Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifier
A combination of transistors, resistors, and (sometimes)
capacitors that Amplifies the difference between two input
voltages and produces a single output
Original application analog computers
Original construction discrete components
Vacuum tubes
Transistors
Now an integrated circuit

Applications now extremely broad

Called operational amplifier due to the use of this amplifier to perform
specific electronic circuit functions or operations, such as summation,
integration, differentiation, etc.

Operational Amplifier
Notch
Counterclockwise numbering

Input
#2 V-; #3 V+

Output
#6 Vout

Power supply
#4 VDD; #7 +VCC

#1, #5, offset adjustment

741 Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifier
Op-Amp Parameters
Aod = differential or open-loop
gain
Output:
180 out of phase with v1
(inverting)
In phase with v2 (noninverting)

Op-amp responds only to

differences between v2 and v1
Common-mode signal when v2 =
v1 0
Characteristic called commonmode rejection

Op-amp Parameters

Inverting Amplifier

Non-inverting Amplifier

Adder
Used to add analog
signals
Voltage averaging
function into summing
function
Calculate closed loop gain for each input

If all resistors are equal in value:

Subtractor
Used to subtract analog
signals
Output signal is
proportional to difference
between two inputs

If all resistors are equal:

Integrator
Replace feedback resistor of
inverting op-amp with
capacitor
A constant input signal
generates a certain rate of
change in output voltage
Smoothes signals over time

Differentiator
Input resistor of inverting
op-amp is replaced with a
capacitor
Signal processing method
which heighten noise over
time
Output signal is scaled
derivative of input signal

Non-Ideal Characteristics
Offset
DC input is zero but output is not zero
Adjust using pins 1 and 5
10 k
1 k

DM

10 k pot
-15 V

Non-Ideal Characteristics
Finite input impedance
Leakage current
Symmetric input

Common mode rejection ratio

Differential input
Gain

Common input
No gain

OpAmp non-idealities I
Nonideal properties in the linear range of operation
Finite input and output impedance
Finite gain and bandwidth limitation
9 Generally, the open-loop gain of OpAmp as a function of frequency
is
Aol ( f ) =

A0ol
, A0ol is open loop gain at DC ,
1 + j ( f / f bol )

f bol is open loop break frequency, also called do min at pole

9 Closed-loop gain versus frequency for non-inverting amplifier

Acl ( f )=

A0cl
A0ol
R1
, A0cl =
, f bcl = f bol (1 + A0ol ), =
1 + j ( f / f bcl )
1 + A0ol
R1 + R2

9 Gain-bandwidth product:

f t = A0cl f bcl = A0ol f bol , where f t is called unity gain frequency

9 Closed-loop bandwidth for both non-inverting and inverting
amplifier
ft
A f
f bcl =
= 0 ol bol
1 + R2 / R1 1 + R2 / R1

OpAmp non-idealities II
Output voltage swing: real OpAmp has a maximum and minimum
limit on the output voltages
OpAmp transfer characteristic is nonlinear, which causes
clipping at output voltage if input signal goes out of linear range
The range of output voltages before clipping occurs depends on
the type of OpAmp, the load resistance and power supply
voltage.
Output current limit: real OpAmp has a maximum limit on the output
current to the load
The output would become clipped if a small-valued load
resistance drew a current outside the limit
Slew Rate (SR) limit: real OpAmp has a maximum rate of change of
the output voltage magnitude
dv
limit dto SR
SR can cause the output of real OpAmp very different from an
ideal one if input signal frequency is too high
Full Power bandwidth: the range of frequencies for which the
OpAmp can produce an undistorted sinusoidal output with peak
amplitude equal to the maximum allowed voltage output
f FP =

SR
2 vo max

Slew Rate

Linear RC Step Response: the slope of the step response is

proportional to the final value of the output, that is, if we
apply a larger input step, the output rises more rapidly.
If Vin doubles, the output signal doubles at every point,
therefore a twofold increase in the slope.
But the problem in real OpAmp is that this slope can not
exceed a certain limit.
Copyright Mcgraw Hill Company

OpAmp non-idealities III

DC imperfections: bias current, offset current and offset voltage

bias current I B : the average of the dc currents flow into the noninverting
terminal I B + and inverting terminal I B , I B = 1 / 2( I B + + I B )
offset current: the difference of the two currents, I off = I B + I B
offset voltage: the DC voltage needed to model the fact that the output is
not zero with input zero, Voff
The three DC imperfections can be modeled using DC current and voltage
sources
I B+
I B

IB

Voff

Ideal

I off / 2

IB

The effects of DC imperfections on both inverting and noninverting amplifier

is to add a DC voltage to the output. It can be analyzed by considering the
extra DC sources assuming an otherwise ideal OpAmp
It is possible to cancel the bias current effects. For the inverting amplifier, we
can add a resistor R = R1 // R2 to the non-inverting terminal

DC offset of an differential pair

When Vin=0, Vout is NOT 0 due to mismatch of transistors in real circuit

design.
It is more meaningful to specify input-referred offset voltage, defined as
Vos,in=Vos,out / A.
Offset voltage may causes a DC shift of later stages, also causes limited
precision in signal comparison.
Copyright Mcgraw Hill Company

10

Important amplifier circuits I

Inverting amplifer

Noninverting amplifier

Av = R2 / R1

Av = 1 + R2 / R1

Z in = R1

Z in =

Z out = 0

Z out = 0

Summing amplifier
Av = R f / R A / B
Z in1 = RA for v A
Z in 2 = RB for vB
Z out = 0

Graphs from Prentice Hall

Important amplifier circuits II

Differential amplifier

Howland voltage-to-current
converter for grounded load
Z in = R3 + R4 for v1
Z out = 0

G m = 1 / R2
Z in = R1 R2 /( R2 + RL )
Z out =

Instrumentation qualify Diff Amp

Current-to-voltage amplifier
Z in =

Rm = R f

Z out = 0

Z in = 0
Z out = 0

Voltage-to-current converter

Current amplifier

G m = io / vin = 1 / R f

Avi = (1 + R2 / R1 )

Z in =

Z in = 0

Z out =

Z out =
Graphs from Prentice Hall

11

Important amplifier circuits III

Integrator circuit: produces an
output voltage proportional to
the running time integral of the
input signal

Differentiator circuit: produces

an output proportional to the
time derivative of the input
voltage

Graphs from Prentice Hall

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