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Department of Radiology, Indiana University Medical Center, 550 North University Boulevard, UH0279,
Indianapolis, IN 46202-5243, USA
b
Division of General Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, 545 Barnhill Drive, EH523, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
c
Department of Radiology, Methodist Hospital of Indiana, 1701 North Senate Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
Clinical considerations
Small bowel obstruction is responsible for 12% to
16% of admissions to the surgical service in patients
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dmaglint@iupui.edu (D.T.T. Maglinte).
0033-8389/03/$ see front matter D 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0033-8389(02)00114-8
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Abdominal radiography
Despite its limitations, abdominal radiography
remains the initial imaging study in patients with
abdominal symptoms, particularly in those with possible intestinal obstruction. Its diagnostic value tends
to be highest in patients with signs or symptoms of
biliary or urinary system calculi, intestinal obstruction, perforation, or ischemia. Plain films are least
helpful in patients with vague abdominal pain and
nonspecific physical findings. Its role in the evaluation of calculi, perforation, or ischemia has been
replaced by CT.
In the setting of SBO, abdominal radiographs are
diagnostic in 50% to 60% of cases [17 20,29]. In an
analysis of plain film findings reported by experienced gastrointestinal radiologists, a sensitivity of
only 66% was found in proved cases of SBO [7].
Twenty-one percent of patients reported as normal
were in fact obstructed. Of patients whose films were
can produce it, including low-grade obstruction, reactive ileus, and medication-induced hypoperistalsis. (3)
The probable SBO pattern consists of multiple gas- or
fluid-filled loops of dilated small bowel with a moderate amount of colonic gas. The presence of colonic
gas indicates early complete mechanical SBO, an
incomplete SBO, or nonobstructive ileus. This pattern
can be seen in several acute intra-abdominal inflammatory conditions that involve the small bowel (diverticulitis, appendicitis, or mesenteric ischemia). This
diagnosis should trigger further investigation with a
prompt CT enteroclysis in a patient with no objective
clinical findings. (4) The definite SBO pattern shows
dilated gas or fluid-filled loops of small bowel in the
setting of a gasless colon. This constellation of findings is pathognomonic for SBO [4].
Various small bowel gas patterns are shown in
Fig. 1A N. These patterns should be distinguished
from the distended small bowel occurring secondary to
left-sided colonic obstruction. In this pattern, in addition to the distended small bowel, a fluid-filled right
colon and fluid and gas distended transverse colon can
also be recognized (Fig. 2). The small bowel distention
seen in this setting is secondary to decompression of
the colonic distention through the ileocecal valve.
Two findings on the upright abdominal radiograph
can help differentiate high-grade obstruction from
lower-grade obstruction: the presence of differential
air-fluid levels in the same bowel loop, and a mean airfluid level width of at least 25 mm (see Fig. 1M). The
combined presence or absence of these two radiographic findings has a strong positive (86%) and
negative (83%) predictive value of the degree of
patency of the small bowel lumen [34]. Although
upright radiographs alone are not particularly sensitive for SBO, they may be of value in distinguishing
patients with high-grade or complete obstruction from
those with low-grade or partial obstruction. Because
of its widespread availability, relative low cost, and
high sensitivity in revealing high-grade SBO, the use
of abdominal plain radiographs remains a prominent
imaging tool in the evaluation of suspected SBO [29].
Barium radiography
Because barium does not typically inspissate
within the adynamic gut, it can be used safely to
evaluate SBO [35,36]. Ingested orally, iodinated
water-soluble contrast agents result in poor mucosal
detail on radiography and are quite hypertonic.
Although radiography using water-soluble agents
was once used by some institutions to triage patients
into surgical versus nonsurgical management, the
265
widespread use of abdominal CT has largely supplanted this practice [37 39]. Despite the strong
opinion of a few advocates, the use of water-soluble
contrast has been shown to have no therapeutic effect
in patients with postoperative SBO [40].
Barium evaluation of the small intestine can be
performed by either nonintubation or intubation-infusion techniques [4]. The nonintubation methods
include the retrograde small bowel enema; the per
enterosotomy (colostomy, ileostomy) small bowel
enema; and the small bowel follow-through.
Although the small bowel follow-through is a useful
technique when performed with meticulous fluoroscopy, it has known limitations in the setting of SBO
[41 43]. In cases of high-grade obstruction, dilution
of barium by fluid in the dilated proximal bowel
typically results in incomplete small bowel opacification and poor mucosal detail. The duration of the
small bowel follow-through examination is directly
related to small bowel transit time, both of which are
often markedly prolonged in cases of high-grade
obstruction. Moreover, nonintubation barium techniques are inherently limited in their ability to assess
intestinal distensibility and fixation of small bowel
loops [42]. As a result, they may not detect partially
obstructing lesions that produce only fleeting or
inconspicuous prestenotic dilatations when viewed
under fluoroscopy. Despite these limitations, intermittent fluoroscopic monitoring can often yield
important information making the technique a viable
alternative for radiology departments lacking sufficient expertise in performing enteroclysis [42,43].
Enteroclysis overcomes the limitations of the nonintubation techniques by challenging the distensibility of the bowel wall and exaggerating the effects
of mild or subclinical mechanical obstruction (see
Fig. 1B, C). Intubating the small bowel bypasses the
pylorus, enabling delivery of a nondiluted barium or
iodinated contrast bolus directly into the jejunum.
Sequential infusion of barium and methylcellulose or
iodinated contrast during CT enteroclysis promotes
antegrade flow of contrast toward the site of obstruction despite the presence of diminished bowel peristalsis. The resultant luminal distention facilitates
detection of both fixed and nondistensible bowel
segments. Clinical studies have shown that the
intubation infusion method of small bowel examination can correctly predict the presence of obstruction
in 100%, the absence of obstruction in 88%, the level
of obstruction in 89%, and the cause of obstruction
86% of patients [7].
SBO is excluded by enteroclysis or CT enteroclysis when unimpeded flow of contrast material is
observed within normal-caliber small bowel loops
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267
268
269
270
Fig. 1. (M) Upright abdominal radiograph of same patient (L) shows air-fluid levels and multiple fluid-filled loops of distal small
bowel (arrow in one). The rectosigmoid appears dry. (N) Enteroclysis done following overnight long tube decompression shows
fixation and decreased caliber of small bowel loops, multiple kinks, and strictures (arrow in one) from chronic radiation
enteropathy in a patient with a history of carcinoma of the cervix. C, cecum. (From Maglinte D, Herlinger H. Plain film
radiography of the small bowel. In: Herlinger H, Maglinte D, Birnbaum B, editors. Clinical imaging of the small intestine.
2nd edition. New York: Springer; 1999. p. 47 80; with permission.)
271
Fig. 2. Left-sided colonic obstruction plain film pattern. (A) Diffuse small bowel distention is seen. In addition, fluid is seen in
the right colon (arrow) and gas- and fluid-filled transverse colon (open arrow). The rectosigmoid region is empty. (B) CT done
following (A) shows obstruction of the proximal descending colon from carcinoma (arrow). The retained fluid and gas in the
colon correspond to the gas and fluid distribution in (A). (From Maglinte D, Herlinger H. Plain film radiography of the small
bowel. In: Herlinger H, Maglinte D, Birnbaum B, editors. Clinical imaging of the small intestine. 2nd edition. New York:
Springer; 1999. p. 47 80; with permission.)
CT
CT has become important in the preoperative
evaluation of patients with suspected intestinal
272
Fig. 3. Decompression-enteroclysis catheter. (A) The catheter is introduced transnasally similar to the conventional nasogastric
tube. The black marker (arrow) in the proximal third of the tube when seen at the level of the external nares indicates the tube tip
position in the body of the stomach and allows the tube to be positioned at bedside in the emergency department or hospital ward
without fluoroscopic guidance similar to the positioning of conventional nasogastric tubes. A rubber adapter (1) allows
connection of the decompression lumen (D) (also infusion lumen) to existing suction devices. A small plastic cap (2) prevents
fluid from leaking out of the sump port (S) when suction is disconnected. The balloon (B) is used only during contrast material
infusion and is inflated by first pressing in the balloon inflation one-way valve attachment (curved arrow). (B) A Teflon-coated
stainless-steel braided torque guidewire with interchangeable ends is provided. The straight tip of the guidewire is introduced to
the level of the nasal marker (arrow in A) of the suction-infusion lumen before intubation. The 45% angle proximal to the
opposite tip of the 195-cm long guidewire allows the operator to change the direction of the tube tip when necessary. The angled
tip is used only in occasional situations of difficult directional control and to allow atraumatic nasopharyngeal tube passage in
patients with acute nasopharyngeal posterior wall angulation. The straight tip is all that is necessary to provide torque in most
transgastric intubations.
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274
Fig. 4. Therapeutic and diagnostic use of multipurpose long tube. (A) Axial CT of patient who had a history of prior colon
resection for carcinoma who presented with abdominal pain and distention. The dirty feces sign (arrow) suggests chronic
obstruction of small bowel with fluid and debris accumulating proximal to the point of obstruction. (From Maglinte D, Herlinger
H. Plain film radiography of the small bowel. In: Herlinger H, Maglinte D, Birnbaum B, editors. Clinical imaging of the small
intestine. 2nd edition. New York: Springer; 1999. p. 47 80; with permission.) (B) Following nasogastric suction, no clinical
improvement was noted. Enteroclysis and long tube decompression were requested. The nasogastric tube was replaced with the
multipurpose tube and was advanced under fluoroscopic guidance to the proximal jejunum. The proximal small bowel was atonic
and fluid filled. Long tube suction was done. (C) Following overnight decompression, an abdominal radiograph done before
enteroclysis shows satisfactory decompression of the distended small bowel. (D) Radiograph obtained during barium
enteroclysis shows the cobra head appearance (arrow) suggestive of dense adhesive band obstruction, which was confirmed at
surgery. (From Maglinte D, Herlinger H. Plain film radiography of the small bowel. In: Herlinger H, Maglinte D, Birnbaum B,
editors. Clinical imaging of the small intestine. 2nd edition. New York: Springer; 1999. p. 47 80; and Maglinte DDT, Reyes BL,
Harmon BH, et al. Reliability and the role of plain film radiography and CT in the diagnosis of small-bowel obstruction. AJR Am
J Roentgenol 1996;167:1451 5; with permission.)
MR enteroclysis
MR imaging has played only a limited role in the
clinical evaluation of SBO. The emerging technique
of MR enteroclysis, however, has the potential to
change the assessment of the small bowel through
its direct multiplanar imaging capabilities, its lack of
ionizing radiation, and the functional information
and soft tissue contrast that it can provide [73].
Compared with CT enteroclysis, MR enteroclysis
provides the distinct advantages of direct imaging in
the coronal plane and real-time acquisition of functional information. Additionally, the accuracy of the
MR imaging technique does not rely as heavily on
fluoroscopist experience as do conventional enteroclysis techniques [73]. To be the primary method
of investigation for small bowel disease, MR enteroclysis has to provide reliable evidence of normalcy,
allow diagnosis of early or subtle structural abnormalities, influence treatment decisions in patient
management, and be cost effective [41]. Further
275
Fig. 4 (continued ).
276
Fig. 5. Radiographic demonstration of partial or incomplete closed-loop obstruction. (A) Abdominal radiograph of a 72-year-old
woman who presented with abdominal pain, distention, and vomiting and a history of prior appendectomy and lysis of adhesions.
Multiple distended loops of small bowel with little gas in colon are suggestive of small bowel obstruction. Clips are seen in right
lower abdomen from her prior surgery. A nasogastric tube is in the stomach. (B) Intravenous contrast-enhanced axial CT image at
level of lower abdomen shows mild dilatation of small bowel loops and possible edema of an ileal segment (arrow). (C) Axial
CT image at level of upper pelvis shows clips (curved arrow) from prior surgery and normal-caliber loops (arrow) and some
dilated loops. (D) Preliminary abdominal radiograph obtained after 12 hours of long tube decompression shows partial
decompression of distended small bowel and more gas in colon. (E) Early enteroclysis radiograph shows focal narrowing with
proximal dilatation of the small bowel at the level of the clips (curved arrow). The poststenotic loop containing a small amount of
contrast and gas, however, is also dilated (arrow). (F) Further contrast infusion shows the dilated poststenotic segment coursing
back toward the region of the clips (arrow). (G) Delayed radiograph shows two loops of small bowel obstructed at the same level
(curved arrow) consistent with a partial volvulus secondary to dense adhesive band. Collapsed loops are seen distal to
obstruction. This was confirmed at surgery. This is an illustration of how to diagnose multiple points of obstruction by
enteroclysis. (From Maglinte D, Herlinger H. Plain film radiography of the small bowel. In: Herlinger H, Maglinte D, Birnbaum
B, editors. Clinical imaging of the small intestine. 2nd edition. New York: Springer; 1999. p. 47 80; with permission.)
277
(MDEC-1400, Cook, Bloomington, IN) was developed in 1992 to be used for both diagnostic and
therapeutic purposes to eliminate the need for multiple intubations [79]. This multipurpose tube, a
modification of the standard balloon enteroclysis
catheter [80], is a 14F catheter, 155-cm long, triplelumen disposable catheter made of radiopaque polyvinyl chloride that is adapted for use with hospital
Fig. 5 (continued ).
278
Closed-loop obstruction
Prompt preoperative recognition of closed-loop
obstruction is crucial, because strangulation represents
a dangerous complication that carries a much higher
risk of mortality than simple mechanical SBO. Accurate and early detection of strangulation can expedite
surgery and significantly improve overall patient prognosis [82,83]. Most closed-loop obstructions result
from entrapment of the small bowel either within an
internal or external hernia. Unless the classic pseudotumor or coffee bean signs are present, plain film
radiography often yields nonspecific and unreliable
results [84]. CT is the imaging modality of choice for
evaluating closed-loop obstruction in the acute setting,
whereas CT or barium enteroclysis serve more complementary roles by establishing the presence of an
incomplete closed-loop obstruction or by helping to
clarify the cause of obstruction (Fig. 5) [37].
The enteroclysis findings of closed-loop obstruction are similar to those seen in single-band adhesive
obstruction, except that the crossing defect traverses
two adjacent segments of a single loop of bowel [85].
Volvulus is diagnosed if the afferent and efferent
limbs seem to cross or intertwine with twisting of
the folds at the point of obstruction. A separation
between the two obstructed limbs excludes the presence of volvulus. In patients with moderate to highgrade obstruction, it may be difficult to exclude
volvulus if the involved limbs appear closely approximated, tightly compressed, and angulated at the point
of obstruction [85]. It is often impossible to differentiate closed-loop obstructions caused by herniation
279
and hemorrhage are important findings whose presence increases the specificity of the CT diagnosis
of strangulation.
Fig. 7. Problem solving with CT enteroclysis. (A) Supine abdominal radiograph of a 26-year-old woman who presented with
abdominal distention and vomiting following colectomy and ileoanal pouch construction. Multiple distended loops of small
bowel are noted initially interpreted as consistent with mechanical small bowel obstruction. Conventional abdominal CT with
intravenous contrast (not shown) was unable to differentiate between ileus and mechanical obstruction. Oral contrast given was
vomited and patient refused nasogastric intubation. (B) CT enteroclysis with multipurpose long tube introduced following
conscious sedation was requested. Overnight long tube decompression was performed before infusion of water-soluble contrast.
The patient had a relief of the abdominal distention. Coronal CT image obtained 3 hours after initial infusion of contrast because
of slow flow shows the tip of the multipurpose long tube in proximal jejunum. There is moderate distention of remaining small
bowel with continuity of distention to the ileoanal pouch ( p). (C) Axial image at the level of the upper abdomen shows dilated
loops with retained fluid. (D) Axial image at level of pouch ( p) shows an intact pouch without evidence of peripouch
complications. Additional coronal and axial images did not show a transition point confirming a diagnosis of severe
postoperative ileus. The patient responded to long tube small bowel decompression with return of small bowel peristalsis and
passage of gas and contrast after the examination.
280
Fig. 7 (continued ).
Definitive SBO on plain film radiography confirms the clinical diagnosis and opens the door for a
decision on whether to perform surgery or use a trial
of conservative nonoperative management. Factors
that favor early surgical exploration include no prior
history of abdominal surgery; clinical signs of bowel
compromise; incarcerated hernia; or the presence of a
complete SBO (obstipation). Factors that favor initial
conservative management include the presence of a
partial SBO; history of resected abdominal tumor;
prior radiation therapy; history of inflammatory
bowel disease; and early ( < 6 weeks) postoperative
obstruction (see Fig. 1M, N). When initial conservative management is entertained, CT examination is
helpful in evaluating the presence and extent of
neoplastic or inflammatory disease and in excluding
a strangulated obstruction. Postsurgical patients presenting early after operation with abdominal distention and no signs of bowel compromise (tachycardia,
leukocytosis, localized tenderness, or fever) are
treated conservatively for several days, with CT
advised only if the clinical findings and abdominal
plain films do not improve, or if signs of sepsis or
bowel compromise develop. CT enteroclysis with
positive enteral contrast is a good problem-solving
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