II.

The Human Digestive System

A. 21.4 The human digestive system consists of an
alimentary canal and accessory glands
1. In humans, food is
a. ingested and chewed in the mouth or oral cavity,
b. pushed by the tongue into the pharynx,
c. moved along by alternating waves of contraction and
relaxation by smooth muscle in the walls of the canal in a
process called peristalsis, and
d. moved in and out of the stomach by sphincters.
e. The final steps of digestion and nutrient absorption in
humans occur in the small
intestine.
f. Undigested materials move through the large intestine,
feces are stored in the
rectum, and then expelled out the anus.
B. 21.5 Digestion begins in the oral cavity
1. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth.
2. Chewing cuts, smashes, and grinds food, making it
easier to swallow.
3. The tongue
a. tastes,
b. shapes the food into a ball called a bolus, and
c. moves it toward the pharynx.
C. Salivary glands release
1. a slippery glycoprotein that moistens and lubricates
food for easier swallowing,
2. buffers that neutralize acids,
3. salivary enzyme amylase that begins the hydrolysis of
starch, and
4. antibacterial agents that kill some bacteria ingested
with food.
D. 21.6 After swallowing, peristalsis moves food through
the esophagus to the stomach
1. Air moves from the pharynx,
a. into the larynx,
b. past the vocal cords in the voice box,
c. into the trachea, and
d. into the lungs.
2. Swallowed food and drink move from the pharynx,
a. into the esophagus, and
b. into the stomach.
3. During swallowing,
a. the tip of the larynx moves upward,
b. preventing the food from entering the trachea.
E. 21.7 CONNECTION: The Heimlich maneuver can
save lives
1. The Heimlich maneuver
a. involves a forceful elevation of the diaphragm,
b. pushes air into the trachea, and
c. can dislodge food from the pharynx or trachea during

choking.
2. Brain damage will occur within minutes if no airway is
open.
F. 21.8 The stomach stores food and breaks it down with
acid and enzymes
1. The stomach can stretch and store up to 2 liters of food
and drink.
2. Some chemical digestion occurs in the stomach.
3. The stomach secretes gastric juice, made up of
a. mucus,
b. a protein-digesting enzyme, and
c. strong acid with a pH of about 2 that
i. kills ingested bacteria,
ii. breaks apart cells in food, and
iii. denatures proteins.
4. Pepsinogen and HCl produce active pepsin.
a. Pepsinogen, H+, and Cl are secreted into the lumen of
the stomach.
b. HCL converts some pepsinogen to pepsin.
c. Pepsin helps activate more pepsinogen, starting a chain
reaction.
d. Pepsin begins the chemical digestion of proteins.
5. What prevents the gastric juices from digesting the
walls of the stomach?
a. The secretion of pepsin in the inactive form of
pepsinogen helps protect the cells of the gastric glands.
b. Mucus helps protect the stomach lining against HCl and
pepsin.
c. New cells lining the stomach are produced about every
three days to those that have been damaged.
G. 21.9 CONNECTION: Digestive ailments include acid
reflux and gastric ulcers
1. Acid reflux of chyme in the stomach back into the
esophagus causes the feeling of heartburn.
2. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) results from
frequent and severe acid reflux that harms the lining of the
esophagus.
3. Open sores in the lining of the stomach, called ulcers,
may form.
4. Bacterial infections (Helicobacter pylori) in the
stomach and duodenum can produce ulcers.
H. 21.10 The small intestine is the major organ of
chemical digestion and nutrient
absorption
1. The small intestine is
a. named for its smaller diameter,
b. about 6 meters long,
c. the site of much chemical digestion, and
d. where most nutrients are absorbed.
2. The first 25 cm of the small intestine is the duodenum,
where chyme squirted from the stomach mixes with

digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and

gland cells in the intestinal wall.
a. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice containing a
mixture of digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution rich
in bicarbonate.
b. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the
gallbladder until it is needed. Bile breaks up fats into
small droplets that are more susceptible to attack by
digestive
enzymes.
c. The intestinal wall produces digestive enzymes.
3. The surface area for absorption in the small intestine is
greatly increased by
a. folds of the intestinal lining,
b. fingerlike projections called villi, and
c. tiny projections of the surface of intestinal cells called
microvilli.
4. Nutrients pass into epithelial cells by
a. diffusion and
b. against concentration gradients.
5. Fatty acids and glycerol are
a. recombined into fats,
b. coated with proteins, and
c. transported into lymph vessels.
6. Other absorbed nutrients such as amino acids and
sugars pass
a. out of the intestinal epithelium,
b. across the thin walls of the capillaries into blood, and
finally
c. to the liver.
I. 21.11 One of the livers many functions is processing
nutrient-laden blood from the
intestines
1. Blood from the digestive tract drains
a. into the hepatic portal vein
b. to the liver.
2. The liver performs many functions. The liver
a. converts glucose in blood to glycogen,
b. stores glycogen and releases sugars back into the blood
as needed,
c. synthesizes many proteins including blood clotting
proteins and lipoproteins that transport fats and
cholesterol to body cells,
d. modifies substances absorbed in the digestive tract into
less toxic forms, and
e. produces bile.
J. 21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and compacts
the feces
1. The large intestine, or colon,
a. is about 1.5 m long and 5 cm in diameter,
b. has a pouch called the cecum near its junction with the

small intestine, which bears a small fingerlike extension,

the appendix,
c. contains large populations of E. coli, which produce
important vitamins,
d. absorbs these vitamins and water into the bloodstream,
and
e. helps form firm feces, which are stored in the rectum
until elimination.
2. Diarrhea occurs when too little water is reclaimed from
the contents of the large
intestine.
3. Constipation occurs when too much water is reclaimed.
K. 21.13 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Evolutionary
adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems relate to diet
1. The length of the digestive tract often correlates with
diet. In general, the alimentary
canals relative to their body size are
a. longer in herbivores and omnivores and
b. shorter in carnivores.
2. Many herbivores have specializations of the gut that
promote the growth of cellulose-digesting bacteria and
protists because these animals lack the enzymes needed to
digest cellulose in plants.
3. These mutualistic organisms may be housed in
a. the cecum, in a coyote or koala,
b. the large intestine and the cecum in rabbits and some
rodents, or
c. the stomach of ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and
deer.
IV. Nutrition
A. 21.14 Overview: An animals diet must satisfy three
needs
1. All animals have the same basic nutritional needs.
Animals must obtain
a. fuel to power all body activities,
b. organic molecules to build the animals own molecules,
and
c. essential nutrients, or substances the animal cannot
make for itself.
B. 21.15 Chemical energy powers the body
1. Cellular respiration produces the bodys energy
currency, ATP,
a. by oxidizing organic molecules digested from food and
b. usually using carbohydrates or fats as fuel.
2. A gram of fat has more than twice as many calories as a
gram of carbohydrate or
protein.
3. The energy content of food is measured in kilocalories
(1 kcal = 1,000 calories).
4. Dietary calories are actually kilocalories and are written
as Calories.

5. The rate of energy consumption by an animal is called

its metabolic rate, the sum of all the energy-requiring
biochemical reactions over a given interval of time.
6. The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy a resting
animal requires each day.
7. The metabolic rate is the BMR plus the energy needed
for physical activity.
8. Excess energy is stored as glycogen or fat.
C. 21.16 An animals diet must supply essential nutrients
1. Essential nutrients cannot be made from any raw
material.
2. There are four classes of essential nutrients.
a. Essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are
i. used to make phospholipids of cell membranes and
ii. found in seeds, grains, and vegetables.
b. Essential amino acids are
i. used to make proteins and
ii. found in meats, eggs, and milk.
c. Vitamins are organic nutrients discussed in module
21.17.
d. Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients discussed in
module 21.17.
3. Malnutrition is a chronic deficiency in calories or one
or more essential nutrients. The most common type of
human malnutrition is protein deficiency.
4. Undernutrition occurs when
a. diets do not supply sufficient chemical energy or
b. a person suffers from anorexia nervosa or bulimia.
D. 21.17 A healthy human diet includes 13 vitamins and
many essential minerals
1. Essential vitamins and minerals are
a. required in minute amounts and
b. absolutely essential to good health.
2. Vitamins are organic nutrients that may be
a. water-soluble, such as vitamins B and C, or
b. fat-soluble, such as vitamins A, D, E, and K.
3. Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients.
a. Calcium and phosphorus are required in larger amounts.
b. Iron is needed to make hemoglobin.
c. Iodine is required to make thyroid hormones.
d. Most people ingest more salt than they need.
4. The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are
a. the minimum amounts of nutrients that are needed each
day and
b. determined by a national scientific panel.
5. Overdoses of vitamins can be harmful.
a. In general, excess water-soluble vitamins will be
eliminated in urine.
b. However, excess fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate to
toxic levels in body fat.
E. 21.18 SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY: Scientists use

observations and experiments to determine nutritional

needs
1. Many insights into human nutrition have come from
epidemiology, the study of
human health and diseases within populations.
a. The essential need for vitamin C was revealed by the
high incidence of scurvy in sailors on long sea voyages.
b. The need for folic acid to prevent neural tube defects in
newborns was revealed by studies of pregnant women of
low socioeconomic status. Since 1998, folic acid has been
added to foods such as bread and cereals sold in the
United States.
F. 21.19 CONNECTION: Food labels provide nutritional
information
1. Food labels indicate
a. serving size,
b. calories per serving,
c. amounts of selected nutrients per serving and as a
percentage of daily value, and
d. recommendations for daily limits of selected nutrients.
G. 21.20 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The human
health problem of obesity may reflect our evolutionary
past
1. Overnourishment is the consumption of more food
energy than is needed for normal
metabolism.
2. Obesity is the excessive accumulation of fat.
3. The World Health Organization recognizes obesity as a
major global health problem.
4. In the United States, the percentage of obese people has
doubled to more than 30% in the past two decades. More
than 35% are overweight.
5. Weight problems often begin at a young age.
a. 15% of children and adolescents in the United States
are obese.
b. Another 17% are overweight.
6. Obesity leads to
a. type 2 diabetes,
b. cancer of the colon and breasts, and
c. cardiovascular disease.
7. Obesity is estimated to be a factor in 300,000 deaths
per year in the United States.
8. A 15-year study published in 2010 indicates that obesity
now surpasses smoking in its contribution to disease and
the shortening of healthy life spans.
9. The complexity of weight control in humans is evident
from studies of the hormone leptin.
10. Leptin
a. is produced by adipose (fat) cells and
b. suppresses appetite.
c. Obese children who have an inherited mutant form of

the leptin gene lose weight after leptin treatments.

d. However, high levels in otherwise healthy people do
not suppress appetite.
H. 21.21 CONNECTION: What are the health risks and
benefits of weight loss plans?
1. Why are so many people overweight? Is it
a. lack of exercise,
b. the amount of food,
c. the quality of food, or
d. a combination of the above?
2. The U.S. market for weight loss products and services
has gone from about $60
million a year in 1999 to more than $48 billion a year
today.
3. Weight loss diets may
a. help individuals lose weight but
b. have health risks leading to malnourishment.
4. Some severely obese individuals may be candidates for
weight-loss surgery.
5. Scientific studies of weight-loss diets indicate that the
best way to lose weight and keep it off is to
a. increase exercise and
b. eat a balanced diet with adequate amounts of all
essential nutrients.
I. 21.22 CONNECTION: Diet can influence risk of
cardiovascular disease and cancer
1. A healthy diet may reduce the risk of
a. cardiovascular disease and
b. cancer.
2. Two main types of cholesterol occur in the blood.
a. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) contribute to
i. blocked blood vessels and
ii. higher blood pressure.
b. High-density lipoproteins (HDL) help to reduce
blocked blood vessels.
i. Exercise increases HDL levels.
ii. Smoking decreases HDL levels.
iii. Trans fats in the diet tend to increase LDL levels.
iv. Eating mainly unsaturated fats tends to lower LDL
levels.
3. The relationship between food and health is complex.
4. The American Cancer Society recommends
a. regular exercise and
b. a diverse diet of healthy foods with an emphasis on
plant sources.
III. The Human Respiratory System
A. 22.6 In mammals, branching tubes convey air to lungs
located in the chest cavity
1. The diaphragm
a. separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity

and
b. helps ventilate the lungs.
2. In mammals, air is inhaled through the nostrils into the
nasal cavity. Air is
a. filtered by hairs and mucus surfaces,
b. warmed and humidified, and
c. sampled for odors.
3. From the nasal cavity, air next passes
a. to the pharynx,
b. then larynx, past the vocal cords,
c. into the trachea, held open by cartilage rings,
d. into the paired bronchi,
e. into bronchioles, and finally
f. to the alveoli, grapelike clusters of air sacs, where gas
exchange occurs.
4. Alveoli are well adapted for gas exchange with high
surface areas of capillaries
5. In alveoli,
a. O2 diffuses into the blood and
b. CO2 diffuses out of the blood.
6. Surfactants are specialized secretions required to keep
the walls of the small alveoli from sticking shut.
a. Babies born 6 weeks or more before their due date often
struggle with respiratory distress syndrome due to an
inadequate amount of lung surfactant.
b. Artificial surfactants are now administered to preterm
infants.
7. Exposure to pollutants can cause continual irritation
and inflammation of the lungs.
a. Examples of common lung pollutants include
i. air pollution and
ii. tobacco smoke.
b. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can
result limiting
i. lung ventilation and
ii. gas exchange.
B. 22.7 CONNECTION: Smoking is a serious assault on
the respiratory system
1. Mucus and cilia in the respiratory passages
a. sweep contaminant-laden mucus up and out of the
airways and
b. can be damaged by smoking.
2. One of the worst sources of lung-damaging air
pollutants is tobacco smoke, containing more than 4,000
chemicals.
3. Without healthy cilia, smokers must cough to clear
dirty mucus from the trachea.
4. Smoking can cause
a. lung cancer,
b. cardiovascular disease, and
c. emphysema.

5. Smoking accounts for 90% of all lung cancer cases.

6. Smoking increases the risk of other types of cancer.
7. Smoking also
a. increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes,
b. raises blood pressure, and
c. increases harmful types of cholesterol.
8. Every year in the United States, smoking
a. kills about 440,000 people,
b. more than all the deaths from accidents, alcohol, drug
abuse, HIV, and murders
combined.
9. Adults who smoke die 1314 years earlier than
nonsmokers.
C. 22.8 Negative pressure breathing ventilates your lungs
1. Breathing is the alternate inhalation and exhalation of
air (ventilation).
2. In mammals, inhalation occurs when
a. the rib cage expands,
b. the diaphragm moves downward,
c. the pressure around the lungs decreases, and
d. air is drawn into the respiratory tract.
3. This type of ventilation is called negative pressure
breathing.
4. Exhalation occurs when
a. the rib cage contracts,
b. the diaphragm moves upward,
c. the pressure around the lungs increases, and
d. air is forced out of the respiratory tract.
5. Not all air is expelled during exhalation.
a. Some air still remains in the trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli.
b. This remaining air is dead air.
c. Thus, inhalation mixes fresh air with dead air.
6. One-way flow of air in birds
a. reduces dead air and
b. increases their ability to obtain oxygen.
D. 22.9 Breathing is automatically controlled
1. Breathing is usually under automatic control.
2. Breathing control centers in the brain sense and respond
to CO2 levels in the blood.
3. A drop in blood pH increases the rate and depth of
breathing.
IV. Transport of Gases in the Human Body
A. 22.10 Blood transports respiratory gases
1. The heart pumps blood to two regions.
a. The right side pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
b. The left side pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body.
2. In the lungs, blood picks up O2 and drops off CO2.
3. In the body tissues, blood drops off O2 and picks up
CO2.
4. A mixture of gases, such as air, exerts pressure.

a. Each kind of gas in a mixture accounts for a portion of

the total pressure of the
mixture.
b. Thus, each gas has a partial pressure.
c. The exchange of gases between capillaries and the
surrounding cells is based on
partial pressures.
d. Molecules of each kind of gas diffuse down a gradient
of its own partial pressure, moving from regions of
i. higher partial pressure to
ii. lower partial pressure.
5. Gases move from areas of higher concentration to areas
of lower concentration.
a. Gases in the alveoli of the lungs have more O2 and less
CO2 than gases in the blood.
i. O2 moves from the alveoli of the lungs into the blood.
ii. CO2 moves from the blood into the alveoli of the
lungs.
b. The tissues have more CO2 and less O2 than gases in
the blood.
i. CO2 moves from the tissues into the blood.
ii. O2 moves from the blood into the tissues.
B. 22.11 Hemoglobin carries O2, helps transport CO2,
and buffers the blood
1. Most animals transport O2 bound to proteins called
respiratory pigments.
a. Blue, copper-containing pigment is used by
i. molluscs and
ii. arthropods.
b. Red, iron-containing hemoglobin
i. is used by almost all vertebrates and many invertebrates
and
ii. transports oxygen, buffers blood, and transports CO2.
2. Most CO2 in the blood enters red blood cells.
3. Some CO2 combines with hemoglobin.
4. Other CO2 reacts with water, forming carbonic acid,
which then breaks apart into
a. hydrogen ions and
b. bicarbonate ions in a reversible reaction.
c. Hemoglobin binds most of the H+ produced by this
reaction, minimizing the change in blood pH.
C. 22.12 CONNECTION: The human fetus exchanges
gases with the mothers blood
1. A human fetus does not breathe with its lungs. Instead,
it exchanges gases with maternal blood in the placenta.
2. In the placenta, capillaries of maternal blood and fetal
blood run next to each other. The fetus and mother do not
share the same blood.
3. Fetal hemoglobin
a. attracts O2 more strongly than adult hemoglobin and
b. takes oxygen from maternal blood.

4. At birth
a. CO2 in fetal blood increases and
b. breathing control centers initiate breathing.
5. Smoking during pregnancy reduces the supply of
oxygen to the fetus by up to 25%.
II. The Human Cardiovascular System and Heart
A. 23.3 The human cardiovascular system illustrates the
double circulation of mam-mals
1. Blood flow through the double circulatory system of
humans
a. drains from the superior vena cava (from the head and
arms) or inferior vena cava (from the lower trunk and
legs) into the right atrium,
b. moves out to the lungs via the pulmonary artery,
c. returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein,
and
d. leaves the heart through the aorta.
B. 23.4 The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically
1. The repeated contraction and relaxation of pumping
blood is called the cardiac cycle. The cycle consists of two
main phases.
a. During diastole, blood flows
i. from veins
ii. into heart chambers.
b. During systole, blood flows
i. from atria
ii. into ventricles.
2. Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped per
minute from the ventricles.
3. Heart rate is the number of heart beats per minute.
4. Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood.
5. A heart murmur
a. is a defect in one or more heart valves that
b. permits a backflow of blood and
c. reduces the cardiac output.
C. 23.5 The SA node sets the tempo of the heartbeat
1. The SA (sinoatrial) node
a. generates electrical signals in atria and
b. sets the rate of heart contractions.
2. The AV (atrioventricular) node
a. relays these signals to the ventricles and
b. causes ventricular contraction.
3. An electrocardiogram (ECG) records electrical changes
in the heart.
4. Heart rates normally adjust to body needs.
5. Abnormal rhythms may occur in a heart attack.
6. Automatic external defibrillators (AEDs)
a. shock the heart,
b. reset the SA node, and
c. save thousands of lives.

D. 23.6 CONNECTION: What is a heart attack?

1. A heart attack
a. is damage or death of cardiac muscle and
b. usually results from a blocked coronary artery.
2. Cardiovascular diseases are disorders of the heart and
blood vessels. These include
a. a stroke, death of brain tissue from blocked or ruptured
arteries in the head and
b. atherosclerosis, in which fatty deposits in the walls of
arteries narrow the blood vessels and restrict blood flow.
IV. Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
A. 23.7 The structure of blood vessels fits their functions
1. Capillaries
a. have thin walls consisting of a single layer of epithelial
cells,
b. are narrow, about as wide as one red blood cell, and
c. increase surface area for gas and fluid exchange with
the interstitial fluid.
2. Arteries and veins
a. are lined by a single layer of epithelial cells and
b. have elastic fibers in an outer connective tissue layer
that allows these vessels to
recoil after stretching.
c. Arteries contain a thick layer of smooth muscle in their
walls that can constrict and reduce blood flow.
d. Veins have one-way valves that restrict backward flow
of blood.
B. 23.8 Blood pressure and velocity reflect the structure
and arrangement of blood vessels
1. Blood pressure
a. is the force blood exerts on vessel walls,
b. depends on cardiac output and resistance of vessels to
expansion, and
c. decreases as blood moves away from the heart.
2. Blood pressure is
a. highest in arteries and
b. lowest in veins.
3. Blood pressure is measured as
a. systolic pressurecaused by ventricular contraction
and
b. diastolic pressurelow pressure between contractions.
4. How does blood travel against gravity, up legs?
a. Veins are squeezed by pressure from muscle
contractions between
i. two muscles or
ii. muscles and bone or skin.
b. One-way valves limit blood flow to one direction,
toward the heart.
C. 23.9 CONNECTION: Measuring blood pressure can
reveal cardiovascular problems
1. A typical blood pressure for a healthy young adult is

about 120/70.
2. Blood pressure is commonly measured using a
sphygmomanometer.
3. Hypertension is a serious cardiovascular problem in
which blood pressure is persistent at or above
a. 140 systolic and/or
b. 90 diastolic.
4. Hypertension causes
a. the heart to work harder, weakening the heart over time,
b. increased plaque formation from tiny ruptures, and
c. increased risk of blood clot formation.
5. Hypertension can contribute to
a. heart attacks,
b. strokes, and/or
c. kidney failure.
D. 23.10 Smooth muscle controls the distribution of blood
1. Blood flow through capillaries is restricted by
precapillary sphincters.
2. By opening and closing these precapillary sphincters,
blood flow to particular regions can be increased or
decreased.
3. Only about 510% of capillaries are open at one time.
E. 23.11 Capillaries allow the transfer of substances
through their walls
1. Capillaries have very thin walls.
2. Substances leave blood and enter interstitial fluid by
a. diffusion and
b. pressure-driven flow through clefts between epithelial
cells.
3. Blood pressure forces fluid out of capillaries at the
arterial end.
4. Osmotic pressure draws in fluid at the venous end.
V. Structure and Function of Blood
A. 23.12 Blood consists of red and white blood cells
suspended in plasma
1. Blood consists of several types of cells suspended in a
liquid called plasma, which
a. is about 90% water and
b. contains many different substances.
2. Two classes of cells are suspended in blood plasma.
a. Red blood cells or erythrocytes transport O2 bound to
hemoglobin.
b. White blood cells, or leukocytes,
i. function inside and outside the circulatory system and
ii. fight infections and cancer.
iii. Monocytes and neutrophils are white blood cells called
phagocytes, which
engulf and digest bacteria and debris from our own dead
cells.
B. 23.13 CONNECTION: Too few or too many red blood
cells can be unhealthy

1. Anemia can be caused by low amounts of

a. hemoglobin or
b. red blood cells.
c. Anemia causes fatigue due to lack of oxygen in tissues.
2. The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) regulates red blood
cell production.
3. Some athletes artificially increase red blood cell
production by
a. training at high altitudes,
b. injecting erythropoietin, and
c. withdrawing, storing, and then reinjecting them just
before a competition.
d. Abuse of these methods can lead to clotting, stroke,
heart failure, or even death.
C. 23.14 Blood clots plug leaks when blood vessels are
injured
1. When a blood vessel is damaged
a. platelets rapidly adhere to the exposed connective tissue
and
b. a cluster of sticky platelets forms a plug.
c. Clotting factors released from platelets and in the
plasma help trigger the conversion of the plasma protein
fibrinogen to fibrin, a threadlike protein that helps form a
clot that plugs the leak.
2. Within an hour after a fibrin clot forms, the platelets
contract, pulling the torn edges closer together.
3. Chemicals released by platelets also stimulate cell
division in smooth muscle and connective tissue, initiating
the healing process.
D. 23.15 CONNECTION: Stem cells offer a potential
cure for blood cell diseases
1. Multipotent stem cells
a. are unspecialized and
b. replace themselves throughout the life of an organism.
2. Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into two main
types of stem cells.
a. Lymphoid stem cells can in turn produce two types of
lymphocytes, which function in the immune system.
b. Myeloid stem cells can differentiate into
i. erythrocytes,
ii. other white blood cells, and
iii. platelets.
3. Leukemia
a. is cancer of white blood cells,
b. results in extra leukocytes that do not function properly,
and
c. is usually fatal unless treated.
4. Leukemia may be treated by
a. radiation,
b. chemotherapy, or c. the replacement of cancerous bone
marrow with healthy bone marrow.