SILICA --- search Silica Components

Silica

Most of the known commercial silica (SiO2) deposits in Victoria are Mineral sands and gravels of
Tertiary and Quaternary age. Small deposits of quartz cobbles, orthoquartzites, silcretes and vein
quartz have also been worked.
Industries using silica are well established in Victoria. The main use of silica sand in Victoria is in the
building industry, as abrasives, ceramics, silex balls, paint additives and ornamental stone. A few highgrade silica sand deposits are currently worked for more specialized purposes, such as for glassmaking
and to provide foundry sand. There are major silica sand operations at Lang Lang and Cranbourne.
The Lang Lang deposit is fluviatile and aeolian (dune) sand of Tertiary to Quaternary age. The sand is
used mainly for glassmaking and commonly contains small amounts of clay and iron-oxide impurities,
which must be removed.
At Cranbourne, a central plant processes sand from an on-site quarry and from other sources,
including Lang Lang, to produce foundry sand. Lower-grade material is used as aggregate in plaster,
mortar, and concrete manufacture.
There is considerable potential for high-grade silica sand deposits in the Tertiary sequences of the
Otway and Gippsland basins.
Quartz cobbles in dumps from deep lead gold mines near Allendale and Amphitheatre in central
Victoria have been used as a source of lump silica. This yields a milled product of high chemical purity
and whiteness for the manufacture of ceramics, paints, and industrial fillers.
Quartz crystals were mined during the 1940s from the Crystal King Mine near Tallangallook in the
Strathbogie Ranges, and used in radio transmitters. A recent resurgence of interest in ornamental
quartz crystals has renewed interest in this deposit.

http://www.energyandresources.vic.gov.au/earth-resources/victorias-earthresources/sand-stone-and-clay/silica

Silica Sand
Overview:
Most people first encounter silica sand during childhood, while playing in sand boxes or at playgrounds. Unlike beach
sand, which is mainly derived from limestone, silica sand is made up of quartz crystals, which are found in abundance
in earth's crust. The crystals are extracted by mining and then processed into the various grades of silica sand. Also
known as quartz sand or industrial sand, silica sand is an important component for a variety of industrial and
construction uses. The use of silica sand is determined by its structure and physical properties. For example, the
chemical composition of the silica sand is highly relevant when the silica sand is used in glassmaking, while the grain
hardness is an important facet when the sand is used for sandblasting.
1

Among the major applications of silica sand are as an abrasive to grind and polish metal, part of the content of
building products such as bricks and roofing tiles, in glassmaking, as a refractory agent and as a proppant in the
hydraulic fracturing of gas and oil wells. It is also used in the manufacturing of paints, as a filtration material for water
and other potable liquid systems and in golf courses, volleyball and other athletic fields.
The characteristics of silica sand that determine its use are cleanliness, (which refers to the ratio of silt, clay and
organic matter in any measure of sand); color, (shades of brown or orange indicate the presence of impurities such
as iron oxides); as well as grain size, shape, particle size range and refractoriness (melting point).

Characteristics and Challenges:

Due to the abrasive characteristics of the material, a silica sand conveying system must be rugged enough to
withstand the impact of the sand on the interior
surfaces and moving parts of the convey line and equipment. With an average bulk density of 81 lbs/cu ft , silica
sand is generally free flowing. Entry of sand particles into gears, valves or other fine motion equipment could result in
damage and permanent reduction of performance quality. In some applications, the shape and purity of the silica
sand is important, so care must be taken to avoid degradation while handling it. The very fine particles of sand can
pose a health hazard, as breathing in the dust can cause silicosis, which in severe cases can be disabling or even
fatal. Coarser particles of silica sand tend to interlock, potentially impeding their flow into downstream processing
equipment.
2

Due to the degradable nature of silica sand, care must also be taken to maintain an air-line velocity during pneumatic
conveying that does not damage it. The blower used to move the sand though the convey line must be sized to meet
the system. Above all, preventing silica sand's abrasive properties from damaging the convey line should be a top
priority. Equipment selection is paramount to ensure the longevity of the system.
If the silica sand arrives at the processing facility in bulk bags, the frames used to discharge the bags should ideally
be equipped with additional accessories to completely empty the silica sand from the bag. This includes features
such as spring-loaded frames that will elongate and stretch the bags, making them rigid and removing any pockets of
silica sand cornered in the bags. Some of these bag activating devices also serve as a dust seal between the bulk
bag and the receiving hopper.
After the bulk bag has been connected to the receiving hopper and the silica sand begins to flow, the air inside the
hopper is forced out. Dust suppression during the dumping and de-gassing of the bulk bags can be achieved by use
of a high

volume fan drawing dust into cartridge filters. This arrangement can also act as a vacuum that completely evacuates
the bulk bags post discharge, eliminating the potential dusting that could occur when the bags are removed and
folded prior to storage or disposal. The cartridge filters can also be activated by an automatic reverse-pulse filter

cleaner that returns the filtered silica sand dust into the receiving hopper, reducing material waste and lowering the
risk of a potentially dangerous dusting.
If the sand is being fed into the processing system out of smaller bags, a bag-breaking station with a dust hood,
filtration devices and a pneumatic pulse cleaner is the recommended solution to support the manual unloading of the
material. A hopper screen above the receiving vessel will help to prevent the introduction of foreign objects and
protects the operators from moving components inside the hopper.
If a flexible screw is being used to convey the silica sand, it is important to use a screw that matches the silica sand's
characteristics and other application requirements. Generally a screw with a round profile will be effective in moving a
material with silica sand's features. Due to silica sand's abrasive nature, a flexible screw with a heavy duty design is
recommended.
Should your silica sand application feature the loading the material into bulk bags, the bag capacity will be maximized
by use of a vibratory densification deck to
level the sand as it fills the bag and by the application of load cells to achieve the desired weight. Seals and other
dust containment devices will ensure a dust-tight operation.

Flexicon Applications:
Consultation with a Flexicon specialist will help you decide if a flexible screw or pneumatic solution best fits your silica
sand application. Flexicon's expert design and engineering staff will weigh each parameter and recommend the best
solution for you. Upon request, Flexicon'stest lab will simulate your silica sand handling applications before the
system is installed in your plant.
Flexicon's Dust Suppression and Collection Systems ensure proper containment of silica sand throughout the
conveyance process. Flexicon's BLOCK-BUSTER Bulk Bag Conditioner loosens bulk solid materials that have
solidified during storage and shipment, enabling bulk bag unloaders to discharge the material through bag spouts.

Flexicon's product line of advanced flow promotion conveyors, high flow hoppers, deaeration/densification decks and
a host of other components and accessories are proven performers thatpromote flow while reducing degradation,
dusting and/or the separation of blends comprised of disparate particles.

https://www.flexicon.com/Materials-Handled/Silica-Sand.html
Research Council of Alberta
Powder Bulk Solids Bulk Density Chart
Sources: Where noted. All other information courtesy of Flexicon Corporation.
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Sands Application in the Building Materials Market

The building materials industry uses approximately 2.5M tons of industrial sand each year. Industrial sand is the
primary structural component in a wide variety of building and construction products.
Whole grain silica is used in stucco, mortars, roofing shingles, flooring compounds, specialty cements, skid-resistant
surfaces, fiberglass insulation and asphalt mixtures to provide packing density and flexural strength without adversely
affecting the chemical properties of the bending system.

Ground silica performs as a functional extender to add durability, anti-corrosion and weathering properties in epoxybased compounds, sealants and caulks. Ground silica is also an essential component of the glaze and body
formulations of all types of ceramic products including sanitary ware, floor and tile. In the ceramic body, silica is the
skeletal structure upon which clays and flux components attach. The SiO2 contribution is used to modify thermal
expansion, regulate drying and shrinkage and improve structural integrity and appearance.

http://www.premiersilica.com/markets/building-materials

Silica and Health

Crystalline silica (SiO2) is ubiquitous in nature, where it forms 12% of the Earth crust. It is the main
component of sand on beaches (up to 99%), and the basic material of which most rocks are created
and is therefore present in almost all materials extracted from the soil. These materials are used as
essential components in the manufacturing of many every day life activities, commodities and
products around us such as glass, ceramics, foundry, paints, plastics and construction.
Prolonged and excessive exposure to fine particles of crystalline silica dust (i.e. respirable crystalline
silica) may lead to a well known occupational disease called silicosis. Thanks to awareness of the
risk and implementation of preventive measures including limit values in all Member States, this
disabling disease can be prevented.
With the strong willingness to prevent the risks related to exposure to respirable particles of
crystalline silica, the Employers and Employees of 14 sectors producing or using crystalline silica
gathered within NEPSI, the European Network on Silica (www.nepsi.eu) have negotiated, signed
and are applying an Agreement on workers health protection through the good handling and use of
crystalline silica and products containing it (OJ 2006/C279/02).
For full and up-to-date information on silica, its health effects and the many industry actions please
consult the list of Frequently Asked Questions below.

http://www.eurosil.eu/silica-and-health
Reference:

Facts About Silicon

by Stephanie Pappas, Live Science Contributor | September 16, 2014 11:41am ET

Silicon is the 14th element on the Periodic Table.

Credit: Andrei Marincas | Shutterstock
View full size image

Silicon is the element to thank for the computer you're using to read these words. A
crucial component in microelectronics and computer chips, this extremely common
element is also responsible for warm, white beaches silica, an oxide of silicon, is the
most common component of sand.
Silicon is the seventh-most abundant element in the universe and the second-most
abundant element on the planet, after oxygen, according to the Royal Society of
Chemistry. About 25 percent of the Earth's crust is silicon; weirder spots where this
element appears include menstrual cups, breast implants and oven mitts.
What makes silicon so special that is has an entire valley in California named after it?
Read on.
Just the Facts

Atomic Number (number of protons in the nucleus): 14

Atomic Symbol (on the Periodic Table of Elements): Si

Atomic Weight (average mass of the atom): 28.09

Density: 2.3296 grams per cubic centimeter

Phase at Room Temperature: Soild

Melting Point: 2577 degrees Fahrenheit (1414 degrees Celsius)

Boiling Point: 5909 degrees F (3265 degrees C)

Number of isotopes (atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons): 24

Most common isotopes: Si-28 (92 percent natural abundance)

Silicon the semiconductor

In nature, silicon is no loner. It's usually found linked up with a pair of oxygen molecules
as silicon dioxide, otherwise known as silica. Quartz, an abundant ingredient in sand, is
made up of non-crystallized silica.

Crystalline silicon
Credit: Only Fabrizio |Shutterstock
View full size image

Silicon is neither metal nor non-metal; it's a metalloid, an element that falls somewhere
between the two. The category of metalloid is something of a gray area, with no firm
definition of what fits the bill, but metalloids generally have properties of both metals and
non-metals. They look metallic, but conduct electricity only intermediately well. Silicon is
a semiconductor, meaning that it does conduct electricity. Unlike a typical metal,
however, silicon gets better at conducting electricity as the temperature increases
(metals get worse at conductivity at higher temperatures).
Silicon was first isolated in 1824 by Swedish chemist Jns Jacob Berzelius, who also
discovered cerium, selenium and thorium, according to the Chemical Heritage
Foundation. Berzelius heated silica with potassium to purify silicon, according to
the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, but today the refinement process
heats carbon with silica in the form of sand to isolate the element.

Silicon is a main ingredient in very low-tech creations, including bricks and ceramics.
But the high-tech stuff is where the element really makes its mark. As a semiconductor,
silicon is used to make transistors, which amplify or switch electrical currents and are
the backbone of electronics from radios to iPhones.
Silicon is used in various ways in solar cells and computer chips, with one example
being a metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor, or MOSFET, the basic switch
in many electronics. To make silicon into a transistor, the crystalline form of the element
is adulterated with trace amounts of other elements, such as boron or phosphorous,
according to Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The trace elements bond with
the silicon atoms, freeing up electrons to move throughout the material, according to
the University of Virginia.
By creating spaces of unadulterated silicon, engineers can create a gap where these
electrons can't flow like a switch in the "off" position.
To turn the switch to "on," a metal plate, connected to a power source, is placed near
the crystal. When the electricity flows, the plate becomes positively charged. Electrons,
which are negatively charged, are drawn to the positive charge, allowing them to make
the leap across the pure-silicon segment. (Other semiconductors besides silicon can be
used in transistors, as well.)
Who knew?

When the Apollo 11 astronauts landed on the moon in 1969, they left behind a white
pouch containing a silicon disc slightly bigger than a silver dollar. Inscribed in
microscopic font on the disc are 73 messages, each from a different country, expressing
wishes of goodwill and peace.

Silicon isn't the same thing as silicone, that famous polymer found in breast implants,
menstrual cups and other medical technology. Silicone is made of silicon along with
oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. Because it resists heat so well, silicone has increasingly
been used to make kitchen tools, such as oven mitts and baking sheets.

Silicon can be dangerous. When inhaled over long periods of time, it can cause a lung
disease known as silicosis.

Love the iridescence of an opal? Thank silicon. The gemstone is a form of silica bound
with water molecules.

Plants use silicon to strengthen their cell walls. The element appears to be an important
nutrient that helps confer resistance to disease, according to a 1994 paper in the journal
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Silicon Valley gets its name from the silicon used in computer chips. The nickname first
appeared in 1971 in the newspaper "Electronic News."

Current research
Today's silicon research sounds just short of sci-fi: In 2006, researchers announced they
had created a computer chip that melded silicon components with brain cells. Electrical
signals from the brain cells could be transmitted to the electronic silicon components of
the chip, and vice versa. The hope is to eventually create electronic devices to treat
neurological disorders.
Silicon also has promise in the creation of incredibly tiny lasers called nanoneedles,
which can be used to transmit data faster and more efficiently than traditional optical
cables. Superconductor lasers shed heat much easier than glass lasers, said John
Badding, a materials chemist at Penn State University. That means they can boast more
power than traditional lasers.
Badding and his team are also working to create next-generation optical fibers that
integrate superconductors instead of simply glass, he told Live Science.
"Semiconductors have a whole variety of properties that you just can't get with glasses,"
Badding said. Having semiconductor materials embedded in optical fibers would allow
for mini-electronics included in these cables, which are crucial for sending information
over long distances. Semiconductor cables would also allow for the manipulation of light
in the fiber, Badding added.
Traditional silicon chips are made by depositing layers of the element on a flat surface,
usually starting with a precursor gas such as silane (SiH4) and allowing the gas to
solidify, Badding said. Cables, on the other hand, are drawn. To make a glass fiber optic
cable, you would begin with a glass rod, heat it and then draw it out like taffy,
lengthening it into a long, skinny thread.
Badding and his colleagues have figured out a way to get semiconductors into this
spaghetti-like shape. They use drawn-glass fibers with tiny holes and then compress
gases such as silane under high pressures to force them into those spaces.

"It'd be like filling a garden hose that goes from Penn State to New York completely solid
with silicon," Badding said. "You'd think things would get plugged up and messed up,
but they don't."
The resulting semiconductor strands are three to four times thinner than a human hair.
Badding and his team are also experimenting with other semiconductors, such as zinc
selenide (zinc and selenium) to create fibers with capacities never seen before.
More About Silicon:

For a fun and interesting look at the history of Silicon Valley, including information about
the minds and products involved in the making of the high-tech startups, check
out NPR's interactive Silicon Valley timeline.

They may be close on the Periodic Table of Elements but silicon and carbon are different
chemical beasts. Here's a look by Dow Corning on their differences, which boil down to
one being organic and the other inorganic.

HowStuffWorks has a great breakdown of how semiconductors work and how silicon is a
major player.

Want to find out how the famous Intel chips, made of silicon of course, are made? The
tech company describes the history of their chips, how they've changed over time, how
they're made and how they work.

http://www.livescience.com/28893-silicon.html

Silica is very common in nature and makes up 26% of the earth's crust by
weight. Various forms of silica include sand, emerald, quartz, feldspar, mica,
clay, asbestos, and glass. Silicon, a component of silica, does not exist naturally
in its pure form. It usually reacts with oxygen and water to form silicon dioxide.
Silicon dioxide has two naturally occurring forms: crystalline and amorphous.
Most diatomaceous earth is made of amorphous silicon dioxide. However, it can
contain very low levels of crystalline silicon dioxide. The first pesticide products
containing silicon dioxide (diatomaceous earth) were registered in 1960 to kill
insects and mites.
http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/degen.html

Crystalline Silica and Silica Exposure

Quick Tips #354
The term "silica" broadly refers to the mineral compound silicon dioxide (SiO2). Although silica can be
crystalline or amorphous in form, crystalline silica is more hazardous to employees and, therefore is
the focus of this document. Crystalline silica is a basic component of the Earth's crust and can be
detected in soil, sand, granite and many other minerals. It is most commonly found in the form of
quartz, but it is also found in substances such as cristobalite, tridymite and tripoli. Breathing crystalline
silica dust poses an industrial hazard and can lead to severe health problems and even death.
Respirable size silica dust particles, or particles that are less than 10 um in diameter, pose the greatest
threat to employees working with or near crystalline silica. These dust particles occur when workers
chip, cut, drill or grind objects that contain crystalline silica. This occurs in workplace settings such as
manufacturing, mining, construction, agriculture and abrasive blasting. Up to 2 million workers in the
United States are threatened by silica exposure in the workplace with at least 100,000 of those
workers being sandblasters.
Check the links below for additional information pertaining to OSHA and Canadian abrasive blasting
standards:
OSHA abrasive blasting standards
Silica exposure has been linked through epidemiologic studies to chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease such as bronchitis and emphysema. It has also been linked to immunologic disorders such as
scleroderma, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus in addition to renal disease and stomach or gastric
cancer. Crystalline silica dust was listed in the 12th Report on Carcinogens (page 377) as a known
human carcinogen. However, the most prominent disease linked to silica dust exposure is Silicosis.
Silicosis is one of the world's oldest known occupational diseases, with reports of the employees
contracting the disease dating back to ancient Greece. By the 1800s common names for silicosis
included grinders' asthma, grinders' rot, masons' disease, miners' asthma, miners' phthisis, potters'
rot, sewer disease, sandblasting disease and stonemasons' disease.
Silicosis, is a preventable yet incurable disease that causes scar tissue to build up in the lungs leading
to a reduction in the ability to take in oxygen. Respirable silica dust particles pass through the
tracheobronchial tree of the lung and collect in the deepest recesses of the lung, called the alveolar
structures. This accumulation leads to a significant decrease in lung function. There are three types of
silicosis.
1.

2.
3.

Chronic or classic silicosis: results from 15-20 years of low to moderate silica exposure.
Chronic silicosis causes shortness of breath and clinical signs of poor oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange
in the early stages. In the late stages of chronic silicosis the individual will experience extreme
shortness of breath and fatigue, as well as chest pain and respiratory failure.
Accelerated silicosis: results from 5-10 years of high exposure. Accelerated silicosis results
in severe shortness of breath, weakness and weight loss.
Acute silicosis: the most dangerous form of silicosis, also causes severe shortness of breath,
weakness and weight loss. Acute silicosis arises anywhere from a few months to two years after
exposure to extremely high concentrations of silica dust. Acute silicosis is often fatal.

Because of the severe side effects resulting from silica exposure, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) has established a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for workers who may be
exposed to silica dust. This exposure limit is dependent on the percent of respirable dust particles
produced by an application. OSHA has outlined a method for calculating the PEL for silica dust in 29
CFR 1926.55 and 1910.1000. OSHA also requires that hazard communication training (outlined in 29
CFR 1910.1200) be provided to workers who may be exposed to silica dust. Additionally, OSHA stresses
putting engineering controls in place to reduce the amount of silica exposure in the workplace. Some
examples of these engineering controls are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

locating employees in an area where they will not be exposed to silica dust
isolating workers from exposure with enclosures or barriers
installing local exhaust ventilation systems
using wet methods for cutting, chipping, drilling, sawing, grinding, etc.
using HEPA equipped vacuums or wet sweeping for cleaning applications
NOT using compressed air for cleaning applications
substituting non-crystalline silica material when possible
using tools with dust collection systems
OSHA states that it is important to consult a competent industrial hygienist or other technically
qualified person when determining the engineering controls to be used. OSHA also stresses that
employee exposure must be monitored. Guidelines for collecting air samples are outlined in the OSHA
Technical Manual (OTM) Section II Chapter I.
When engineering controls cannot eliminate the risk of silica exposure a respirator program should be
put into place. The minimum respiratory protection that is required is an N95 NIOSH approved
respirator for exposures that do not exceed theassigned protection factors. Of course, as with
any respirator program (see Quick Tips #195: Starting a Respiratory Protection Program), medical
evaluations (see Quick Tips #143: Medical Evaluation Questionnaire, 29 CFR 1910.134) are required for
employees who will be wearing the respirators.

http://www.grainger.com/content/qt-crystalline-silica-exposure-354

Thermal regeneration of used sand with components separation of

silica and chromite sand
The objective was to reduce the dump rate from 25 percent to 8 percent. In order to obtain the objective it is
necessary to separate the chromite sand from the silica sand. The purity for both kinds of sand must be > 99
percent. In addition, part of the sand, previously cleaned from chromite, is to be thermal treated, to obtain
reclaimed sand resembling new sand with ignition loss < 0,1 percent. The given objective has been achieved
with this pilot project.

The objective was to reduce the dump rate from 25 percent to 8 percent. In order to obtain the objective it is
necessary to separate the chromite sand from the silica sand. The purity for both kinds of sand must be > 99
percent. In addition, part of the sand, previously cleaned from chromite, is to be thermal treated, to obtain
reclaimed sand resembling new sand with ignition loss < 0,1 percent. The given objective has been achieved
with this pilot project.

Thermal regeneration of used sand successfully tested

Contribution to the reduction of the waste arising in iron and steel foundries
In iron and steel foundries sands with bonding agents are used for the production of molds and cores. The
most common sand for this is quartz sand, which is available as raw material in the necessary chemical
purity and grain size in Germany itself. Apart from that chromite sands are used because of their specific
foundry-technical advantages. Chromite sands have a higher fusing temperature, a better heat conductivity
and a smaller thermal expansion, however, they must be imported and are very expensive. Chromitsand is a
mixed crystal from chrome and ferric oxides. When the mold is destroyed after the casting and solidification
process quartz and chromite sands result as mixture. Up to now this mixed sand has not been re-usable as
core and plant sand for quality casting and was therefore usually deposited.
Pilot project for the thermal regeneration of old sand
In cooperation with the Federal Environmental Agency Berlin the Kraus Maffei Gietechnik GmbH conceived a
demonstration project for the regeneration of old sands. The object of the project was the separation of the
quartz and chromite components in the mixed sand, in order to be able to reuse the sands in the casting
process.
In the context of the project extensive tests were accomplished, which aimed at making use of a different
physical characteristic of the two sand components (density, magnetizability). It was shown that only one
combination of these two characteristic differences could lead to success.
After conclusion of the test series a permanent magnetic high intensity separator with subsequent vibrating
fluid dedusting conveyor was installed, whereby the conveyor makes use of the high density diference
between quartz and chromite sand for their pneumatic separation. This construction with separator and
conveyor allows to separate the two sand components in such a way that the quartz portion in the recovered
chromite sand is reduced to below one per cent, while the recovered quartz sand only has a chromite portion
below 0.5 %.
The Federal Ministry for Environment supported the project (total investment volume: approximately DM 3.4
millions (approx. 1.74 millions) with a capital investment grant at a value of approximately DM 1 million
(approx. 511.000) from the investment program for the reduction of environmental burdens.
Findings and results of the demonstration project
Altogether it can be stated that the thermal old sand regeneration with high intensity separator and vibrating
fluid dedusting conveyor is suitable to separate and process mixed sand in such a way that they can be
reused in the production process of a foundry.
In view of the import costs for chromite sand and the production and/or acquisition costs for quartz sands the
regeneration is also meaningful and desirable under economic criteria. Under ecological criteria the recovery
is particularly interesting regarding the reduced demand for valuable dump area.
The project showed that it is possible to cleanly separate the chromite sand without partitioning in grain
fractions.
Due to the closing of the foundry enterprise Kraus Maffei GmbH in Munich the plant was dismantled,
purchased by the Grditzer Stahlgieerei GmbH, and established again in their foundry in Saxonia, where it
was successfully operated in a 24-hour-commercial operation with a capacity of 4 tons per hour.
The innovative and trend-setting technology of quartz-chromite-sand-separation tested in this project can be
transferred to other steel foundries. It makes a contribution for the conservation of dump area and resources.
Regarded under financal aspects the procedure is not only reasonable; in case of large foundry enterprises
with high chromium ore sand application it is even favourable in economic respects.

http://www.cleaner-production.de/en/projects-publications/projects/metal/thermalregeneration-of-used-sand-with-components-separation-of-silica-and-chromitesand.html

http://www.marrontrading.com/silicawhite/index.php?linkId=11

Method for bonding components made of high silica

material
US 20090151848 A1
ABSTRACT
The present invention relates to a method for bonding components made of high silica material by way of
integral joining by forming a high-silica bonding mass between connecting surfaces of the components. A
method is provided which permits an inexpensive production of a mechanically and thermally stable
composite of components made of a high silica material, particularly for large-area bonded connections
for which a contact pressure of more than 5 N/cm 2 is applied while the connecting surfaces are being
fixed, and/or the path length for possible degassing products from the bonded connection is more than
150 mm. This object is achieved according to the invention in that the SiO 2 bonding mass is used in dry
form either right from the beginning or at least the SiO 2 bonding mass is dried on the connecting surfaces
before the joining process and the surfaces to be bonded are subsequently brought into contact and a
firm composite is created by way of heating with formation of a SiO 2 containing bonding mass.

DESCRIPTION
The present invention relates to a method for bonding components made of high silica material by way of
integral joining by forming a high-silica bonding mass between the connecting surfaces of the
components.
Herein, the term high silica material is understood to be doped or undoped quartz glass with a
SiO2 content of at least 85%. This material shall hereinafter also be called quartz glass for short. Quartz
glass is characterized by a low coefficient of thermal expansion, by optical transparence over a wide
wavelength range and by high chemical and thermal resistance.
Quartz glass components are used for many applications, e.g. in lamp manufacture as cladding tubes,
bulbs, cover plates or reflector carriers for lamps and radiators in the ultraviolet, infrared and visible
spectral range, in chemical apparatus construction or in semiconductor manufacture in the form of
reactors and apparatus made of quartz glass for the treatment of semiconductor components, jigs, bell
jars, crucibles, protective shields or simple quartz glass components, such as tubes, rods, plates, flanges,
rings or blocks.
For producing special properties quartz glass is doped with other substances, such as titanium,
aluminum, boron or germanium.
Frequently, there is a need to connect quartz glass elements to one another, e.g. for the manufacture of
quartz glass components having a complex shape. As a rule, this joining operation is performed by

welding the components together. For producing precision parts composed of several quartz glass parts,
joining techniques have also been suggested that include bonding methods using organic adhesive
materials, which however withstand low temperatures only.
Joining methods employing glass solders, as are for example also described in DD 289 513 A5, are also
known. The use of a glass solder based on lead-zinc borate is suggested for the dimensionally stable and
vacuum-tight joining of precision parts made of quartz glass. An acetone-soluble paste is formed from a
powder of the glass solder with particles sizes between 1 m and 70 m, and said paste is applied to a
connecting surface. The parts (tube and plate) to be connected are fixed relative to each other and the
connecting surfaces are pressed against each other. This composite is introduced into a soldering furnace
and subjected to a temperature treatment with a maximum temperature of 450 C. and for a period of time
of 3.5 hours. The glass solder melts in this process and is converted into a crystalline phase of an
increased melting temperature at the same time. The integral bonded connection established in this way
is distinguished by a low vacuum leakage rate up to a temperature of 500 C. Nevertheless, this bonded
connection cannot satisfy the particularly high demands made on temperature stability and thermal shock
resistance as required in many thermotechnical applications of quartz glass. Moreover, the known bonded
connection does also not meet the demands made on purity and freedom from contamination, as found
e.g. in applications in semiconductor manufacture, in optics, but also in the field of chemistry, medicine,
research and analytical technology.
Furthermore, DE 10 2004 054 392 A1 discloses a generic method for bonding components made of high
silica material, wherein a pourable or paste-like slurry, which contains amorphous SiO 2 particles, is
applied to one or both connecting surfaces, which are subsequently immediately fixed relative to or onto
each other. The bonding mass, which is more or less enclosed between the two connecting surfaces, is
then dried. In one example according to this prior art two plates are interconnected in this way, wherein
the SiO2-containing slurry is applied by a spraying process to the bottom side of the upper quartz glass
plate and the upper side of the lower quartz glass plate, respectively. The upper plate is then placed
immediately on the lower plate. With correspondingly slow drying a crack-free dried layer is obtained that
is suited for bonding these two plates of a relatively small size. This method is no longer suited for largearea connections at a correspondingly high pressing pressure already due to the dead weight of the
quartz glass parts to be bonded, or it would require long and uneconomic drying periods for removing the
dispersant of the bonding mass from the joining place without any defects.
It is therefore the object of the present invention to provide a method which permits an inexpensive
production of a mechanically and thermally stable composite of components made of a high silica
material, particularly for large-area bonded connections for which a contact pressure of more than 5
N/cm2 is applied while the connecting surfaces are being fixed, and/or the maximum path length for
possible degassing products from the bonded connection is more than 150 mm.
Starting from the above-mentioned method this object is achieved according to the invention in that the
SiO2 bonding mass is used in dry form either right from the beginning or at least the SiO 2 bonding mass is

dried on the connecting surfaces before the joining process and the surfaces to be bonded are
subsequently brought into contact and a firm composite is created by way of heating with formation of a
SiO2 containing bonding mass.
In the method according to the invention the connection of the components is based on a SiO 2-containing
bonding mass which must be dried before the connecting surfaces are brought into contact with each
other, or is present in dried form already from the start. An aqueous SiO 2 slurry that contains amorphous
SiO2 particles can be used as the bonding mass. The pourable or pasty slurry is applied to one or to both
connecting surfaces. First the connecting surfaces remain separated from each other. A drying phase is
now carried out which is characterized by expelling the dispersant, e.g. water, from the connection layer;
shrinkage must here be expected to a certain extent. The challenge is that the mass will not crack due to
this shrinkage, but that a homogeneous crack-free bonding mass will be formed. Since the connecting
surfaces with the bonding mass are exposed to the drying process without any pressure load by the
component area to be joined, there is no problem with regard to the removal of possible degassing
products during drying. This is conducive to the homogeneity of the bonding mass. A further important
factor is that in the event that a slurry is started from, said slurry contains amorphous SiO 2particles. These
particles are subject to interactions which already stabilize the slurry mass in its pasty and dry state and
promote the sintering activity, which facilitates the solidification of the dried slurry mass at comparatively
low temperatures with formation of a dense crack-free SiO 2-containing bonding mass. To ensure an
economic overall process with a short drying time for the large-area bonding of quartz glass parts, the
drying process is performed with an open surface of the bonding parts to be joined. The dispersant of the
slurry can thereby be expelled from the applied layer of the bonding mass within a very short period of
time. An alternative possibility regarding large-area joining connections of quartz glass parts with a high
silica bonding mass is that the bonding mass is not applied in a pourable or pasty form, but already in a
dry or pre-dried form, e.g. in the form of a powder layer of amorphous SiO 2 particles which are applied to
and optionally pressed against the connecting surfaces. Moreover, a green foil which has been produced
from a SiO2 slurry and pre-dried before can be applied or specifically laminated as bonding mass to the
surfaces of the quartz glass components to be joined.
For solidifying and compacting the dried bonding mass on the quartz glass components to be bonded,
these are brought into contact with one another and then heated to a temperature leading to a sintering or
melting of the amorphous SiO2 particles with formation of a crack-free SiO2-containing bonding mass
consisting of opaque, partly opaque and partly transparent or completely transparent high silica glass.
During sintering or vitrification of the dry bonding mass, crystallization should be avoided or at least
minimized in the SiO2-containing bonding mass, which would lead to a weakening of the bonded
connection. In this context it is also important that the SiO 2 particles used for forming the bonding mass
are amorphous. They consist of synthetically produced SiO2 or they are produced on the basis of purified
naturally occurring raw material.

Furthermore, attention must be paid that a stable SiO 2-containing bonding mass is produced that ensures
a stable and reliable connection between the large-area components even upon temperature changes. In
this regard, special attention is paid to the thermal expansion coefficient of the SiO 2-containing bonding
mass and its temperature dependence as compared to the thermal expansion coefficient or coefficients of
the components to be connected.
In this regard, the use of a SiO2-containing bonding mass that is generic with regard to the high silica
material plays an important role. Herein this shall mean that the SiO 2 content of the bonding mass differs
from that of the high silica components to be connected by not more than 3% by wt. The use of generic
material for the formation of the bonding mass allows, on the one hand, a maximal approximation of the
thermal expansion coefficients between the quartz glass of the components and the bonding mass, and
associated with this, particularly good adhesion of the solidified SiO 2-containing bonding mass to the
connecting surfaces and, on the other hand, a high thermal shock resistance of this composite.
Furthermore, contamination of the quartz glass of the components to be connected or their operative
environment by foreign substance present in the generic material is thus prevented.
Roughness and unevenness of the connecting surfaces do not necessarily have a disadvantageous effect
in the method according to the invention. On the contrary, this surface roughness can even improve the
adhesion of the dry SiO2-containing bonding mass.
To sum up, it should be noted that since in the bonding method according to the invention the quartz glass
components to be connected are brought into contact with each other only after the bonding compound
has been dried, the method is suited for large-area connections in the case of which a contact pressure is
more than 5 N/cm2 during fixation of the connecting surfaces and/or the maximum path length for possible
degassing products from the bonded connection is more than 150 mm. Moreover, the drying periods are
short, so that the method is inexpensive.
Advantageous developments of the method are found in the sub-claims.
In a first variant of the method, a bonding mass is exposed in the form of an aqueous SiO 2 slurry which
contains amorphous SiO2 particles with mean particle sizes of less than 5 m, preferably less than 1 m.
Amorphous SiO2 particles in this order of magnitude and with such a size distribution show an
advantageous sintering behavior and comparatively low shrinkage during drying. Due to the aboveexplained interaction, which may even lead to the formation of molecular SiO 2 compounds, the fine
nanoparticles show an action similar to that of a binding agent and promote the sintering and vitrifying
behavior. It has been found that with such a bonding mass a high basic density of the bonding layer is
generated, which layer can be dried and solidified without the formation of cracks.
Preferably, the SiO2 content of the amorphous SiO2 particles is at least 99.9% by wt.

The solids content of a SiO2 slurry prepared by using such particles consists of at least 99.9% by wt. of
SiO2. Binding agents or similar additives are not provided. In this regard, this is a generic starting material
for a component assembly made of non-doped quartz glass. This starting material does not entail any risk
of contamination or crystallization.
Advantageously, the solids content of the slurry during preparation of a slurry mass on the connecting
surfaces is at least 65% by wt., preferably at least 80% by wt., particularly preferably at least 83% by wt.
This high solids content reduces shrinkage during drying and solidification, and thereby reduces the
formation of strains in the SiO2-containing bonding mass and, in addition, improves the dimensional
stability and dimensional accuracy of the composite.
For the application of the slurry, the per se known procedures are suited, such as spraying,
electrostatically-supported spraying, flooding, centrifugation, laying on (painting), or troweling. Application
techniques suited for the uniform covering of large areas are, in particular, immersion or spraying or also
screen printing. The lamination of a green foil of quartz glass is also a possible application technique
within the meaning of the invention.
Apart from amorphous dense SiO2 particles, the bonding mass may also contain other amorphous
SiO2 starting material.
For example, it has proven favorable for at least part of the amorphous SiO 2 particles to be provided in the
form of porous granulate particles made of agglomerates of nano-scale, amorphous, synthetically
produced SiO2 primary particles with a mean primary particle size of less than 100 nm.
Primary particles of this type are obtained by flame hydrolysis or oxidation of silicon compounds. Upon
granulation the agglomeration of the fine-particulate SiO 2 primary particles leads to the formation of
coarser granulate particles. As a result, compaction and solidification that promote the subsequent
sintering and vitrifying processes are already started in the bonding mass, compaction and solidification
being based on a certain degree of solubility and mobility of individual primary particles in the bonding
mass, which contributes to so-called neck formation between adjacent amorphous SiO 2 particles in the
bonding mass. During drying of the SiO2-enriched bonding mass with a liquid phase in the area of the
necks, these necks solidify and establish a firm connection between the individual amorphous
SiO2 particles, and lead to compaction and solidification of the bonding mass, which simplifies subsequent
sintering. The porosity of the granulate as well as the associated large specific surface result in a high
sintering activity.
A further preferred embodiment of the bonding mass is formed by a dry powder. A dry quartz glass grain
or/and a quartz glass granulate are used as the bonding mass.
Nano-scale SiO2 powders show good flow characteristics, so that the uniform application to a planar area
of a quartz glass component is definitely guaranteed. The preferred mean particle sizes for these quartz

glass granules or quartz glass granulates used in a dry state as bonding masses are within the range of
10 m and 40 m.
It is then possible to apply the quartz glass component to be joined while omitting a drying period. This
variant should particularly be preferred when a very large area composite with a relatively thick joining
mass is needed and the removal of possible dispersants from the bonding mass requires too much time
or is uneconomic for other reasons.
Moreover, it can be advantageous that the bonding mass comprises an additional intermediate layer
which is applied by spreading quartz glass grain or/and quartz glass granulate onto a bonding mass
which is already provided on the connecting surfaces and contains a dispersant. As a rule, such a first
bonding mass is used with dispersant in the form of a screen-printable paste because uniform, thin and
large-area layers can be applied with the screen printing technique at low costs and in a reproducible
manner. It is also possible to reverse the sequence, i.e. first to apply a SiO 2 powder to the joining area and
then to apply a SiO2 bonding mass containing a dispersant. The dispersant must be removed during
drying before the parts to be joined get into contact. In this process the powder layer applied
subsequently (or previously) can increase the filling degree of the bonding mass and shorten the drying
time on the whole.
In a preferred variant of the method, solidification of the bonding mass comprises sintering with formation
of an at least partly opaque bonding mass.
In comparison with vitrification up to complete transparence, sintering requires comparatively low sintering
temperatures and/or short sintering times. This helps to observe the dimensional accuracy of the
component assembly to be manufactured, reduces the amount of energy needed, and avoids thermal
impairment of the components to be connected, as well as crystallization in the area of the bonding mass.
It has been found that for most applications an adequate mechanical strength of the SiO 2-containing
bonding mass can already be accomplished by sintering (and not only by complete vitrification).
The degree of compaction depends on the sintering temperature and sintering duration. The higher the
temperature, the shorter is the sintering period, and vice versa. A standard and preferred temperature
treatment for sintering the slurry mass comprises heating at a temperature within the range between 800
C. and 1450 C., preferably at a temperature below 1300 C.
In the simplest case sintering is carried out in a sintering furnace into which the components to be
connected are introduced. The uniform heating of the whole component assembly in a sintering furnace
reduces the formation of strains and avoids deformations of the composite. In a further preferred variant
of the method, solidification of the bonding mass includes vitrification with formation of an at least partly
transparent, solidified SiO2-containing bonding mass.

A complete vitrification of the SiO2-containing bonding mass is preferred, if particularly high demands are
made on tightness, strength, absence of particles and similar stability of the composite, if optical
transparence is needed in this area technically or for purely esthetic reasons. In this case the SiO 2containing bonding mass contains no or few pores and shows a high density, which corresponds
approximately to that of the silica components.
As a rule, however, vitrification of near-surface areas of the SiO 2-containing bonding mass is sufficient. If
these vitrified areas interconnect the connecting surfaces, they help to increase the mechanical strength
and also the tightness of the composite even if otherwise the SiO 2-containing bonding mass contains
pores and is opaque.
Vitrification is preferably carried out using a heating source the maximum heating action of which can be
locally limited to the bonding mass.
The action of the high temperatures needed for vitrification can here be limited locally to the bonding
mass to be vitrified and plastic deformations are thereby avoided or reduced. For this purpose burners or
infrared lasers (e.g. SiO2 lasers) are used.
In the case of a preceding sintering step the residual heat is advantageously used and the still hot
component assembly is vitrified. This helps to save energy and the formation of strains is prevented.
In a further preferred variant of the method for solving the above-mentioned problem with respect to the
thermal expansion coefficient of the SiO2-containing bonding mass, a mass is used that contains one or
more of the following dopants: Al2O3, TiO2, Y2O3, AlN, Si3N4, ZrO2, BN, HfO2, Si, Yb2O3, and/or SiC. By
adding one or more of the said dopants the thermal expansion coefficient of the SiO 2-containing bonding
mass can be matched to that or those of the components to be joined. Preferably, doping with a dopant is
carried out such that the formation of a crystalline phase in the SiO 2-containing bonding mass is avoided.
The present invention shall now be explained in more detail with reference to embodiments and a
drawing.
The drawing schematically shows in detail in
FIG. 1: the joining of two quartz glass plates according to the method of the invention;
FIG. 2: the resulting component assembly according to the method step of FIG. 1.
To prepare the adhesive bond according to FIGS. 1 and 2, a homogeneous stabilized base slurry is first
prepared. To prepare a batch of 10 kg of base slurry, 1.8 kg of deionized water with a conductivity of less
than 3 S is mixed with 8.2 kg of an amorphous quartz-glass granulate made of natural raw material with

grain sizes in the range between 250 m and 650 m and an SiO 2 content of 99.99%, in a quartz glasslined drum mill with a volume of approximately 20 liters.
This mixture is then comminuted by means of grinding beads of quartz glass on a roller bracket at 23 rpm
for a period of three days until a homogeneous stabilized base slurry with a solids content of 82% is
obtained. During comminution the dissolving SiO2 reduces the pH to a value of approximately 4.
The amorphous SiO2 particles in the base slurry obtained after wet comminution of the quartz glass
granulate have a particle size distribution that is characterized by a D 50 value of about 5 m and by a
D90 value of about 23 m.
Further amorphous SiO2 granulate with a mean grain size of about 5 m is added to the homogeneous
base slurry obtained in this way until the solids content is 90% by wt. The mixture is then homogenized in
a drum mill at 25 rpm for 12 hours. The slurry thus obtained has a solids content of 90% by wt. and a
density of almost 2.0 g/cm3.
The base slurry is used in this state for the manufacture of the adhesive connection according to the
invention, as shall be described in more detail in the following.
FIG. 2 schematically shows a composite body 20 consisting of a lower quartz glass plate 22 and an upper
quartz glass plate21 which are interconnected by means of an opaque SiO 2-containing intermediate
layer 23 of a thickness of 1 mm. Each of the plates has a thickness of 3 mm and is square with an edge
length of 250 mm. It follows from these dimensions, on condition that the plates 21 and 22 have each a
specific weight of 2.2 g/cm3, that due to the dead weight of the upper plate21 of 412.50 g a contact
pressure of 6.6 N/cm2 acts on the lower plate 22 with the bonding masses 24 and 25 and the intermediate
layer 23, respectively. If in this case the connecting surfaces were placed on each other directly after
application of the slurry this would not result in a uniform drying of the bonding mass 23, 24. The
degassing products from the middle of the square plates 21, 22 would have to cover a path length up to
the plate rim of between 125 mm and 176 mm, which does not promise a flawless degassing process.
The opaque intermediate layer 23 serves for example as a transmission barrier for heat radiation. Quartz
glass components, such as flanges, in high temperature applications are often made completely or partly
of opaque quartz glass to block heat radiation. For the purpose of cleaning, the components usually are
etched with hydrofluoric acid-containing chemicals. Opaque quartz glass, however, has a low etching
resistance such that the service life of such opaque quartz glass components ends after relatively few
cleaning cycles. For this reason, transparent quartz glass is melted onto the opaque surface areas of the
components. This is a hot process which tends to cause deformation of the component in such a way that
a costly after-treatment will be needed.
The composite body 20 according to the invention, as shown schematically in FIG. 2, represents such an
opaque component covered by transparent quartz glass on both sides. It is suited to replace components

of this type which have been costly to produce until now, whereby the transparent layers 21, 22 can easily
be applied also in thick layers.
In order to prepare the composite body 20, the plates 21, 22 are first degreased and cleaned.
Subsequently, the above-described slurry is applied to the upper side of the lower quartz glass
plate 22 and to the lower side of the upper quartz glass plate 21 in the form of a slurry layer 24, 25, each
having a thickness of approximately 1.5 millimeter, the slurry layer acting as the bonding mass. The
application process can be carried out by way of spraying. Other application techniques, however, such
as screen printing, spreading by doctor blade, laying on (painting), troweling, etc., are also possible
alternatives. It is important that a uniform coverage of the surfaces to be connected is achieved. This is
schematically shown in FIG. 1.
The component areas provided with the bonding mass are first air-dried for one hour. Complete drying is
performed using an IR radiator in air. The dried bonding mass 24, 25 consisting of the slurry layer is
without cracks, and it has a maximum thickness of about 2.5 mm.
It is only after the layer has dried completely that the composite body 20 is produced by bringing the two
plates 21 and 22into contact with each other and is sintered in a sintering furnace in air atmosphere. Due
to pre-drying the bonding mass does not contain a degassable substance any more, so that sintering is
carried out without any risk in this respect.
The heating profile during sintering comprises a heating ramp in which the dried bonding mass is heated
from room temperature within one hour to a heating temperature of 1250 C. The composite body 20 is
held at this heating temperature for two hours. An intermediate layer 23 which firmly connects the two
quartz glass plates 11, 22, which is sintered, but still opaque, and which with regard to the quartz glass
plate 21 and 22 is made of generic material and has a mean specific density of about 2.10 g/cm 3 is
formed from the bonding mass. The composite body 20 manufactured in this way is slowly cooled down in
the sintering furnace, a first cooling ramp being 5 C. per minute and showing a furnace temperature of
1050 C. The second cooling ramp is 10 C. per minute and ends at a furnace temperature of 950 C.
Further cooling is carried out thereafter irregularly and in a closed state of the furnace. Due to the
relatively slow cooling process the component assembly is annealed, so that existing mechanical strains
are reduced and the formation of strains due to cooling is avoided.
The plate-shaped composite body 20 prepared in this way is opaque and about 8 mm thick. It consists of
three layers 21, 22and 23, of which the middle layer 23 is approximately 2 mm thick and accounts for the
opacity and is covered on both sides by layers 21, 22 having a thickness of 3 mm and made of dense,
transparent quartz glass characterized by a high etching resistance. In addition, the composite body 20 is
thermally stable, characterized by high thermal shock resistance at operating temperatures above 100 C.
The method described above is also well-suited for the manufacture of a composite body that consists
completely of transparent quartz glass. For this purpose it is only necessary to completely vitrify the

intermediate layer 23 rather than to sinter it. For this purpose, the composite body is vitrified in a
vitrification furnace after drying of the bonding mass. The heating profile during vitrification comprises a
heating ramp during which the bonding mass is heated in the form of the slurry layer from room
temperature to a heating temperature of 1350 C. within two hours. The composite body is kept at this
heating temperature for two hours. The slurry layer thus gives rise to a sintered intermediate layer of
generic material, which firmly connects two quartz glass plates and has a mean specific density of about
2.2 g/cm3. In this fashion, it is not only possible to increase the thickness of quartz glass plates, but also
to build-up quartz glass blocks.
An alternative joining technique within the meaning of the present invention is that a slurry is not applied
as bonding mass to the quartz glass components to be connected, but a dry granular quartz glass layer.
This granulate is spread as uniformly as possible on a planar joining surface, e.g. with the help of a doctor
blade. Monomodal spherical quartz glass grains with a D50value between 5 m and 40 m are particularly
well suited. However, granulates which are built-up of nanoscale SiO 2 powders can also be used for this
purpose. Since the loose granulation contains no fixing agents as bonding mass for the composite
component, only the lower quartz glass plate 22 is covered with the powder layer, the thickness of this
bonding mass ranging from 0.5 mm to several millimeters, depending on the total geometry to be
accomplished with the component assembly. It is particularly advantageous in this embodiment that a
drying step can be omitted altogether and that the upper quartz glass plate 21 can be immediately placed
on the lower plate after the application of powder to said lower plate. Depending on the grain spectrum
used for the bonding mass 23 as granulation layer, the plate sandwich is sintered at a sintering
temperature between 1200 C. and 1450 C. in a sintering furnace. In the present example the
plates 21 and 22 are made of transparent quartz glass and are circular with a diameter of 300 mm and a
thickness of 2.5 mm each. Due to the dead weight of the upper plate 21 of about 388.80 g the upper plate
exerts a contact pressure of 5.5 N/cm2 on the lower plate 22 with the spread-on granulation as bonding
mass. If in this instance a bonding mass with evaporating dispersant was used and if the connecting
surfaces were immediately placed on each other after application of said mass, no uniform drying of the
bonding mass 24 could be achieved. The degassing products from the center of the circular
plates 21, 22 would have to cover a distance up to the plate edge of 150 mm, which does not promise a
flawless degassing process.
A SiO2 powder layer is applied as the bonding mass 24 to the upper side of the plate 22, the granulation
layer being uniformly distributed over the plate surface by gentle vibration. The quartz glass granulation
Excelica SE 15 of the company Tokuyama Ltd. is used as the powder, said granulation comprising
spherical SiO2 particles with a mean particle size of 15 m. The sintering program for this composite has a
heating-up rate of 2.5 C./minute from about room temperature to 1400 C. The holding time at 1400 C.
is three hours. In this case, and despite the relatively high sintering temperature, no transparent
intermediate layer is produced because with the loose quartz glass granulation the particle distance is
nevertheless too large for achieving a pore-free dense sintering process. The plate-shaped composite
body 20 produced in this way with an opaque intermediate layer 23 is slowly cooled down in the sintering

furnace, with a first cooling ramp being 5 C. per minute and showing a furnace temperature of 1050 C.
The second cooling ramp is 10 C. per minute and ends at a furnace temperature of 950 C. Further
cooling is then performed irregularly in the closed state of the furnace. Due to the relatively slow cooling
process the component assembly is annealed such that existing mechanical strains are reduced and the
formation of strains caused by cooling is avoided. These circular plates with opaque intermediate
layer 23 are e.g. used as reflector plates in the semiconductor industry, namely in hot areas which
additionally require a pore-free surface.
A further embodiment according to the invention is made up of a combination of the above-explained
variants for the manufacture of a composite body 20. In this instance, a very thin layer of SiO2 base slurry
is first applied, as has been described above, to the upper side of the lower plate 21 and to the lower side
of the upper plate 22. The layer is applied by means of screen printing and has a layer thickness in the
range of about 30 m to 100 m. A dry quartz glass granulation is spread onto the still moist screen
printing layer, whereby the individual particles are fixed by the still moist SiO 2 layer applied by means of
screen printing. The above-mentioned SiO2 powder Excelica SE 15 can be used as quartz glass
granulation or also a combination of several grain fractions of similar powder qualities, e.g. also Excelica
SE 30, which has a mean particle size of 30 m. Subsequently, the plates 21 and 22 prepared in this way
with the bonding mass 23, 24 are dried; the drying period can here be kept short because in fact hardly
any dispersant has to be removed from the screen printing layer. The drying period is not more than about
30 minutes and is carried out in a drying cabinet in air at about 120 C.
Subsequently, the plates are placed on one another, the sides of the plates getting into contact with the
bonding mass and being finally sintered with a sintering program, as has been described above. As a
result of this variant of the method, one obtains a composite body 20 which comprises an opaque
intermediate layer 23 and is preferably used as a reflector component in the semiconductor industry in hot
processes.

CLAIMS(13)
1. A method for bonding components made of high silica material, said method comprising: a joining
process including forming a high-silica bonding mass between connecting surfaces of the components,
wherein the high-silica bonding mass is in dry form when introduced between the connecting surfaces or
the bonding mass is dried on the connecting surfaces before the joining process and the surfaces to be
bonded are subsequently brought into contact and a firm composite is created by heating so as to form a
SiO2 containing bonding mass.
2. The method according to claim 1, wherein an aqueous SiO2 slurry which contains amorphous
SiO2 particles with mean particle sizes in the range of less than 5 m is used for the high-silica bonding
mass.
3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the bonding mass has an SiO2 content of the amorphous
SiO2 particles in the high-silica bonding mass that is at least 99.9% by wt.

4. The method according to claim 2, wherein the slurry for the high-silica bonding mass between the
connecting surfaces has a solids content that is at least 65% by wt.
5. The method according to claim 1, wherein a dry quartz glass grain or/and a quartz glass granulate is
used as the high-silica bonding mass.
6. The method according to claim 5, wherein the quartz glass grain and/or the quartz glass granulate has
a mean particle size between 10 m and 40 m.
7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the high-silica bonding mass comprises an additional
intermediate layer that is applied by spreading quartz glass grain or/and quartz glass granulate over a first
bonding mass already positioned on the connecting surfaces.
8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method further comprises a sintering process that
comprises a temperature treatment of the dry high-silica bonding mass at a temperature between 800 C.
and 1450 C.
9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the method further comprises solidifying the high-silica
bonding mass by said sintering of the dry high-silica bonding mass so as to form an at least partly opaque
solidified bonding mass.
10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the high-silica bonding mass contains one or more dopants
selected from the group consisting of Al2O3, TiO2, Y2O3, AlN, Si3N4, ZrO2, BN, HfO2, Si, Yb2O3, and/or SiC.
11. The method according to claim 1, wherein an aqueous SiO2 slurry which contains amorphous
SiO2 particles with mean particle sizes in the range of less than 1 m is used for the high-silica bonding
mass.
12. The method according to claim 2, wherein the slurry for the high-silica bonding mass between the
connecting surfaces has a solids content that is at least 80% by wt.
13. The method according to claim 2, wherein the slurry for the high-silica bonding mass between the
connecting surfaces has a solids content that is at least 83% by wt.

http://www.google.com.na/patents/US20090151848
1.3. What are the main uses of silica?
Crystalline silica is an essential component of materials which have an abundance of uses in industry and are a vital
component in many things used in our everyday lives. It is impossible to imagine houses without bricks, mortar or
windows, cars without engines or windscreens, life without roads or other transport infrastructures and everyday items
made of glass or pottery.

Industrial silica is used in a vast array of industries, the main ones being the glass, foundries, construction, ceramics,
and the chemical industry.
Silica in its finest form is also used as functional filler for paints, plastics, rubber, and silica sand is used in water
filtration and agriculture.
Other examples of everyday uses include the construction and maintenance of an extensive range of sports and
leisure facilities.
Crystalline silica is also irreplaceable in a series of high-tech applications, for example in optical data transmission
fibres and precision casting. It is also used in the metallurgical industry as the raw material for silicon metal and
ferrosilicon production. Another specialized application is in the oil extraction.
Altogether there are hundreds of applications of industrial silica in our daily life. Silica products have become so
obvious to us that we don't even know they are being applied.

http://www.crystallinesilica.eu/13-what-are-main-uses-silica
Clear quartz crystals or high-class silica sand are fused for the manufacture of ophthalmic glasses and lenses.

The History Says

Silicon in the amorphous form was prepared by Berzelius in 1823AD. Silicon in the crystalline form was prepared by
H St Cdeville in 1854AD.

The Present Scenario

Quartzite, sandstone, quartz and other siliceous rocks like mica schists are used in the manufacture of silica bricks.
Quartz and quartzite are used in making ferro-silicon for the manufacture of silicon steel.

SILICA is the most abundant mineral found in the crust of the earth. It forms an important constituent of practically all
rock-forming minerals. It is found in a variety of forms, as quartz crystals, massive forming hills, quartz sand (silica
sand), sandstone, quartzite, tripoli, diatomite, flint, opal, chalcedonic forms like agate, onyx etc., and in with numerous
other forms depending upon colour such as purple quartz (amethyst), smoky quartz, yellow quartz or false topaz
(citrine), rose quartz and milky quartz. Only pure quartz crystal or rock crystal, untwinned, clear, free from any
inclusion, has an important property:
It expands (mechanically) under the influence of electric current and conversely pressure induces a measurable
electric current. This property is known as piezoelectricity. The current thus developed is called piezoelectric current.
This property resulting from the asymmetry of its atomic groups makes quartz an effective transducer for coverting
electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice-versa. This property in quartz crystals was discovered in 1880-82
by Pierre and Jacques Curie and remained a laboratory curiosity till in 1921 when W.G. Cady, a physicist, discovered
that quartz plates could be used to control the frequency of wireless transmission circuits.
This discovery marked the dawn of quartz crystal application in modern communication equipments. A very thin plate

of quartz is so cut that the frequency of the oscillating circuit corresponds with the quartz plate and when such plate is
inserted in a radio receiving set or radio transmitter it prevents frequencies from wandering and deviation and greatly
reduces interference.
Quartz plate is used in controlling frequencies in air and water media as well. It is largely used in radio circuit, radar,
ultrasonic and in multiple telephone lines. Quartz plates keep the bradcast on the right beam.
Quartz cystals cut into prisms, wedges and lenses are used for microscopes and other optical instruments. Quartz
wedge is the commonest accessory which students use in the petrological microscope.
A number of other crystals giving piezoelectricity are known but none compares with quartz. Chemically prepared
Rochelle salt and Barium titanate have been found good substitutes for piwzoelectric quartz.
However, the crystal - quartz because of its chemical and physical stability and high elasticity has remained
indispensable so far. The consumption of quartz plate pieces has tremendously increased with the increase in the
manufacture of modern receiving sets.

Occurrences and Consumptions

USA alone uses a few million pieces every year for use in receiving sets for combat forces.
Clear quartz crystals or high-class silica sand are fused for the manufacture of ophthalmic glasses and lenses. Most
of the world supply of flawless, untwinned radio-grade quartz comes from Brazil. It is found occurring in thousands of
square km. in the States of Minas Gerais, Goiaz, and Bahia.
Quartz deposits are found in the form of veins, pipes, pockets, stock works and vugs. All crystals are not of radio
grade. Clear crystals are rare.
Only clear pyramidical crystals are picked up for tests, Grey or milky quartz being unsuitable. Small production of
piezoelectric quartz crystals is also reported from Mozambique.

Common Uses
The commonest use of quartz and glass-sand, also referred to as silica-sand, is in the manufacture of glass. Great
advancement has been made in the manufacture of translucent, transparent, coloured and clear glass in sheets or in
glassware.
The size of the sand grains is important in glass industry. It should be between 40 to 80 mesh (BSS). It should be of
high purity containing a minimum of 98% SiO2. In the manufacture of colourless glass the iron content (Fe2O3) should
not exceed 0.04%. for optical purposes, the presence of iron oxide (Fe2O3) more than 0.008% is not tolerated.
Iron and chromium are both objectionable impurities in glass-sand. The minutest presence of these impurities gives
colour effect in the glass melt. Glass is manufactured by melting a mixture in suitable proportion of felspar, dolomite,
limestone and soda ash together with glass-sand at 1400 - 1500C in the furnace when clear molten glass is
formed.
The average composition of the mixture by parts is: soda ash 1; silica sand 2; limestone / dolomite ; borax 1/320;
saltpetre 1/160; felspar 1/80 and selenium 1/36000. Selenium is added to neutralise the colour effect imparted by the
presence of iron oxide.
Twelve grams of selenium are sufficient to neutralise the colour effect of one tonne glass containing 0.15% Fe2O3.

Borax is used to manufacture borosilicate glass of low alkali content including laboratory wares and optical glass.
Boron confers a low co-efficient of expansion, increases resistance to mechanical and thermal shocks and gives a
bright and pleasing appearance to glass.

Abrasives
Glass-sand free from organic and clayey impurities is used in the manufacture of sand-paper, abrasive cloth etc.
generally sands crushed from sandstone and quartzite are used. River-borne sands are unsuitable as they do not
possess the angular faces.

Refractory
Quartzite, sandstone, quartz and other siliceous rocks lime mica schists are used in the manufacture of silica bricks.
Quartzite contains mainly silica and has high refractoriness. The purity of raw material i.e., the high silica content is
essential with least possible Al2O3. Phase diagram study has sown that even about 5% Al2O3 present brings down
the refractoriness from 1728C to 1545C when eutectic is formed. The presence of 0.01% Al2O3 lowers the
refractoriness of silica by 4.8F and 0.4% of Al2O3 by 140F. Silica-rock of metamorphic origin is better than that of
igneous origin because silica grains cemented with cristobalite and tridymite are stable phases of silica. Silica bricks
are used in the steel industry. The importance of silica bricks is fast losing ground because of a gradual change in the
practice of manufacturing steel by basic hearth furnace. L.D. process also eliminates much use of silica bricks as
instead dolimite bricks are used. At present the estimated rate of consumption of silica bricks in the domestic steel
plants in open hearth process using silica roof is 8 kg. per ingot tonne of steel as against 2.8 kg. consumed in the
advanced countries.

Metallurgical
Quartz and quartzite are used in making ferro-silicon for the manufacture of silicon steel. The specification of quartz
and quartzite provided by the industry manufacturing ferro-silicon is as follows:

SiO2

98% min.

Al2O3

1.5% max.

Fe2O3

0.5% max.

P2 O5

0.1% max.

Ball mill use

Rounded pebbles of chalcedony are used in ball mills for finer crushing of minerals like felspar, calcite, and barytes.
Chalcedony being the cryptocrystalline variety of silica is very hard and has good abrasive effect on the material to be
pulverized. Some of the ball mills use steel shots for this purpose. Chalcedony pebbles are used to advantage where
product absolutely free from iron contamination is required.
The agate pieces after cutting to requisite sizes and shapes are utilized in the manufacture of fulcra of scientific
balances and making edges, planes and bearing of precision instruments. Cambay and Varanasi are important agate
cutting centres. Big pebbles are used for making mortar and pestle.

Glass-sand in large quantities is used as moulding sand in the foundry industry, as body constituent in the ceramic
industry in the preparation of glazes and sometimes added to the raw material for cement manufacture to balance
SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 percentages. Silica flour made by grinding silica sand is used in paints. Paint manufacturers
generally prefer diatomite powder which has a wide covering powder.

Take Note
Silica is a specialist semiconductor distribution business offering an extensive technology and product portfolio from a
highly focused linecard. Serving most Western and Eastern European countries, Silica markets through panEuropean agreements from the leading suppliers of semiconductors.
Silica offers one of the most comprehensive product portfolios available from any distributor. With local teams of
application engineers and technology specialists, it is dedicated to supporting its OEM customers technically and to
providing the design-in expertise needed for customers to compete successfully.
As a division of Avnet Electronics Marketing (EM) in Europe, Silica is supported by Avnet Logistics for warehousing,
programming and other value added services, including laser marking, tape & reel and inspection, fast turn-round
prototyping, dry packaging and baking. The Avnet Logistics Programming Service Centre, one of the largest of its
kind in Europe, has a capacity of more than 30 million units a year.
A full suite of value added supply chain management services, such as buffer stock management, replenishment
services (Kanban), EDI and supply chain consulting, is available to Silica's European customers in order to reduce
inventory, to lower costs and reduce time to market cycles.
Silica is a division of Phoenix-based Avnet Inc. (NYSE:AVT), a Fortune 500 company with annual sales exceeding $
10,2 billion (fiscal year 2004). The world's largest distributors of semiconductors, interconnect, passive and
electromechanical components from the leading manufacturers, Avnet EM markets, inventories and adds value to
these products and provides world-class supply-chain management services. Avnet EM serves customers in 68
countries.

http://www.mineralszone.com/minerals/silica.html
Silicon is the second most common element in the Earth's crust, comprising 25.7% of the Earths crust by weight. It
was discovered in 1824 by the Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius. It is shiny, dark gray with a tint of blue. Silicon,
atomic number of 14, is a semi-metallic or metalloid, because it has several of the metallic characteristics. Silicon is
never found in its natural state, but rather in combination with oxygen as a silicate ion (SiO4) in silica-rich rocks such
as obsidian, granite, diorite, and sandstone. Feldspar and quartz are the most significant silicate minerals. Silicon
alloys with a variety of metals, including iron, aluminum, copper, nickel, manganese and ferrochromium.
Silica is processed into two intermediate products- silicon and ferrosilicon. Silicon is known in the ferroalloy and
chemical industries as silicon metal. The ultra pure form of silicon (>99.99% Si) is distinguished from silicon metal by
the term semiconductor-grade silicon. The terms silicon metal and silicon are used interchangeably.
Silicon is used in ceramics and in making glass. Ferrosilicon is crushed into a variety of forms and sold as bulk metal.
Depending on its intended use, it can be mixed with aluminum and calcium. It is a very heavy alloy. When it comes into
contact with moist air or water, an explosive chemical reaction occurs in which hydrogen is released. Consequently
there are very strict laws about the shipping of ferrosilicon it must be kept perfectly clean and dry.
Silicon is considered a semiconductor. This means that it conducts electricity, but not as well as a metal such as
copper or silver. This physical property makes silicon an important commodity in the computer manufacturing business.
Ferrosilicon accounts for 53% of the annual silicon consumption in the United States; pure silicon accounts for the
remaining 47%.
Silica is in human connective tissues, bones, teeth, skin, eyes, glands and organs. It is a major constituent of collagen
which helps keep our skin elastic, and it helps calcium in maintaining bone strength. Silica dust in mines has caused
silicosis or a lung disease in miners. Wetting the area being mined and application of good ventilation has reduced the
danger of lung disease. Some organisms like sponges and some plants use silicon to create structural support.
Name:
The name silicon comes from the Latin word silicis which means flint.

Sources:

Silicon compounds are the most significant component of the Earths crust. Silicon is recovered from an abundant
resource: sand. Most pure sand is quartz, silicon dioxide (SiO2). Since sand is plentiful, easy to mine and relatively
easy to process, it is the primary ore source of silicon. Some silicon is also retrieved from two other silicate minerals,
talc and mica. The metamorphic rock, quartzite, is another source (quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone). All
combined, world resources of silicon are plentiful and will supply demand for many decades to come. The United
States has plentiful sand, quartzite, talc and mica resources. The majority of the silica produced in the U.S. is
produced East of the Mississippi River and in the Northwest. The U.S. also imports silicon from Norway, Russia,
Brazil, Canada, and from a number of other countries.
Uses:
Ferrosilicon alloys are used to improve the strength and quality of iron and steel products. Tools, for instance, are made of
steel and ferrosilicon.
In addition to tool steels, an example of alloy steels, ferrosilicon is used in the manufacture of stainless steels, carbon steels,
and other alloy steels (e.g., high-strength, low-alloy steels, electrical steels, and full-alloy steels).
An alloy steel refers to all finished steels other than stainless and carbon steels. Stainless steels are used when superior
corrosion resistance, hygiene, aesthetic, and wear-resistance qualities are needed.
Carbon steels are used extensively in suspension bridges and other structural support material, and in automotive bodies, to
name a few. Silicon is also added to aluminum to create a stronger alloy. The largest consumers of silicon metal are the
aluminum and chemical industries.
Silicon is used in the aluminum industry to improve castability and weldability, not to add strength as noted in the text. Siliconaluminum alloys tend to have relatively low strength and ductility, so other metals, especially magnesium and copper, are
often added to improve strength.
In the chemicals industry, silicon metal is the starting point for the production of silianes, silicones, fumed silica, and
semiconductor-grade silicon. Silanes are the used to make silicone resins, lubricants, anti-foaming agents, and waterrepellent compounds. Silicones are used as lubricants, hydraulic fluids, electrical insulators, and moisture-proof treatments.
Semiconductor-grade silicon is used in the manufacture of silicon chips and solar cells. Fumed silica is used as a filler in the
cement and refractory materials industries, as well as in heat insulation and filling material for synthetic rubbers, polymers and
grouts.
Other silicon materials are used in the production of advanced ceramic materials, including silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and
sialons. Silicon carbide is also used as an abrasive material, a refractory agent, and in steel manufacturing.
Substitutes and Alternative Sources:
There are relatively few options to replace silicon in its applications. Germanium and gallium arsenide can be used as
semiconductors in place of silicon. In some applications, a small number of metal alloys, such as silicomanganese and
aluminum, can substitute for ferrosilicon.

https://www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals/silica