COOPERATIVE RESEARCH CENTRE FOR BLACK COAL UTILISATION

Established and supported under the Australian Governments Cooperative Research Centres Program

COAL-BASED POWER GENERATION

IN JAPAN
TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT REPORT 18

by
D G Roberts #
and
T F Wall*

CRC for Black Coal Utilisation

Advanced Technology Centre, The University of Newcastle
Callaghan, NSW Australia 2308
* Department of Chemical Engineering
The University of Newcastle
Callaghan, NSW Australia 2308

August 2001
Advanced Technology Centre, The University of Newcastle
University Drive Callaghan NSW 2308 AUSTRALIA
Telephone (02) 4921 7314 Facsimile (02) 4921 7168
Email: black-coal@newcastle.edu.au

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
Background
Japanese Energy
Electricity Supply
The Role for Coal in Japans Energy Supply

5
5
5
7
9

COAL-BASED GENERATION IN JAPAN

Case Study 1: EPDC Tachibana-wan Thermal Power Station
Description
Coal Testing Regime
Case Study 2: Shikoku EPCO Tachibanawan Thermal Power Station
Case Study 3: Chubu EPCO Hekinan Thermal Power Station

12
14
15
16
17
18

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES IN JAPAN

Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion
Case Study 1: PFBC Commercial Demonstration Plant, KyEPCO Karita
Case Study 2: PFBC Demonstration Plant, Osaki
Case Study 3: APFBC Development Project, EPDC Wakematsu
Coal Gasification
Case Study 4: EAGLE Gasification Development Project, EPDC Wakematsu
Case Study 5: 250 MW IGCC Demonstration Plant

20
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

SUMMARY
Current Generation
Next Generation

28
28
29

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

31

REFERENCES

31

FIGURES
Figure 1: Structure of the overall energy supply situation in Japan [after 3]...........................6
Figure 2: Japanese electric power companies and the regions they service [5].......................7
Figure 3: Electricity sales by the 10 electric power companies in Japan, with forecasts to
2009 [5]. ...............................................................................................................8
Figure 4: Total generation of electricity in Japan over the last 20 years [5]............................8
Figure 5: Sources of generated electricity in Japan in 1998 [5]..............................................9
Figure 6: Breakdown of the electricity sources proposed under a deregulated electricity
market. Compare this with the current situation in Japan (Figure 5) [9]...............11
Figure 7: Pollution control systems used on the 59 currently operating coal-fired power
stations in Japan [12]. SCR = selective catalytic reduction; FBC = fluidised bed
combustion (in-bed limestone sorbent); PFBC = Pressurised Fluidised Bed
Combustion; CY+BF=cyclone + bag filter; ESP = electrostatic precipitation. ......13
Figure 8: Breakdown of proposed electric output from the EAGLE system.........................26
Figure 9: The MITI goal for coal utilisation technologies in Japan [3, 16]...........................30

TABLES
Table 1: Current energy mix for electricity generation compared with the mix from the
proposals under a system exposed to competition [9]...........................................11
Table 2: Coals tested in the EPDC Tachibanawan units. .....................................................17
Table 3: Operating parameters for the PFBC unit at KyEPCO, Karita. ................................21
Table 4: Conceptual parameters of a Japanese APFBC system............................................24
Table 5: Summary of coal utilisation technologies in Japan. The numbers used are the best
data taken from information on the facilities discussed in this report....................29

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The supply of electricity in Japan is managed by 10 electric power companies,
each of which is responsible for the generation and transmission of electricity within
a specific region. Recently (for some aspects of the electricity supply) Japanese
Government policy has seen the introduction of competition between these
companies, as well as with smaller new entrants into the market, with the aim of
reducing the cost of electricity. Government policy is also aiming at a reduction in
the emissions of pollutantsin particular CO2whilst maintaining a stable supply
of energy. This combination of policies has seen the consideration of new, advanced
technologies for future coal-based power generation in Japan; while at the same time
the emergence of possible conflict between the aims of the policies and their
consequences for immediate new power generating capacity.
Currently in Japan, coal utilisation accounts for approximately 20% of the
electricity produced. The relative cheapness of coal, combined with the ability to
secure a stable supply from various sources, means that the market share of coal for
electricity production in Japan is unlikely to decrease significantly. Coal is also seen
by the Japanese as an oil alternative (through the use of liquefaction technologies),
and this will also maintain a strong demand for coal.
As in Australia, the pulverised-fuel fired boiler is the dominant technology used
for electricity production from coal in Japan. The modern units are very clean
(15 ppm NOx, 25 ppm SOx and 5 mg mN3 particulates) and highly efficient (gross
efficiencies above 42%), firing premium export-quality coals with high capacity
(1050 MWe per unit). The biggest issues for the operators of such plants is the ash
content of the feed coal due to disposal problems and the price and stability of the
supply. For some operators, coal nitrogen and sulphur levels are considered
important; however, at least one operator of a state-of-the-art pf facility is not
concerned about coal-N and S due to the highly efficient gas cleaning systems used.
Environmental and economic pressures, however, are changing the policies for
coal utilisation in the future in Japan. Whilst their current state-of-the art pulverisedcoal-fired facilities are very clean and highly efficient, the predicted flexibility and
potential for improvement of emerging technologies makes them desirable
alternatives for power generation and other applications using coal. In order to
reduce pollutant emissions, increase utilisation efficiencies and begin to replace some
of their oil imports with other energy sourcesall at a cost that allows for a desirable
level of growththe Japanese are looking to advanced coal utilisation technologies
for the future.
Utilities are already implementing the next generation of coal utilisation
technologies. There are four pressurised fluidised-bed facilities in Japan, which are
achieving similar gross (approximately 42%) efficiencies with a reduction in
pollutants when compared with Japanese pf-fired power stations. It is foreseen that
as next-generation components are introduced into these systems the efficiencies will
increase further.

Gasification-based technologies, however, have been identified as the future for

coal-fired technology in Japan. To this end, the Japanese have been planning an
IGCC demonstration facility since the early eighties, which is scheduled for
completion in 2007. Gasification technologies to produce power using fuel cells in
conjunction with gas and steam turbines are also the subject of fundamental and
pilot-scale research, and the government foresees the possibility of a zero-emission
coal utilisation facility in the future, which is likely to be based on a combination of
gasification and combustion technologies.

INTRODUCTION
Background
Japan is the fourth largest energy consumer in the world, after the US, Russia and
China [1]. Given the desire of Japan to diversify energy sources away from oil and
to further its economic growth, the need for coal imports to the country will continue
to increase. Australia is the worlds largest exporter of black coal, and of the 167 Mt
exported in 1998, 70% was sold to Japan and other Asian markets [2]. The
relationship between Japan and Australia in terms of coal exports and utilisation is
therefore very important to both countries.
There is international concern over the role emissions from coal combustion for
power generation play in air pollution (emissions of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur),
water pollution (ash storage leachate contamination from heavy metals) and the
enhanced greenhouse effect (emission of CO2). In order to reduce the amount of
these pollutants and to increase the efficiency of the coal utilisation process, new
technologies have been developed. The use of these technologies in countries that
are reliant on coal for a significant portion of their energy needs will change the coal
property requirements of the coal they import.
This document will consider the situation in Japan regarding the use of coal as an
energy source from two perspectives. One will be the current situation in terms of
coal use and coal utilisation technologies. The second will be the future Japan sees
for the use of coal, and the implications of these choices for Australian coal exporters
and researcherswith particular emphasis on the planned technologies to be used.
The remainder of this introduction will provide details of the Japanese policy
regarding energy and coal utilisation, which directs much of the technological
choices discussed later in the report.

Japanese Energy
The breakdown of total energy sources in Japan is given in Figure 1. It can be
seen that oil is dominant and the amount of oil used over the last decade hasnt
changed, although its share of the total energy supply is decreasing as the Japanese
introduce alternatives based on nuclear and renewables.
Japanese energy policy is the three Es: to ensure security of energy supply to
achieve economic growth without damaging the environment. There are two notable
issues that arise from this policy. The first is the Japanese commitment at the 1997
Kyoto protocol to reduce their 1990 greenhouse gas emissions by 6% by the period
20082012. The second is that Japan relies on imports for more than 80% of its
primary energy supply and in 1995 79% of Japans crude oil came from the Middle
East.

Share of Total Supply (%)

80

60
Oil
Coal
40

Gas
Nuclear
Other

20

Total Supply (GL oil eq.)

600
500

Other

400

Nuclear
Gas

300

Coal

200

Oil

100
0
1973

1985

1990

1998

Figure 1: Structure of the overall energy supply situation in Japan [after 3].

As a result of this policy, and in response to the associated issues, the Japanese
governments policy is to[4]:

Diversify petroleum sources away from the reliance on Middle East oil,
and reduce overall oil imports. This means expanding the use of oil
alternatives such as nuclear, coal, natural gas and renewables;
Implement strict end-use efficiency methods;
Deregulate the petroleum, natural gas and electric utilities to increase
efficiencies and lower costs; and,
Prioritise measures that contribute to Japans Kyoto commitment i.e. in
reducing CO2 emissions.

The CO2 emission issue is a major point. The government sees the short-term keys
to meeting this obligation in fuel switching (from coal to natural gas and nuclear) and
higher end-use efficiencies. Middle-term future possibilities include fuel-cell
powered cars and waste heat recovery. Longer-term issues include space-based solar
power, CO2 sequestration and biomass-based power generation.

CRIEPI have been quoted in the Japanese media, however [in 4], as claiming that
Japan cannot reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and that by 2010 Japans CO2
emissions will be 14% greater than 1990 levels. Further to this, they recommend
further introduction of solar and nuclear energy sources, along with the use of
technologies that favour the ability to sequester CO2 produced.
Japan still sees a role for coal, however, in the generation of power to fuel their
desired growth, and as an oil alternative in the non-electricity-generation industries.
This is discussed in later sections of this report.

Electricity Supply
Most of Japans electricity is produced by 10 privately-owned electric power
companies. These companies are responsible for the generation and distribution of
electricity within their region (Figure 2). From March 2000, sections of the
electricity supply structure were liberalised, introducing competition between some
electric power companies as well as smaller entrants into the electricity industry.
This liberalisation of the electricity industry is a direct result of the government
policies discussed above.
The amount of electricity sold by the major power producing companies in Japan
is increasing each year, and is forecast to continue to increase (Figure 3). This
compares with an increase in the total amount of electricity generated in Japan over
the last 20 years (Figure 4).

Figure 2: Japanese electric power companies and the regions they service [5]

Electricity Sales - Major Companies

Electricity Sales (TWh)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
1965 1975 1985 1995 1999 2004 2009

Figure 3: Electricity sales by the 10 electric power companies in Japan, with forecasts to
2009 [5].

Electricity Generation (TWh)

Electricity Generation - Total Japan

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1980

1985

1990

1995

1998

1999

Figure 4: Total generation of electricity in Japan over the last 20 years [5].

Unlike Australia, which generates 85% of its power [6] from the combustion of
coal (and much of the remainder from the combustion of oil and gas), Japan produces
power from a mix of coal, oil and gas combustion, nuclear fission and hydroelectric
generation (Figure 5). Japan has been using nuclear power since 1966, and currently
operates 51 reactors at a combined capacity of 44.9 GW [5]. It uses this nuclear
power along with inflow type hydroelectric and modern, state-of-the-art pf units as
the base supply sources. Most of the coal, gas and oil combustion plants are used to
supply the mid-range and peak demands (with some contribution from pumped
storage type hydroelectric power in periods of very high demand). In terms of

Electricity Generation by Source

Hydro
9%

Others
2%

Nuclear
33%

Oil
16%

Gas
21%

Coal
19%

Figure 5: Sources of generated electricity in Japan in 1998 [5].

generating plant capacity, coal makes up less than 12% of the total (and
approximately 19% of the actual generated electricity).
In addition to the data discussed above is the release of information by TEPCO
early in 2001, regarding the freezing of the plans for 27 thermal plants at 12 power
stations [7, 8]. TEPCO forecasts the growth in power demand over the next 10 years
to be less than 2%this is a record low for Japan. The TEPCO information
discusses this reduced level of growth in terms of reduced demand and changes in
the way Japan electricity is produced. The economic slowdown of the last 5 years,
combined with the increase in the use of air-cooling units with gas and the increase
in power generation plants owned and run by non-power-sector companies, are seen
as the major contributing factors. Non-power-sector companies, for example, have
generated a combined annual power output equal to that of two 1000 MW power
stations. Concerns about emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants were
not related to any of these decisions.

The Role for Coal in Japans Energy Supply

The Japanese are still more dependent on oil than any other energy source, with
coal second. In terms of electricity generation, nuclear power has the largest share,
with gas and coal second. Following government policy to move away from the
reliance on oil (in particular Middle-Eastern oil) the dependence on oil imports is
decreasing. The result of that is an increase in the reliance on gas and nuclear-based
electricity generation, as well as a desire to rely more on renewables. Amongst this
is a steady reliance on coalin both electricity generation and replacement of oil
products through coal liquefaction. It is on this steady reliance on coal that the
discussion of current and proposed utilisation technologies is based.
An interesting dilemma has arisen for the Japanese government in dealing with the
policy of the three Es [9]. As discussed, the aim of significantly reducing the
emissions of CO2 from energy production has meant that they are actively pursuing a

move away from a reliance on coal. On the other hand, in order to encourage
economic growth the government is going through a process of privatising the
energy market, with the associated focus on a more electricity, less cost approach.
The difficulty of this is the fact that these two situations tend to be mutually
exclusive, since thermal power sourcesin particular coalare the ones that are
seen as the most economical.
The result of this privatisation strategy can be seen in the new power generation
capacity that has been contracted (amounting to just less than 6000 MW,
representing 3.1% of the power station capacity in March 2000). These generators
propose to utilise a very different mix of power generation options than the 10 large
power companies do at present (Table 1, Figure 6). The pledged power generation
facilities have all chosen thermal power (coal, oil and gas). There are no proposals
for nuclear, hydro or geothermal. The relative cheapness of coal has seen its
proportion rise from 20% currently in use to a proposed share of 49% of those
proposed. This is entirely a result of the introduction of competition, and is at direct
odds with many of the Japanese governments policies [see 9].
The impetus for the planning for future strategies for coal utilisation is the promise
to reduce CO2 emissions. Eventually, it is seen that the supply of oil will be limited,
perhaps as early as 2020 [3]. For the next 20 or so years, the aim is to produce
systems that increase the efficiency of the coal utilisation process. The first
generation of these is ultrasupercritical pf and PFBC systems: the former is the basis
for existing state-of-the-art facilities while the latter is at the stage where they are at
the advanced stage of demonstration, soon to be commercialised.
The principle long-term research priorities of the Japanese governments coal
R&D program (which is primarily funded my MITI) are based on the liquefaction (to
produce a viable oil replacement) and gasification (to produce gas to be used in
integrated turbine/fuel cell systems) of coal [3]. This has led to the development and
recent construction of advanced systems that convert coal (through pressurised
gasification processes) to both electricity and chemicals. These are discussed in
more detail in subsequent sections.
Japan is not a major producer of coal. It is therefore very important that the coal
utilisation industry in Japan secures a stable supply of imported coal. It follows that
any such coal needs to be suitable for use in the technologies that are being adopted
for power generation and other uses. This is an issue since the properties of coals
that are seen as favourable for use in current technologies (e.g. coal combustion as
pulverised fuel in utility boilers) are not necessarily the same as the properties that
are seen as useful for coal utilisation in advanced technologies, such as pressurised
fluidised-bed combustion and gasification, and entrained-flow gasification. The
following sections of this report will discuss these technologies as they are used, or
as they are forecast to be used, in Japan.

10

Current Facilities

Pledged Facilities

Coal

20%

49%

Oil

14%

34%

Gas

24%

17%

Hydro

10%

None

Nuclear

32%

None

Table 1: Current energy mix for electricity generation compared with the mix from
the proposals under a system exposed to competition [9].

Proposed New Electricity Generation by

Source
Oil
34%

Coal
49%

Gas
17%

Figure 6: Breakdown of the electricity sources proposed under a deregulated

electricity market. Compare this with the current situation in Japan (Figure 5) [9].

11

COAL-BASED GENERATION IN JAPAN

The state-of-the-art in coal utilisation technologies, in particular for power
generation in Japan, is set to change. This is primarily a response to government
policies regarding greenhouse gas targets, policy-induced competition in the
electricity-generation markets, and the desire to secure a stable energy supply for
Japans future.
Of the Japanese power plants that use coal as the primary fuel, pulverised-fuel
fired systems are by far the most common. Advanced pf plants are currently being
installed to produce power in Japan, e.g. Tachibanawan EPDC Thermal Power
Station. It has two units, each with a capacity of 1050 MW, which came online in
2000. It uses ultra-supercritical steam conditions of 259 atm and 605/613C. This
particular plant will be discussed in more detail in subsequent sections of the report.
(The advanced nature of supercritical [and of course ultrasupercritical] steam and
post-boiler gas cleanup technologies, however, have little effect on the technical
requirements of the coal usedalthough a recent review by Ber [10] points to
possible ash deposition issues arising from the higher surface temperatures of the
superheater and reheater tubes.)
Most of the coal used for power generation in Japan is burnt as pulverised fuel.
These pf plants have a high degree of post-boiler gas cleaning (see Figure 7). In
these plants primary (i.e. boiler/burner) NO x control strategies are widely used in
combination with selective catalytic reduction (SCR). Strict NOx emission limits
less than the national standards, which are already far less than most countries, are
agreed to by regional authorities and between plants. Low NOx burners, with
overfire air and sometimes flue gas recirculation or reburning combined with SCR,
are typically used. Standard particulate removal systems in Japan are highlyefficient electrostatic precipitators. Such methods are typical of the systems being
installed currently in Japan for power generation, and are discussed in more detail in
the case studies.
Reducing pollutants emitted by Japanese power stations is a large issue due to the
proximity of the power stations to centres of population. Only the USA (94 GWe)
and Germany (30 GWe) have more pf combustion capacity fitted with postcombustion NOx reduction measures than Japan (15 GWe) [10]. SCR has been used
commercially in Japan since 1980, usually on power stations burning low to medium
sulphur coal. Japan now has approximately 15 GWe of coal-fired SCR capacity, out
of a total of about 53 GWe worldwide. The use of non-catalytic reduction of NOx
(SNCR) in Japan seems to be limited to oil and gas fired power stations where it has
been used as a technology since the mid-70s.
Japanese methods for removal of SO2 are primarily based on a wet scrubbing
system using limestone or gypsum. Strict waste disposal controls (the space in Japan
that can be used for waste disposal is extremely limited) means that processes
producing saleable gypsum are favourable. Consequently, chlorine pre-scrubbers are
also used to meet the users quality requirements.

12

SOx Control

Post-boiler NOx Control

Dry
CaSO4

None

Wet
CaSO4

Wet
MgSO4
FBC

Activated
Cokes

None

SCR

Particulate Control

CY+BF (PFBC)

Cold ESP

Dry+wet ESP

Extra Cold ESP

Hot ESP

Figure 7: Pollution control systems used on the 59 currently operating coal-fired power
stations in Japan [12]. SCR = selective catalytic reduction; FBC = fluidised bed
combustion (in-bed limestone sorbent); PFBC = Pressurised Fluidised Bed
Combustion; CY+BF=cyclone + bag filter; ESP = electrostatic precipitation.

The strict emission limits on particulates for coal-fired power stations means that
all Japanese units are fitted with some form of particulate control, the most common
being highly-efficient electrostatic precipitators. Ash disposal in Japan [11] is
typically via ocean reclamation, with leachate concentrations of heavy metals within
guidelines. The decrease in the allowable leachate concentration guidelines,
however, has meant that the margin for error is also decreasing. As a result the
Japanese are looking for alternatives to ocean disposal of ash. The minimum amount
of space available to utilities means that there is an emphasis on ash utilisation, with
some research into the leaching properties.
A consequence of this is the increase (from 56% in 1993 to 70% in 1998) in the
proportion of ash generated which is utilised. This is primarily in terms of cement
manufacture, although the maturity of this industry and saturation of the market
means that future demand is not likely to increase.

13

The large extent to which the power stations in Japan are required to treat the flue
gases to remove pollutant species, and the emphasis that is put on efficient
operations, means that the cost of constructing and running pf power stations is much
greater than in Australia. It is estimated by CRIEPI [13] that the capital cost of an
ultra-supercritical pf unit in Japan is approximately $4800/kW, although utilities are
achieving costs substantially less than this (approximately $3200/kW). This is
consistent with IHIs recent claim to be achieving a 30% cost reduction in the
installation of the new units at Hekinan Power Station (see case study). These costs
per unit capacity can be compared with the cost of the latest Australian (Queensland)
supercritical pf units of approximately $1000/kW.
Although pf technology is not identified as a clean coal technology for long-term
future use in Japan, there are active research projects being undertaken to achieve an
immediate reduction in pollutants. In terms of NOx emissions, CRIEPI (Chemical
Energy Engineering Department) has been actively designing pf burners to provide
lower levels of NOx in the flue gas without the common side-effect of increased
levels of unburnt carbon in the fly ash. This is through burner designs that promote
coal combustion close to the burner and provide conditions to reduce NOx formation
further away from the burner.
There is currently a large amount of research activity into the heavy metals that are
emitted with the fly ash, in particular the behaviour of these elements in terms of
leaching into waterways. This research work is being performed in close
collaboration with power stations: the nature of this research is therefore highly
sensitive and the confidential results are not widely available.
The following two case studies of pf-fired power stations present some detailed
information regarding facilities that can be considered as Japans state-of-the-art pf
technology. They are amongst the most recently commissioned pf facilities in Japan,
and are both situated in locations that require an extensive regime of emissions
control. Their high capacities and efficiencies make them contributors to the
baseload electricity supply in their regions. These factors combined make them good
examples of the state of Japanese pf combustion technology.

Case Study 1: EPDC Tachibana-wan Thermal Power Station

Tachibana-wan is a thermal power producing site comprising of two coal-fired
power stations: EPDC (the Electric Power Development Co.) and SEPCO (Shikoku
Electric Power Co.). The EPDC plant in particular is a prime example of the current
state-of-the-art of Japanese coal-fired power generation capacity. The EPDC
station has two units (online in July and December 2000) and the SEPCO site has a
single unit, which came online in 2000.
The island on which the site is based is a national park; consequently the
construction of the power stations and the subsequent operation has a major local
environmental slant. Moreover, the ocean surrounding the island is a local black
spot for pollutionthe upshot of which is extraordinary pressures from local

14

authorities to reduce environmental impacts of construction and operation. The

power stations have been mostly built on reclaimed land surrounding the naturally
existing island, which left much of the native vegetation intact.
Description
The EPDC Tachibana-wan Thermal Power Station is the largest and (claims to be)
the most efficient in Japan. It has two pulverised-coal fired units, each with an
output of 1050 MW. The number 1 unit was online in July 2000, and the number 2
unit was online in December 2000. The plant was originally designed as a
3700 MW plant; however, the increased efficiencies afforded by the larger-scale
units meant that two 1050 MW units were built. The size and efficiency of the units
means the electricity produced by the power station is used as baseload supply, and is
sent to the Kansai region (700 MW), the Chugoku region (150 MW) and the island
of Kyushu (50 MW) as well as local use on Shikoku (150 MW).
The coal used in the power station is brought in by ship, using a dock facility that
is shared by EPDC and SEPCO. The coal for the EPDC units is stored on the EPDC
site using a system of 8 fully enclosed and connected silos (75 m tall and 45 m
across, with a total capacity of 70 000 tonnes). This is to prevent contamination of
the local national park from wind blown coal dust. The silos are fitted with a coal
recirculation system, which is activated if the coal self-heats above a certain
temperature. In such an event, the coal is removed, cooled, and placed back into the
silo. They are also fitted with a water spray system in case that circulation system
isnt effective. Neither system has been activated to date.
The operation of the power station is almost fully computer-controlled. The only
system which is not is the fire alarm and abatement system, by decree from local
authorities. The entire operation is managed from a single control room which is in
three sections: one section for each of the units (each of which is typically run by a
single operator) and a section for the gas cleaning (NOx, SOx, particulates, etc.).
Unit 1 uses IHI low-NOx burners, and unit 2 uses Hitachi (NR type) low-NO x
burners. Both units operate with intermediate and over-fire air with flue-gas
recirculation to decrease the conversion of fuel-N to NOx in the boiler. Both burner
systems have computer-controlled self-diagnostics, which (theoretically) optimises
the combustion conditions. There is little ongoing fine-tuning of the burners to
continuously improve NOx emissions, as the effectiveness of the deNOx system is so
good. Startup for both units is light-oil and is quoted to take 140 minutes. The
minimum load on the burners is quoted as 40%. Steam in both units (3000 tonnes/hr
for each unit) is generated at ultrasupercritial conditions of 605/613C and
25.88 MPa. The efficiency of the USC system here is the best in Japanthis is
attributed by EPDC to the longer turbine blades used.
Denitrification of the flue gas is performed using conventional selective catalytic
reduction techniques. NOx content of the stack gas is quoted as 45 ppmthis is low
compared to older thermal stations in the Yokohama region, which are of the order of

15

150 ppm NOx. Desulphurisation is using wet limestone methods to produce saleable
gypsum, resulting in quoted levels of SOx in the stack of 50 ppm.
Due to large pressures from local authorities particulates in the exhaust gas are of
particular concern. The particulate removal systems on the units here are
electrostatic precipitators, a system which is common in most parts of Japan.
Particulate content at the exit of the ESP is quoted at 50 mg/m3Nand in reality it is
often less than thistypical emissions are usually in the order of 10 mg/m3N. Dry
(fly) ash and wet (clinker) ash are stored temporarily in silos on site. No ash is
disposed of on site, since there is not enough space on the island. It is removed daily
by ship: 70% of this ash is used in cement manufacture and the rest is disposed of.
The carbon content of this ash is consistently less than 5% which gives no problems
for the cement manufacturers.
Coal Testing Regime
EPDC are currently testing various coals (listed in Table 2) to find a supply that
best meets their needs. They are investigating the ease of grindability, the reactivity
(i.e. ease of conversion), slagging and fouling characteristics, and the self-heating of
the coals in their silo storage systems.
Whilst price is their main concern, they are also interested in coals that are low
ash, since the removal and disposal of ash is a significant issue for a location such as
this. This ash is ideally one with a high ash fusion temperature. Furthermore, they
indicate that the particle size of the fly ash generated by the coal is important: since
the ash must be handled extensively to store, ship then either sell or use, the handling
characteristics are a decisive factor. They have experienced difficulties in handling
fly ash that has particles that are too fine.
Coals that are easy to burn, i.e. have a high reactivity, are also favoured. In terms
of indexes used to measure the reactivity of the coals supplied, the sole factor is the
fuel ratio. EPDC are not concerned about the levels of N or S in the coal, again
because the gas cleaning systems for each unit are very efficient. This is not
necessarily the norm in Japan: EPDCs focus is on technology and development
whereas electric power companies are more focussed on compliance and stability.
Of the coals tested, the ones that they are most pleased with are Blair Athol and
Encham. The reasons are a combination of low ash, high conversion reactivity and
ash with a high melting point.
Due to the reliance of the station on high-quality imported coals, there is no
incentive to blend coals. Most of the blending is done when they are cleaning out
coal silos. The only routine blending done at EPDC Tachibanawan is with the
Indonesian coal, as a test blend. It is a coal with a much lower calorific valuethe
blending is done to raise the heating value to closer to that of the Australian coals.
This is consistent with related research being performed in CRIEPI [14] and other

16

#1 Unit
Blair Athol
Encham
Mt Owen
Wambo
Macquarie
Bulga
Lanoli Bridge
Burton
Surat Premium
Warkworth
Dartbrook
Peabody
Whitbank
Kidetoroko South

#2 Unit

Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia

Blair Athol
Encham
Bulga
Burton
Surat Premium
Warkworth
Pinann
Peabody
Whitbank
Kidetoroko South

Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia

Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia

South Africa
Indonesia

South Africa
Indonesia

Table 2: Coals tested in the EPDC Tachibanawan units.

research organisations, with the aim of developing future utilisation technologies for
sub-bituminous coals.

Case Study 2: Shikoku EPCO Tachibanawan Thermal Power Station

Sharing the same Tachibanawan site as the EPDC power station is the SEPCO
thermal power station. It has the one unit, rated at 700 MW, which has been online
since 2000. Coal shipping facilities are shared with the EPDC site; however, the 8
silos discussed above are not shared. The unit has four of its own coal storage silos,
similar (but not identical) to the EPDC silos. On average 3 of these 4 silos are full at
any time.
The unit is fundamentally very similar to the #2 unit on the EPDC station. That is,
Hitachi designed low-NOx burners with OFA and flue gas recirculation. DeNO x and
deSOx systems are similar also, as is the ESP particulate control measures. Whilst
the quoted particulate levels in the stack emissions is 10 mg/m3N, they claim to be
emitting less than 1 mg/m3N. Ash is stored on site and removed by ship 4 times a
week. There is enough capacity for 20 operating days worth of ash on site in the
storage system. Typical operation is at 95% load which is reduced to 75% in lowdemand times.
Whilst the technology used in this unit is fundamentally similar to the #2 unit on
the EPDC site, the philosophy of the operators is somewhat different. Stability of
coal supply, stability of electricity production and strict compliance with all
regulations are the driving factors. When choosing a supply coal the most important
aspect is the price of the coal. The second most important aspects are stability of the

17

supply of the coal, the country of origin and the port through which the coal is
shipped.
As with the EPDC units, ash in the coal is of paramount importance, and an upper
limit of 10-13% ash is placed on any coal they want to use. Furthermore, the coal
that they do choose must have S-levels less than 1.0% daf, and N-levels less than
1.8% daf. Any coal they use will have a fuel ratio 1 of less than 2 and an average
calorific value of approximately 6000 kcal/kg. The majority of the coals used in the
SEPCO unit are Australian coalsthe unit was designed using NSW Hunter Valley
coal. Recent times, however, have seen the demand of the unit not met by the
Australian suppliers, which has seen more use of Chinese coal, with the associated
reduction in shipping costs.

Case Study 3: Chubu EPCO Hekinan Thermal Power Station

Hekinan Thermal Power Station is a pf-fired facility owned and operated by
Chubu Electric Power Company. It is located at Hekinan, on the coast of Aichi
Prefecture.
There are currently three operational 700 MW units at Hekinan Power Station.
The first of these is an MHI boiler, which came online in October 1991. This was
followed in June 1992 by the commissioning of the Hitachi number 2 unit, and in
April 1993 by the IHI number 3 unit. These units form part of Japans baseload
electricity supply. In these units steam is produced at 2500 t/h (units 1 and 2) and at
2250 t/h (unit 3) at supercritical conditions of 25.5 MPa and 543/569C (units 1 and
2) or 543/596C (unit 3).
In 1998 construction began on the new Hekinan units, numbers 4 and 5. These
will each be 1000 MW pf units, and will be manufactured using state of the art
technology in Japan. They are manufactured by IHI and will be operational in
November 2001 (number 4) and November 2002 (number 5). The addition of these
two units increases the total capacity of the plant to 4100 MW. These new units each
produce steam at a maximum of 3050 t/h at conditions of 25.5 MPa and
571/596Cslightly less than the conditions used at Tachibanawan. Efficiency and
reliability have been increased through the use of the worlds first 3600 rpm
1000 MW tandem compound type turbine.
NOx control measures at Hekinan are extensive. Low-NOx burners are used in
conjunction with the use of over-fire air to reduce the NOx formed in the boiler.
Selective catalytic reduction of the NOx formed removes 90% of the NOx produced
in the boilerthis is claimed to be the best facility of its kind in Japan. During the
installation and commissioning of the new units, the gas cleaning measures on the
existing units were upgraded. This has meant that the NOx output from units 1, 2 and
3 has been reduced by 15 ppm to 30 ppm for each unit, with each of the new

As with the EPDC facility, the only index used for reactivity assessment is the fuel ratio of the coal

18

1000 MW units emitting 15 ppm. (In order to achieve the emission targets of
15 ppm from the stack, the NOx levels coming out of the boiler must not exceed
50 ppm.) This means that overall the NOx emitted from the power station has been
reduced upon addition of two new units, and is now less than the emissions from
other state-of-the-art facilities such as Tachibanawan.
Desulphurisation of the flue gas is based on a wet limestone-gypsum scrubbing
process. This recovers good quality gypsum of a high purity. As with the
denitrification facility, the deSOx equipment on the existing units was upgraded, such
that the SOx emissions from the existing units was decreased from 50 ppm to
28 ppm, and the emissions from each of the two new units will be 25 ppm. As with
the case with denitrification, the addition of the two new units has not increased the
amount of SOx emitted by the plant.
Particulates are removed from the flue gas using a somewhat unique two-stage
process. Prior to the desulphurisation facilities there is a high-performance dry-type
electrostatic precipitator system. This system uses a system of moving electrode
plates to discharge the collected dust. After the deSOx facility is another electrostatic
precipitator systemin this case it is a wet-type facility, which reduces the total
emission of particulates to 5 mg mN3. Previously the existing facilities were
achieving a particulate level of 10 mg mN3 per unitas with the other environmental
measures the installation and commissioning of the new units has given the
opportunity to increase the performance of the particulate control measures on the
existing units.
The majority of the ash produced at Hekinan Power Station (approximately 80%)
is disposed of on site with 20% used in cement manufacture. The ash is disposed in
an ash storage pond with an area of 750 000 m2 and a capacity for 10 years worth of
ash. Heavy metal leachate and other potential pollutants are kept from escaping
through the use of submerged steel walls and impermeable plastic sheeting.
The coal used in the facility is all imported coal from Australia, Canada, USA and
China. This coal is shipped to the power station and unloaded using a dedicated
unloading facility. It is stored in an open-air coal storage yard surrounded by
specially designed fences to minimise the spreading of coal to the local environment
by strong winds. The yard is equipped with a water spray system to aid in the
abatement of coal dust emissions.

19

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES IN JAPAN

Although the standard pf coal combustion system in Japan is relatively clean and
efficient, it is not part of the Japanese governments long-term plan for coal-based
power generation. The most recent technical meeting between the Japanese and the
US on coal utilisation2which was labelled as a symposium discussing the most
suitable clean coal technologies for the futuredid not present one paper regarding
pf combustion.
In order to increase efficiencies and eventually work towards a zero emission
system for chemical production and power generation, advanced coal utilisation
technologies have been identified by the Japanese Government and generators as the
future of coal utilisation in Japan. In particular, those based on pressurised fluidised
bed combustion and pressurised entrained-flow gasification have been the basis for
the future goals for coal utilisation technology (see for example Figure 9 in the
Summary section of this report).
The forms of these advanced technologies are varied. Currently, the emerging
technologies for commercial power generation are primarily coal combustion in
pressurised fluidised beds. Technologies that have been identified for future
implementation are gasification systems, usually pressurised entrained flow or
pressurised fluidised bed (sometimes combined combustion/gasification systems).
These are currently the basis of design and large-scale testing for the imminent
construction of a demonstration plants, which indicates the direction that coal
utilisation technologies will take in the more medium-term future.

Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion

The Japanese have been interested in fluidised bed combustion for many years,
and have shown further interest in the use of the pressurised version as an advanced
clean coal technology. The use of pressurised fluidised beds is seen in Japan as the
current advanced technology to be implemented. This will, in the longer term,
possibly give way to the use of gasification-based systems (see below); but, in any
case, will still remain a major part of power generation in Japan, especially through
the use of advanced PFBC.
Currently in Japan there are four PFBC sites, three of which are currently
operating. EPDC at Wakematsu (71 MW) was operational in 1994, and provided
operating experiences and design testing and was the basis of the design of the
advanced plant at Karita. The 360 MW Karita plant run by KyEPCO is scheduled
for commercial operation in July 2001, and this has led to the developmental
Wakematsu units closure. Hokkaido Electric at Tomatoatsuma (85 MW) has been

The 16th Japan/US Joint Technical Meeting. Hyatt Regency, Fukuoka, Japan. November 78,
2000.

20

operating since 1998 and with Chugoku Electric at Osaki (250 MW 2) has one unit
currently operating with the other planned for operation over the next two years.
The Japanese are also developing advanced PFBC (APFBC) which has the added
ability to produce power in combination with fuel cells. APFBC as used in Japan is a
technology that is still under development, and involves a partial gasifier which is
fed with coal and air and has a separate limestone furnace used for desulphurisation.
Carryover char from this gasifier is sent to a char combustor, and the fuel gas
generated is used to increase the exit gas temperature. Further description of APFBC
will be given in the case study below.
Three PFBC case studies are examined here to provide a more detailed picture of
the state of PFBC technology in Japan. The first is the 360 MW facility at Karita,
included here since it is a very large unit that utilises Australian coals, and is backed
by an extensive history of research and technological development. The Osaki PFBC
facility is discussed as it is of a somewhat unique design, in that it uses two fluidised
bed furnaces in the single unit. The third study is of the development of the nextgeneration PFBC, based on the Advanced PFBC technology discussed above.
Case Study 1: PFBC Commercial Demonstration Plant, KyEPCO Karita
At their power station in Karita, KyEPCO (Kyushu Electric Power Co.) replaced
their number 1 (pf) unit with a pressurised fluidised bed combustion system. This
unit rates at 360 MW, which makes it the largest single PFBC unit in the world. The
planning of the Karita plant was made using knowledge and experience gained
through involvement with the EPDC PFBC unit in Wakematsu. The plant is in part a
repowering project, in that some of the infrastructure remaining from the previous
220 MW pf boiler is being used in construction of the PFBC unit.
This PFBC system was supplied by Ishikawajima Heavy Industries (IHI), through
licence agreements with ABB Carbon. The gas turbine was supplied by ALSTOM
Power, Sweden. Relevant operating parameters are listed in Table 3.

Bed temperature
Bed height
Freeboard height
Superficial velocity
Pressure
Steam condition
Net target efficiency

870C
4.2 m
7.0 m
0.9 m s-1
1.3 MPa
24.1 MPa, 566/593C
42.8%

Table 3: Operating parameters for the PFBC unit at KyEPCO, Karita.

21

The installation of the pressure vessel began in November 1997. It was first fired
in the middle of 1999, and is expected to be ready for commercial operation by mid
2001. At the end of July 2000, the unit had been generating power for a cumulative
period of over 3200 hours, with the longest period of continuous operation being
650 hours.
The efficiency (at the grid) is claimed to be over 2% better than the conventional
combustion unit, with improvements made also to the emissions of SOx (76 ppm),
NOx (60 ppm) and particulates (30 mg/mN3). NOx is reduced through the use of low
temperature combustion and SOx is reduced by using in-bed limestone sorbent. All
of the ash produced (approximately 30 000 tons of bed ash and 100 000 tons of fly
ash per annum) is planned to be used as a raw cement material by cement companies
close to the power station.
KyEPCO are not willing to discuss the problemsif anythey have been
experiencing during operation testing. It is understood that the maximum operational
load of the unit has been 90% due to bed agglomeration problems, although some
alterations to the material used for the bed has alleviated these.
Case Study 2: PFBC Demonstration Plant, Osaki
The Chugoku Electric Power Company has commissioned a pressurised fluidised
bed combustion power generating facility at Osaki, in Hiroshima Prefecture. The
system has a planned capacity of 500 MW250 MW of which are currently
operating as the 1-1 unit.
The design of the Osaki PFBC facility is unique in that it uses two fluidised bed
furnaces. The first of these is used as the superheater and the second is used as the
reheater. This system of using two separate furnaces inside separate pressure vessels
allows for a much more compact and practical design of the power plant.
In this PFBC system, coal (approximately 6 mm diameter) is fed at approximately
185 t/h as a coal-water paste (20-30% water) with approximately 10 t/h limestone
sized to 3 mm. This fuel is fed into both furnaces. The furnaces are nominally
operated at 865C and approximately 10 atm (although the pressure of operation
during the visit was below 9 atm). Recent operational experience has shown that the
optimum bed height for the A-furnace is 4.0 m, and the optimum height for the Bfurnace is 3.8 m. Bed height is maintained during reduced-load period using makeup limestone. Steam is generated at 17.3 MPa and 571C.
Low-temperature combustion is the means by which direct NOx formation is
reduced. Also used is the standard PFBC feature of in-bed limestone sorbent for SOx
removal. These systems result in a furnace-exit NOx concentration of 200 ppm and a
SOx concentration of 76 ppm. Further NOx removal is achieved using a selective
non-catalytic denitrification system employed directly after the furnace (injection of
ammonia). Dust is collected in a series of cyclone filters prior to the gas turbine.
Further denitrification of the flue gas is achieved through selective catalytic

22

reduction after the gas turbine which results in a stack NOx emission of 19 ppm.
Compare this with the quoted emissions of NOx from EPDC Tachibanawan pf power
station which has NOx emissions of approximately 45 ppm and CEPCO Hekinan pf
power station which has recently reduced the NOx emissions from its units to
15 ppm. SOx emissions at EPDC Tachibanawan are approximately 50 ppmmuch
the same as the current emissions at Hekinan, although the latter is planning
desulphurisation improvements to reduce this further.
The furnace emits particulates at 20 g/mN3, which is reduced to 1 g/mN3 after the
cyclone filters. Following the SCR denitrification system a baghouse filtration
system reduces these to a stack emission of 9 mg/mN3, which is comparable to the
10 mg/mN3 design emissions of Tachibanawan and Hekinan pf plants, although the
Hekinan ESP modifications are likely to reduce this to 5 mg/mN3.
Chugoku Electric claim the gross efficiency of this system to be 42.6%. Compare
this with gross efficiencies of the EPDC Tachibanawan units of 42-43%the
Tachibanawan units are claimed to be the most efficient pf units in Japan. Based on
these data, and the assumption that the desulphurisation and other peripherals not
present on the PFBC unit would sacrifice efficiency, one would imagine that the
PFBC unit achieves similar or better environmental performance with an increase in
net efficiencies. The reluctance of the operators to divulge the exact details
regarding net efficiencies makes a more detailed comparison impossible.
Case Study 3: APFBC Development Project, EPDC Wakematsu
EPDC, with CCUJ and Chubu Electric Power Company, are investigating
advanced PFBC, for use in power generation at high efficiencies and with low
emissions. They are confirming the suitability and operability of such a system
through the design and operation of a process development unit at their Wakematsu
site.
The APFBC system demonstrates a high level of efficiency: the net value is quoted
at 4346%. This is partly due to the increase in temperature of the gas turbine
to1300C, and improvements to the steam turbine section. The system is designed to
operate under a range of gasification conditions, enabling it to be used with a greater
range of coal typesthey claim the major issue for coal suitability is the ash fusion
temperature. Low reactivity coals, or those with a low volatile matter, are not
foreseen to be a problem. The design coal for the systems development unit was
Warkworth, and they plan on testing the system with a wide range of coals. The lack
of any need to develop a separate topping combustor contributes to the claim that the
development of such a system is indeed low-risk.
A typical system that is conceptualised from such a PDU is summarised in
Table 4.

23

Generating end output

470 MW

Gross/Net Efficiency

50.5% / 46.0%

Desulphurisation

Dry limestone

Emissions

SOx: 50 ppm
NOx: 45 ppm
Particulates: 10 mg/mN3

Table 4: Conceptual parameters of a Japanese APFBC system.

Tests of the three furnaces (oxidiser, gasifier, desulfuriser) and analyses of

operating parameters are scheduled to begin in 2001, using a process development
unit, a facility currently constructed at EPDC Wakematsu. This facility will operate
at 19 atm pressure, with an oxidiser temperature of 900C and a gasifier temperature
of over 1000C. Results from these tests are expected to be used in the preparation
of a final design for a suitable APFBC facility.

Coal Gasification
Of the 160 gasification plants that are operational, being built or planned
internationally, 12 are electricity-generating plants. Six of these are coal-fired (five
using bituminous coals). The remainder operate on waste or biomass [15]. The
technology that the Japanese have identified for coal use in the longer-term future is
coal gasification.
Coal gasification for power generation is still in the demonstration stage.
Demonstration facilities exist in the US at Wabash River (Destec entrained-flow),
Polk County (Texaco entrained-flow) and Piion Pine (KRW Agglomerating
fluidised bed); in The Netherlands (Buggenum, Shell entrained-flow); Spain
(Puertollano, PRENFLO) and the Czech Republic (Vresova, Lurgi dry ash fixedbed). More are either under construction or in the design phase in the US, UK and
Japan.
Gasification is currently used in Japan as a means to produce chemicals from
liquid petroleum or petroleum coke. There are five such plants in operation, four
based on the Texaco gasifier and one on the Shell gasifier [15]. The predicted
efficiency gain over coal combustion technologies (for high-rank coals, of which
Japan imports large amounts) has meant that gasification, in particular entrained-flow
gasification, has been identified by Japanese researchers as a future for coal-based
power generation. Furthermore, the Japanese see the reduction in the amount of fly
ash produced as an important benefit, as the disposal of fines has long been an issue
(see previous section). The long term goal of zero-emission power generation
(possibly incorporating chemical production) in Japansimilar to the United
Statesis based on the gasification (or partial gasification) of coal.

24

Gasification for power generation has been developed in Japan using a two-stage,
air-blown entrained-flow technology. This was developed by CRIEPI & MHI Ltd.
using CRIEPIs 2 t/day gasifier (process development unit, or PDU) at CRIEPIs
Yokosuka Research Laboratories, then demonstrated at MHIs 200 t/day pilot scale
gasifier located at Nakoso. Australian coals have been involved in this development,
with Moura the design coal for the Nakoso plant. Electric utilities, CRIEPI and
others have combined to start the design of a 250 MW IGCC coal-fired power
generation demonstration plant. This will be based on these technologies, i.e. a twostage air-blown entrained-flow gasifier with cold gas cleanup.
CRIEPI are also researching the gasification of coal and oil alternatives, in
particular the use of Orimulsion. Orimulsion is a fine (approximately 20 m particle
size) bitumen slurry marketed by BITOR (Bitumenes del Orinoco) in Venezuela.
The bitumen used in the emulsion is obtained from flash evaporation of light oil from
Venezuelas Orinoco belt. It is seen as an alternative to heavy crude oil.
A separate gasification-based project, the EAGLE project, aims to develop a
gasification system to produce gas suitable for use in fuel cells and chemical
production. This facility, at the EPDC site in Wakematsu, is in the construction
stage, and is further discussed along with the national IGCC demonstration facility in
the case studies below.
Case Study 4: EAGLE Gasification Development Project, EPDC Wakematsu
In 1998, construction began of a pilot plant at EPDCs Wakematsu site to provide
data to assist in the establishment of a coal gasification technology suitable for use
with fuel cell power generation as well as petrochemical production. The EAGLE
(coal Energy Application for Gas, Liquid and Electricity) project is centred around
the 150 t/d plant that is planned to be operational by 2001/2002. With this gasifier
are systems to investigate hot gas cleaning technologies and issues associated with
developing the total system to produce gas suitable for use in fuel cells. The fuel
cells are being developed in separate research projects within Japan (some of these
are being performed at CRIEPI) and are most likely to be based on a molten
carbonate or solid oxide system.
The project has been in planning since 1995, with construction commencing in
1998. The aims are to develop a gasifier that uses an oxygen-blown technology, and
combine this with cleaning systems that provide gas of an acceptable quality for use
in fuel cellsthis currently has been identified as a cold gas cleanup system.
The gasification unit is an entrained-flow, oxygen-blown gasifier. It will have a
dual-burner system, with the lower burner combusting coal to provide heat for the
gasification reactions that will take place at the upper burner. The swirl
characteristics of the gasifier have been designed to maximise residence time in the
gasification section, leading to high levels of carbon conversion for a wide range of
feed coals. It will operate at 26.5 atm using 95% O2 as the feed gas.

25

Steam
Turbine
199 MW

Fuel Cell
262 MW

Gas
Turbine
55 MW

Figure 8: Breakdown of proposed electric output from the EAGLE system.

The system will have three power generating stages (these are also shown in
Figure 8): the steam turbine (199 MW), the gas turbine (155 MW) and a fuel cell,
most probably based on molten carbonates (262 MW). The use of a fuel cell to
produce power increases the predicted efficiency of the system to 53.3% (net).
Case Study 5: 250 MW IGCC Demonstration Plant
Since the mid 1980s, research has been performed in Japan with the aim of
developing a gasification technology suitable for power generation at efficiencies
greater than, and with levels of pollutants less than, traditional combustion
technologies. Experiments and modelling were carried out using a 2 t/d gasifier at
CRIEPI, and the knowledge and experience gained were applied to the design and
construction of a larger scale (200 t/d) pilot plant at Nakoso.
The gasifiers in these systems used a two-stage, air-blown entrained-flow
technology. The first stage (the combustor) combusts the coal in air and provides
heat to convert coal mineral matter to a molten slag and for the subsequent
gasification reactions. The heat (and some char) from this process travels into the
reductor, where further coal is injected and the gasification reactions occur.
Slagging problems in the 200 t/d pilot scale gasifier were identified, and
refinements were made to alleviate these problems. It was found that the surface of
the molten slag forming in the combustor was corrugated, and this increased the
tendency for slag to be entrained in the gas and deposited on the cooler walls of the
reductor. Design modifications to the throat section between the combustor and the
reductor which altered particle trajectory, velocity and gas residence times alleviated
these problems. A long term uninterrupted test on the pilot gasifier of 789 hours was
performed with the final tests at the Nakoso plant completed by 1995.
By 1997 feasibility studies had been performed, and these identified the most
suitable technology for the IGCC facility as air-blown gasification combined with

26

cold gas cleanup. The Nakoso plant was running a hot gas cleanup system, using a
fluidised bed of (regenerated) iron oxide to remove H2S and an anthracite-based
process to reduce the SO2. This process was deemed unsatisfactory for the
demonstration plant in terms of long-term reliability and unspecified environmental
acceptability issues. This hot gas system did, however, provide gas for the gas
turbine of an acceptable quality.
The demonstration facility will have a power output of approximately 250 MW,
utilising approximately 1600 t/d of coal. Original estimates of a 300 MW facility
were based on a gas turbine inlet temperature of 1300C; the demonstration plant
will use 1200C gas turbines (a decision made due to the emphasis being placed on
reliability of operation rather than efficiency).
The estimated net efficiency of the demonstration plant is 40.5%. This is
comparable with the current state-of-the-art pf and PFBC power stations. It is
predicted that at the commercial stage, the system would be using 1500C class
turbines which will provide efficiencies of 4648%.
In 1999 trial design studies and verification gasification tests began, using funds
sourced 30% from the Japanese government and 70% from utilities, and involving
joint research by 11 organisations, EPDC and CRIEPI. These tests have been carried
out using a 24 t/d pressurised gasification test facility, and aim to verify the
modelling of coal performances, gasification characteristics, ash behaviour and stable
operation conditions. The conditions in this test gasifier are somewhat different to
those proposed for the IGCC facility, with the pressure less than 10 atm (c.f. approx
20 atm in the proposed demonstration plant). It is claimed that this will not
significantly affect the adaptation of the results to the completed demonstration plant.
These gasification tests are to be completed in 2001 with construction of the
demonstration facility scheduled for 2004. The demonstration plant is planned to be
operational by 20079.

27

SUMMARY
The Japanese governments energy policies will involve a change in the way
energy and electricity are produced. In particular, the desired economic growth of
Japan needs to be fuelled using a secure energy supply whilst minimising any
undesirable environmental impacts. Within these plans, the use of coal will remain
important, although the technologies that use this coal are going to change.

Current Generation
The Japanese state-of-the-art facilities have high capacities, and they are efficient
and clean. They use premium coals, mainly from Australia, and have extensive postboiler gas cleaning facilities. A result is that emissions from their modern stations
are the lowest in the world.
The most important thing for the operators of the modern facilities in terms of coal
quality and supply is the cost and stability. This is followed by the amount of ash in
the coal (maximum allowed level is usually between 10 and 15% by weight).
Provided the mineral matter doesnt cause problems with fouling or erosion, and the
coal has a reactivity that gives ash with a low-enough C-content, these two issues are
the most important.
Some companies (EPDC, for example) are not concerned with the level of N in the
coals. Their in-boiler and post-furnace NOx abatement techniques are good enough
to handle a wide range of NOx levels, and the low-NO x burners used are reasonably
insensitive to the amount of N in the coal3. This latter point is not agreed upon
universally amongst the operators. This indicates that the results of research into
coal N and NOx need to be communicated more effectively: at least one Japanese pf
plant operator will not purchase coal with a coal-N content of 1.8% daf.

This point has been recently reinforced using data from CRIEPIs combustion test furnace fitted with
a burner typical of that used in Japanese pf-fired power stations. More information can be found in
the CRC Research Report produced under the same TRA grant as the present report.

28

Next Generation
The current advanced technology being installed in Japan as both demonstration
and commercial facilities is PFBC. These facilities are achieving gross efficiencies
similar to pf plants, with comparable levels of pollutants (see Table 5).
Improvements to the components used in these plants means that there are still
improvements to be made in this regard, allowing the potential performance of plants
based on these technologies to surpass that of current state-of-the-art pf plants.
The advanced technology for use in the future in Japan has been identified as
gasification (see for example Figure 9) . IGCC will be demonstrated in Japan by
20072009, and a pilot facility for the technology to produce power using gas and
steam turbines as well as fuel cells due to be operational within the year. Current
(reliable) components give efficiencies just above that of state of the art pfthe
nature of the technologies used means that future plants using Japanese IGCC
technology is aiming at net efficiencies of above 50%.

USC pf
PFBC

Gross
efficiency

Net
efficiency

40-43%

42-43%

IGCC
APFBC
EAGLE

50.5%

Scope for future

improvements?

NOx
(ppm)

SOx
(ppm)

Particulates
(g mN-3)

Little

15

25

1-5

42.8%

Good

19

75

40.5%

Excellent
45*

50*

10*

46%

Probably good

53%*

Probably excellent

1*

target or estimated number. Given that pf facilities are currently reducing their emissions further
using new and improved technologies, it is likely that by the time these technologies are in use the
predictions of emissions will be less.

Table 5: Summary of coal utilisation technologies in Japan. The numbers used are the
best data taken from information on the facilities discussed in this report.

29

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Efficiency increases,
1st generation.
USC (pf)
PFBC
Efficiency increases,
2nd generation.
IGCC, etc
DIOS, SCOPE 21
Efficiency increases, hybrid
generation

Gasification and fuel cells

Co-generation
H2 production from coal
CO2 sequestration

Zero emission
generation
Fuel cells and H2
turbine generation
CO2 conversion and
utilisation

Figure 9: The MITI goal for coal utilisation technologies in Japan [3, 16]

30

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support from the Targeted
Research Alliance (TRA) grant scheme, administered through the Technology
Diffusion Program of the Commonwealth Government of Australia. Financial
support was also provided by the Cooperative Research Centre for Coal in
Sustainable Development (formerly CRC for Black Coal Utilisation), which is
funded in part by the Cooperative Research Centres Program of the Commonwealth
Government of Australia.
The authors would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the Central Research
Institute of the Electric Power Industry (Japan), in particular the members of the
Gasification Group therein, for helpful discussions and contributions. Dr Chris
Bailey (CRC for Black Coal Utilisation) is to be thanked for his input during the
compilation of this report.

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Anon. Coal 1999, Australian Coal Report, Sydney (1999).

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Orita K and Kawabata T. Over View Presentation for the 10th Japan/Australia
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31

11. Innes K and Davis J. Assessing Emerging Issues and Research Priorities in
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