' and all arise from the a/ayavljnana by means of
active seeds (bIja).
So, despite the protestations that dharmas do not exist, Yoga
cara then sets out to define and categorise each of its 103 factors
in its dharma scheme! This is not as aberrant as it seems because,
as will be seen and as already shown in the section on hahusruta
and dharma practice, all dharmas have a purp'0se. This purpose is
to become the means to pass out of the pankaJpita realm, where
9

8
99

100

101

SVG, pp.92-4.

AbhidhannasamUCCl/Yl1 trans. op. cit., pA.

Trirpsika, v.15, quoted in DMC, p.cxxxUi.
' Jb1'd.
!b1d,v.1 7,111

160

Cheetham - The Yogacara- Vijfianavada School

the defiled dharmas are rampant, and into the paratantra and
parinipanna realms) where the dharmas can. b perceived as thy
really are: empty (sunya) and markless (ammltta), and where to
their real nature they are all the same (samata).
This perception is only reached in the upper levels of the
bodhisattva stages where dharma activity is then a pure (anasrava)
process and leads to a fundamental turning around in the depth of
consciousness (asrayaparavrm). In order to attain that close
approach to full enlightenment the dharmas have first to be
identified and then cultivated through the perfections (p/Jramitii).
This, of course, starts in pankaJpita where false imagination
dominates. Hence the necessity of penetration to the ope.ration of
dharmas (dharmapravicaya) and so they all have to be brought
into view, defined and employed by right effort.
For this purpose lists of both the Sarvastivadin and Yogacara
dharmas are appended. Here, some of the special features of the
Yogacara scheme are presented.
Controversially perhaps, although the store consciousness
(aJayavijiiana) is called the eiiillth consciousness in the Vijiiapti
matratasiddhi and els1here ,the Sanskrit stanzas of Vasu
bn9 hu <? not call it so . It. mes have been given to liS he as
_ ad sa.rvabljavljn.ana. Added to thIS he aJayavljnana
vlpakavljn1fla
does not fIgure 10 either the eIghteen dhiitus or to the Yogacara
list of dharmas, although manas appears in both. It may be
postulated from this that the aJayavijiiana is not a dharma, at least
10 the generally accepted sense of that word. Some of the
definitions of the aJayavijiiana given by Asanga appear to support
the idea that it cannot be a dharma.
For example, Asanga says in his Mahayanasamgraha that all
produced dharmas anse from the store consciousness (aJaya
vljnana) and they are then ormed into the chain of dependent
arising (pratityasamutpiida)l Further on in the same text Asanga
.

102

103
104

Ibid., v.2, quoted in ibid., p.cx.

Ibid., p.251.

SGV,p.37

161

Buddhist Studies Review 21,2 (2004)

says that the aJayavijiiana as retribution consciousness holds all

the seeds (bija) and because this all the destinies and existences
arise from this consciousness .
The VijiiaptJmatratasiddhj expands these by stating that the re
tribution consciousness (aJayavijllana) is homogenous, continuous
and capable of sust& ining body and li fe and preventing these from
l
being mterrup'!d . Again! t states that his consciou td1ess is
called aJayavljnana because It mcludes all defIled dharmas
These definitions, among a number of others, make it difficult
to see how the aJayavijiiana can be reckoned among the other
single function elements of very short duration, especIally in view
of the negative evidence that it does not figure m the eighteen
dhatus or the Yogacara dharma list. So, whether or nm. it is the
eighth consciousness, it can hardly be of the same kind as the
other seven consciousnesses. By its function and titles it seems to
be unique and of a different nature to the dharmas contained in
the eighteen dhatus.
The Y ogacara harma list is arranged under the five headings
10
The group of mental associates (saml'rayukta)
of the skandhas
comprises skandhas two, three and four. They include wch sub
groups as the wholesome (kusaJa) and unwholesome akusaJa)
and the derived and secondary defIled dharmas (see dharma list).
In all, this group is composed of fifty-five separate dharmas, which
is over half the total. This is the group which produces most of the
'clusters' and, because all the defilements and passions arise from
it, it is a major constituent of the realm of parikaJpita. As such, it
provides the focus for most of the early dharma practice.

,.

Also included among the fourth skandha are the dharmas of

the 'distinct from other mentals' (cittaviprayuktasarpskqra) sub
seton. This_is .a _st!an,ge example of Xogacara adaptation. The
ongmal Sarvastivadm Itst contamed thIrteen of these. The Yoga0
1 5
106
107

1 8
0

p.39.
DMC, p.227.
Ibid., p.185.
Abhidharmasamuccaya trans., op. cit., pp.1-25.

Ibid.,

162

Chee tham - The Yogacara- Vijfi.anavada School

109
cara, despite its seeming ambivalence on dharmas in general ,
adds ten more to these making a total for this sub-section of
twenty-three. The Yogacara additions themselves are also rather
strange. Such items as rapidity (java, No.83) and succession
(anukrama, No.84), time (kala, No.85) and region (dea, No.86)
once again do not seem to conform to the general idea of a
dharma as an irreducible element of conscious existence. On the
other hand, as part of the skandhas they do seem to connect the
so-called personality (pudgala) to the surroundin g world. All the
dharmas of the skan cJha groups are conditioned (sarpsArta). The
last group of the set is outside the group of the skandi,as but is
contained within the eighteen dhatu framework.
This is the section of the unconditioned (asarpslqta) dharmas.
Here again Yogacara expanded the original three cfh armas to
eight. Comment has already been made on this section above. The
Yogacara additions comprise three typ es of suchness (tathata) and
two extra types of 'stoppIng' (lllfodha). Why these extra are neces
sary seems problematical and, anyway, how can there be more
than one kind of suchness? This, together with the already men
tioned difficulty of unconditioned, i.e. unrelated and unconnected,
dhannas being produced by bijas from the alayavijiiana makes the
additions to this section strange indeed. Further comment will be
made in these questions below.
Regarding the detail of the practice dimension of dharmas, this
can now be set out. There will be little sUfl?rise if it is said that the
preliminary practice system in Yogacara IS similar to that of the
earlier schools, i.e., to bring dharma elements into focus and build
a body of good roots, i.e . , wholesome dharmas, to sustain more
advanced practices. Such is the first of the old progressive phases
of the five paths (marga) . The first path is called sambhfJramarga,
or path of acquiring egUipment. This preparatory stage is also part
of the Yogacara bodhisattva process In that it is necessary to accu
mulate the mokabh;]oiyas \dharmas of or aids to delr/erance).
These are faith (sraddhfi), energy (virya), mindfulness (S!J1!tJ) and

109

7: . '1.
f1IJ1S1](8, v.l.

163

Buddhist Studies Review 21,

2 (2004)

110. These are all dharmas as can be seen

by

some wisdom (prajiia)

the notes attached.

The process continues by entry into the second path called

prayogamarga (path of preliminary or focused exercise). This
comprises four more features common to both mainstream Hlna
yana and Mahayana, i.e., the nkvedahbhagfyas.
In Yogacara, however, these four features have the same
names as before but their definitions and aims vary. The four are
called umagata (heats), murdhan (summits), k$antj (patience)
and laukikagradharma (supreme worldly dharmas) . All eiht
together are the ingredients of the good roots (kusaiamuia) .
The aim of these practices in Yogacara is described and clearly set
out in the Vijiiaptlmatratasjddhl. The aim is to gain acct;ss to the
third path, the path of vision (darsanamarga), and for that the
ingrained conception of subject and object need:; to be
1
2
removed1. If successful they lead to the realisation that these
dharmas do \\ot exist other than as vijiiaptJmatra (mere notional
projections)1.
.
The next stage of this process is called darsanamarga, the third
of the five paths. Here the first 'vision' of reality is gained with the
appearance of njrvjkalpajiiana, i.e., knowledge free from false
imagination and discrimin,\tion.
14 This reveals the two sunyatas, i.e.,
of pudgala and of dharmas .

In the same stage of darsanamarga, as a conclusion of lh

1 stage,
the higher comprehension (abhlsamaya) is attained . This
amounts to 'lR actual realisation of the non-duality of all dharmas
and the real meaning of the Dharma and the Three lewels. On
completing the darsanamarga there is entrance into the first of the
110
III
112

113
114
115

116

DMC,

p.679.

Ibid
Ibid.
Ibid, p.681.
Ibid., p.691.
IbJd., p.699.
SOY, p.160.
164

Cheetham - The Yogiiciira- Vijiiiinaviida School

17
ten stages (bhiimJ) which is sometimes referred to as the path
proper, i.e. all preliminaries are fulfilled and the progresl; through
the stages has begun. At this point also calming (samatha) and
insight penetration (vjpasyana) continue to function as described
above in the section on bahusruta. At the darsanam1a stage and
beyond, however, insight penetration predominates1 .

Now, from the first bhiimi onwards the unobstructed knowl

edge (niIvjkalpakajiitina) is constantly activated. The presence of
this special insight-knowledge is establ ished when prajIJiiparamita
is attained in the sixth bhiimI: This form of perfected
insig ht cuts
1
off forever the secondary defilements and the sers (bija) of the
grasping at subject and object (grahakaugrahya) . this cutting
off contributes to the eventual demolition of the two barriers
(avarana) of defiled dh IJTIas (klesa) and false or incompl ete
knowledge (jiieyavaralJa) . Here we have the start of th fruition
of all the earlier acquired knowledge of the dharma elements and
the practice of right effort (samyagvayama) to subdue defilements.

By these processes of passing through the stages (bhiimJ), one

of Yogacara's primary goals is achieved. It is the 'transformation
of the base (asrayaparav!ttJ)'. The base referred to is the
fundamental stratum of both pure and impure dharma activity as
well as the biJas wh ich produce them in the alaya vijnana.

These various attainments just prior to the 'transformation of

the base' mark a convergence, In some respects, of the doctrines of
the MaC\hyamaka and Yogacara. The stage of the sixth perfection
involves prajiiaparamjta (perfect insight-knowledge) and this
convey s the comprehension that all dharmas are marked by empti
ness (sarvadharma siinyatalakalJa). Indeed they are emptiness
itself. This in turn brings about the full acceptance that dharmas
do not arise (anutpattjkadharmaksantl). With that, the crucial and
specific Yogacara theme of the 'transformation of t he base'
(asrayaparav!ttJ) comes to be.
117

118

119

120

DMC, p.701.
Ibid., p.69S.
flnd.. p.703.
Ibid., p.705.

165

Buddhist Studies Review

21,2 (2004)

All this may serve to illustrate how dharma schemes underlie

most of Yogacara doctrine and practice and, of course, most of
the rest of Indian Buddhism. For Yogacara in particular the point
reached at this stage is tantamount to entry into paD'nIpanna
(ultimate reality). It should be noted, however, thar defiled
dharmas of all kmds constitute the parikaJpita experience. Yet it is
the true nature of these same dharmas which emerges in the
higher stages.
Beyond that, as we shall see next, the true dharma nature takes
on its supreme form, the fulfilment of the original aspiration to
perfect enlightenment, the final flowering of the bodhidtta.
THEDHARMAS AND THEDHARMAKAYA

After p assing through t.he seris of the pat of visior: Idara!1a

marga) the next ascendmg sections are the SIX perfections (para
mita) within the corresponding bodhisattva stages (bhulll1). All of
this is part of the fourth of the paths called bhavanamarga,
meaning path of continuous cultivation, or bringing into existence.
This too refers to the dharmas, and the changes to them 'vhich are
brought about in this process produce some very advanced staging
posts in these higher levels of the Way.
The first concern here seems to be to overcome the barrier

(avaraIJa) of the defilements/passions (kJeia) still remaining. By

reated access to the unobstructed knowfedge (nirvikaJpaka
jnana) both barriers of defiled dharmas and incomplete
knowfedge (kJeia and jiieyavaraIJa) are dissipated and entry into
the parinif}panna realm is gained. This highly charged cultivation
of good and special dharmas, i.e., prajiia, opens the way to
punfying the aJayavijiiana of defiled seeds (bija) and results iq the
21.
'inner transformation or turning of the base' (a!Irayaparav.rttJ)

It is of some interest to note that in this same bhavanamarga

not only is perfect wisdom gainecj at the sixth bhumi, i.e. full
compre?nslon of sunyata, but the Sravaka path to Nirvana is also
fulfilled . This seems to refer back to the statements in the
121

122

p.707.
SOY, p.262-3.

Ibid.,

166

Cheetham - The Yogacara- Vijii anavada School

Samdhlnirmocanasl1tra already mentioned concerning the three

turnings oj the Wheel by which both major branches of the

Dharma (Sravaka and Mahayana) are incorporated in the explicit
teaching of the third turning.
Such constant cultivation of dharmas produces the 'inf!
transformation' (asrayapanlv.rttJ) which can be of six kinds .
These different kinds concern the purification of the dharma
stream, the fading of the false and the appearance of reality by
oveFcoming the final barries (avara{Ja). The sixth kind i!; actually
defmed as where the bodhisattva penetrates to the lac;\: of self
existence of the dharmas (dharmanairatmya) and reJising that
SaqIsara is forever calm and should not be abandoned 1 .
By this point in the bodhisattva I?rocess several kinds of what

are usually lumped together as 'medItation' have been either per

fected or highly refined and concentrated. These are practices
already prescribed here such as dharmapravicaya, samatha and
vipasyana, samadhj and dhyana. The last practice will have already
b.een perf.cte ? by .t e fith pliramita. This allows accs to th
sIXth, pra;naparamlta, WhICh IS the pattern throughout, I.e., speCI
fic types of 'meditation' practice produce the highest goals in the
upper staes. This means that such meditative practices have to be
cultivated and intensified as the first bhl1mi is approachd. From
this point on the defiled dharmas (already perceived and worked
upon earlier) are gradually transfor rnd and their bijaseJiminated
from this particular dharmasa.rptana .
As if to reinforce the notion th; the dharma elements are
central to this whole process it is said 6 that all ten bhl1mis have a
self-nature comprising all the good conditioned (sa.rpskrta) and all
the unconditioned dharmas. Furthermore, accefton to tne tenth
and final bhl1mi provides mastery of all dharmas .
123

124
125
126

127

Ibld.,

p.263.

Ibid
DMC, p.723.
ibJd., p.711.
ibJd.,

p.741.

167

Buddhist Studies Review 21,

2 (2004)

A clear distinction is made between seeds (bija) and their

respective dharmas when manifesting. An example is given that
the arising of some defiled (klJ!a) dharmas is cut off at the stage
of the first bhumi, whereas the defiled seeds (biJa) are cut off
progressively by means of special Wseditation practice during the
passage through all the ten bhumlS' Thus the seeds (bia) which
can give rise to supreme enlightenment (aIJuttarasamyaksam
bodhl) can only operate when the two barriers (av8rana) of
defilement (kleSfIh and incomplete profound knowledge (jneya)
are cleared away .
.

All this is part of the continu ing process of dharma purification

which l ies at the heart of the 'transformation of the base' (asraya
panlV(ttJ). Indee9 the ?!d '?se' (asraya) is said to be the st!e
conscIousness (alayaVljnana)' wherefrom all the seeds (blja)
arise. And the purpose of it all is suggested when it is said that the
Buddha's body of enjoyment (sambhoQakaya) is produced by part
of the focess of the 'transformatIon of the base' (asraya- tt1 31 .
parav!

The f urifying of the dharmas is again referred to wher it is said

that 0 the eighteen dhatus, i.e., the person and the whole of
SaIpsara, Nos 1-15, are always impure (sasrava) until ful l bodhi
But Nos 16, 17, and 18 can be either pure or i1IRPure. For a
Buddha, however, all eighteen dhatus are pure . Here, the
Buddha is usually referred to as the dharmakaya, a term redolent
with several meanings. In this context it is defined as the three
bodies (trikaya);
i.e., the body of true nature (svabhava), the body
1
t and tq appearance body (nir
of enjoymet (sambhogakaya)

Vasubandhu's rirpsika 4 states with finality that

manakaya)

128
129
130
131
132
133
134

p.74 3.
Ibid., p.767.
ibId., p.705.
ibJd., p.797.
ibid., p.789.
Ibid., p.793.
TrimiJka, v.30.
Ibid.,

168

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijiianavada School

135
ultimate attainment is the pure dhatu, i.e., the dharmakaya
This dharmakaya is also said to br the support and base
(asraya) of sovereignt over all dharmas 36. And yet the Vijiiapti.
matratfisiddhi statesl 7 that the dharmakaya appears when both
the aJayavljiiana and the bijas are stopped. This supreme state,
i .e., the real body of the Buddha and supreme enlig.htenm.en.t, is
attaifl:d by the unobstructed knowledge a.nd penetration (mrvik.aJ.
pakajnana) focused upon the deep teachmglDharma of the major
Mahayana sutras plus the fulfilment of passage through all ten
bhl1mis. Here is a clear reference to the previously mentioned
main practice
- 138 system of the triple gnosis (sruta, cinta, .5amatha/
vlpayana) .
.

In all this, both Asanga and Vasubandhu are elaborating in

what had earlier been presented in such baic Mahayana sutras as
the A!asahasrikaprajiJaparamita and the StJraipgamasamadhi In
these can be found statements such as: The true nature (tathata)
of the Tathagata ad the tathata of all dharmas are single, non
dual, not dividedl . Or: Tathagatas are neither born nor die
because st their complete synonymity with the true nature of
dharmas .
Such is the unsurpassed peak (bhutako!l) of all Mahayanist
endeavour. All the details above sets out the means whereby this
supreme aim is attained. It should therefore not be wondered at
that the dharma elements should figure so prominently through
out the whole process. In doing so, of course, Yogacara also
continues and consolidates the similar tradition among the very
earliest Indian Buddhist schools, even the recorded teaching of
the Buddha himself. The sublime aim of the further teaching, i . e.,
that of the first Mahayana sutras, is the reason why Yogacara
135
136
137
138

IbId.
SGV, p.266.
DMC, p.797.
SGV, pp.274-5.

139
E. Conze, tr. The Perfection of' Wisdom jJl Eight Thousand Lint}!>; Calcutta
1958, p.1 14.
140

cr.

Sliallpgamasamadhisutra trans, op. cit., p.166.

169

Buddhist Studies Review

21, 2 (2004)

constantly emphasises attention to dharmas,i.e., dharmapra vicaya.

Right effort (samyagvayama) in this area produces insight
knowledge (prajnaj and prajna opens the gate to all the rest.
*

Several concluding remarks may now be in order. On the basis of

the textual extracts given above, the two main themes of the article
have been outlined. Of course, much more textual material could
have been used, but it is hoped that the extent has been
sufficiently wide and apposite to underpin the main propositions.
These are that the main Yogacara doctrines are derived from and
are extensions of the topics of the Buddha's recorded eachings
and of the mainstream Indian Buddhist schools.
Also, that Yogacara presents a coherent system of doctrine
which is closely allied to necessary and related practice. Indeed
here, as in earlier schools, doctrine and practice are inter-related
and inter-dependent. The difference between Yogacara and the
earlier mainstream HTnayana is that the Yogadi.ra is dependent
upon and elaborates the deep teaching of the first Mahayana
sutras. This reflects Asanga's own experience (and that of his
brother Vasubandhu) of being grounded in the Sarvastivada and
then progressing into the further teaching of first phase Maha
yana.
Despite the amount of detailed exposition here, there remain
some very puzzling and unresolved questions (it is ever s(;).
Having just outlined the dharma scheme of Yogacara, it may
be as well to start here.
The question arising is: what is the status and qualities of a
'dharma' in Yogacara? In the early Abhidharma the answer was
clear. A dharma is an element which lasts only an instant and is
immediately replaced by another. Even so, each dharma has
different characteristics and a karmic outflow. For Yogacara,
dharmas have no external existence and are all 'mind made'.
Furthermore, although manas is listed as a dharma which is
within the eighteen dhatus, its functions, as defined, cannot be
carried out by a single, instantly disappearing entity. For manas to
170

Chee tha m - The Yogacara - VijiHinavada School

be a dharma it has to have qualities of considerable durat ion, or to

be a complex or cluster of related dharmas.
Turning to the group of dtta vjprayuktas, items such as Nos 83,
ja va (raY ldity\ and 84, anikrama (uniform succsion), and 88,
samagn (totality of causes and effects), do not fIt lOto the usual
idea of a single dharma element .
Again, why add so many dharmas to the old list if, as Vasu
bandhu says, dharmas do not exist? And, strangely, most .ldditions
are made to the most problematic groups, i.e ., vjprayuktas and
asarpskrta dharmas . The l atter raise theIr own difficulties. They
are classified as dharmas and therefore are brought into being by
seeds in the store consciousness. Yet by definition these dharmas
are non-arising and unconditioned and so cannot be produced.
One speculation to conclude. Asanga is said by some! to have
been the founder of the Tathagatagarbha school as well as of the
Yogacara. The Tathagatagarbha teaching followed quickly upon
the establishment of Yogacara. AccordlOg to Tathagatagarbha
texts the final phase of the process is the transformation of the
refined dharmas into their intrinsic purity and true nature. At that
point the pure Tathagatagarbha is revealed, although it is always
present. [s Asanga further refining his Yogacara theme of the
iisrayaparavrtti by introducing the Tathiigatagarbha? If so, it may
be questioned whether the iiJayavijiiiina and the Tatbagatagarbha
are not similar or even the same.

171

Buddhist Studies Review

The 75 d h armas

of t h e Sarvastivad i n s

from Vasubandhu's

Section

1.

21, 2 (2004)

Abhjdharmakosa

The 72 samskrta (conditioned) dharmas (A,B and C)

The 1 1 d harmas of the nlpaskandha are:

lnddya (organ)
vlsaya (domain)
or
6. cakur ayatana {faculty)
visible) 1 . nlpa ayatana (faculty)
7. srotra ayatana { faculty)
sou nd) 2. sabda ayatana (faculty)
odour) 3. gandha ayatana (faculty) 8. ghral}a ayatana (faculty)
9. jjhva ayatana) (facult)
4. rasa ayatana (faculty)
taste)
tangIbl e) 5 . spra!avya ilyatana (fac) 10. kaya ayatana (faculty)
and
11. aVl]naptj ( unmanifested act)

B The 60 d harmas of sarpskaraskandha

B 1 The 46 sa1J1prayuktadharmas, i.e. associated with thought

10 mahabl1l1mjkas : 12. vedana (skandha) feeling, sen,ation

(great, always present) 13. sarpjiia (skandha) perception, Hotion,
[idea
14. cetana volition, will, i ntentioll
15. chanda desire for action
16. spada contact (qualified as cuntiguity)
17. smrti recollection, memory,mindful ness
18. prajiia insight/wisdom
19. adhjmoka approval, acceptance, re
[cognition
20. manaskara fixing attention
21. samadhj concentration, one-pointed
[focus
l l . 1 0 kusalamaha
22. sraddha acquiescence,faith, ad herence,
bhilmilcas
[confidence (in)
(wholesome)
23. virya
energy
24. upeka equanimity, balanced com
[posure
25 . hri respect, veneration of virtuous
[ qual ities/persons

i.

172

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijii.anavada School

iii. 2 akwfaJamaha
bhiimikas
(unwholesome)

26. apatrapya
27. aJobha
28. advesa
29. a vihirpsa
30. prasrabdhi
3 1 . apramada

dread of bad acts

greedlessness, no greed
hatelessness, no hate
no-injury, harmlessness
aptitude, dexterity
diligence, persistent effort

disrespect, lack of regard for

[virtue
33. anapatrapya disregard of bad n:pute, no
[dread

32. ahrikya

ignorance, delusion
iv. 6 kJesamahabhii 34. moha
35 . kausidya laziness, indolence, sloth
mikas
36. styana
sloth, sluggishness
(defiled, bad)
37. pramada negl i $ence, carelessness
38. asraddhya non-Del ief
39. auddhatya agitation/restlessness

v. 10 padttakJesa
bhiimikas or
upakJesas
(derived from
defilemen ts)

vi. 8 aniyatas
(indeterminate)

envy
avarice
anger, irritation
hypocrisy
deceit
dissimulation, fraudulence
pride, self-esteem
obstinate approval of mis[deeds
48. upanaha enmity, hatred
49. vihimsa
active hostil ity, harmfulness

40. jrya
41. matsarya
42. krodha
43. mraka
44. maya
45 . sathya
46. made?
47. pradasa

50. kauJqtya
5 1 . middha
52. vitarka
53. vicara
54. raga
sometimes c! as- [55 . pratigha
sified as upakJesas (v.above) 56. mana

57. vicikitsa

173

regret, remorse
languor, torpor
discursive mental enquiry
judgement, assessment
attachment, desires
mental disturbances and
[irritation
arrogance, conceit, self-ag
[grandisement
doubt

Budd hist S t ud ies Review

B2.

The

14 citta viprayuktas,

2 1 , 2 (2004)

i.e. dissociated from thought

58. prapti
possession and retention
59. aprapti
non-retention, non-possession
60. sabhagata compatibil ity, similarity of

[type
6 1 . asaIpjiiika unconsciousness, unaware
[ness
62. asam
. jiiJc;amapatti meditative state of
u nconsciousness, attain[ment of consciousness
63. nirodhasamapattJ meditative state of
stopped thought and
[mentaractivity
life force, qual ity of continuity
64. jivita
65. jati
b irth, arising, production
66. sthiti
duration, abldlOg
67. jara
ageing, decay
68. anityata
impermanence, instabil ity
69. namakaya names that prompt ideas
70. padakaya meaningful phrases
7 1 . vyaiijanakaya syllable, vowel and con
[sonant sounds

a single d harma - simple, unm ixed consciousness of a particular object.

72. vijiianaskandha is

Section

2.

The three

asamskrtas (u nconditioned) are:

73. akasa
74. pratisarpkhyanirodha

(= NilvaQ.a)

75 . aprati5arpkhyanirodha

1 74

space
total st('p p' ing by
linsight
stopping/disjunc
tIon by lack of
[cause

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijii anavada School

Asailg a ' s List of Yogacara dharmas
as con t a i n e d i n t h e

A bhidharmasam uccaya

14

1 . samskrta d harmas

The rive 'skandhas (aggregates, conditioned)

Skandha one, rupa d harmas (aggregates of matter)
The 10 aya taIlas
dharma n umber
1 . caksurdhiitu, eye element
2. sroiradhiitu, ear element
3. ghriiIJa dhiitu, nose element
4. jih viidhiitu, tongue element
5 . kiiyadhiitu, body, touch, tactile element
6. rupa dhatu, form element
7. s<7bdadhiitu, sound element
8. gandhadhatu, odour element
9. rasadhatu, taste element
10. spra$!a vya dhiitu, tangibility element

d harma types and numbers in skandhas two, three a nd four

a = 5 sarvatraga, u niversal
b = 5 viniyata, special
c = 1 1 kusala, wholesome
d = 10 akusalCl, unwholesome, defiled
e = 20 upakleia, secondary unwholesome
f = 4 aniyata, i ndeterminate
Total

55

d harmas i n
a

skandhas two,

three and four

sarva traga , u n iversal

Skandha

two, vedana (aggregate of fecli ng)

1 1) a. vedana, sensation

Skandha

three, saIJ1.iiia (aggregate of perception)

12) a. saIpjiia, perception

141

AbhidlJarmasam uccaya tra n s . , op. cit.

1 75

Buddh ist Studies Review 21,2 (2004)

Skandha four, sa1]1skara. (aggregate of formations)

1 3 a. cetana, vohtlon aroused by contact with the organs
1 4 a. manaskara, attention
1 5 a. sparsa, contact

16
17
18
19
20

b.
b.
b.
b.
b.

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.

b 5 viniyata special
chanda, desire
adhimoksa, resolve
smrtl; recollection/mindfulness
samadhl; concentration
prajna, insight-wisdom
=

c 1 1 kusala, wholesome
sraddiJa, confidence
hri, respect (self respect)
apatrapya, integrity (modesty)
alobha, non-covetousness (absence of greed)
advea, non-hatred (absence of hatred)
amoha, non-delusion (absence of delusion)
vi1J'a, vigour
prasrabdhi, aptitude
c. apramada, vigilence
c. upeka, equanimity
c. aviiJi1]1sa, non-injury
=

d 1 0 akusaia/kiesa, unwholesome, defiled

d. raga, greed
d. pratigiJa, irritation
d. mana, conceit
d. avidya, ignorance
d. vicikitsa, doubt
.
d. satkayad!!i, view of individuality
d. antagrahad!!j, idea of grasping extreme views
d. ejrHlparamarsa, agherence to views
d. silavrataparamarsa, adherence to obselVances/rituals
d. mithyad!p; false views
=

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41

e 20 upaklesa, defiled/unwholesome
42) e. krodha, anger
=

1 76

Chee tham - The Yogacara-Vij ii a navada School

52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61

e. upanaha, enmity
e. mrak$, hypocisy
e. pradasa, vexation
e. irsya, envy
e. matsarya, avarice
e. maya, deception/illusion
e. sathya, dsslmulation
e. mada, pnde
e. vjhjmsa, violence
e. afJrikya, shamelessness
e. anapatrapYl'1, non-integrity
e. styana, torpor/inertia
e. auddhatya, agitation
e. asraddhya, lack of confidence
e. kausidya, indolence
e. pramaada, negligence
e. mU$jtasm(tl"ta, forgetfulness
e. asamprajanya, wrong understanding
e. VIK$epa, distraction

62
63
64
65

4 anjvata, indeterminate
middha, diowsiness/languor
kaukrtya, remorse
vjtarka, discursive mental enquiry
vkara, mental judgement

43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51

f.
f.
f.
f.

cjttavj ra ktasam!!J*ara (distinct from other mentals)

66 praptJ:yossession
67 asaIpjm"amapattj, attainment of non-perception
68 niFodhasamapattj, attainment of non-sensation
69 asaIpjijjka, state of non-perception
70 jivjtendnya, the life faculty
71 mKayasabhaga, similarity of types
72 jatJ; birth
73 jara, ageing
74 sthjti, duration
75 am'tyata, impermanence
76 namakaya, names
77 padakaya, words
78 vyaiijanakaya, consonants
177

B u d d hist S t u d ies Review

79
80
81
82
83
. 84
85
86
87
88

21, 2 (2004)

prthagjanatva, the status of an ordinary man

pravrttl; turn ing over process
pratlniyama, distinction (of karman), d iversity
yoga, conformity of causes and effects
java, rapidity
anukrama, uniform succession
kala, time
desa, region (of space)
saIpkhya, number
samagri, totality (of causes, effects and conditk,ns)

Skandha five, vljiiana (aggregate of consciousness)

89 mana mind centre, mental organ
90 caksurvijiiana, visual consciousness
91 sroiravijiiana, auditory consciousness
92 ghraIJa vljiiana, olfactory consciousness
93 jihvavijiiana, gustatory consciousness
94 kayavljiiana, tactile consciousness
95 manovijiiana, mental [ object] consciousness

2. asamskrta (unconditioned) dharmas

96) kusaladharmatathata, the such ness or essential nature

of favourable things
97) akusaladharmatathata, t he such ness of essenti2 1 nature
of unfavourable things
98) a vyakrtadharmatathata, the suchness of neutral things
99) akasa, space
100) apratisaIpkhyanirodha, lack of causes, cessation obtained without acquired insight
lOl pratisaIpkhyanirodha, stopping by insight
102 aniiijya, the immobility of sensations
103 saIpjiiavedayita [mJ-odhaj, the cessation of perception
and feel i ng

1 78