Unit 2.

AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

CONTENTS:

Basics of AC circuits
Importance of AC

Alternating current
single-phase
circuits

RMS and mean values

Phasorial magnitudes
Ohms law for AC circuits
AC loads
Instantaneous power
Power triangle
AC power: P, Q and S
Power factor and cos
Power factor improvement
Electrical measurements
1

Exercises

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

BASICS OF AC CIRCUITS

BASICS OF AC CIRCUITS

Alternating Current

Direct Current

Current flowing with alternating polarity, reversing positive and negative over time.

A current flowing in a constant direction

Voltages with alternating polarity.

Voltage with constant polarity.

e(t)

d
d
( 0 cos t ) 0 sin t

dt
dt
E
0

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http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/edison/sfeature/acdc.html

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http://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/edison/sfeature/images/acdc_inside_generator.gif

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

WHY AC? Importance of AC

MEASUREMENTS OF AC MAGNITUDES

Electric power is generated, transmitted, distributed and consumed in AC

90% of the total electric power is consumed as AC
AC amplitude can be changed (stepped up or stepped down) easily by
simple and cost effective electrical machines called transformers.
Electric power can be transmitted efficiently and economically as high
voltage AC, to minimize power losses

Peak, peak-to-peak and average values

Three-phase AC motors/generators perform better (higher efficiency,

lower maintenance, etc.) than DC motors/generators

Average value = 0

SAME VALUES for sinusoidal, rectangular and triangular waveforms

Root Mean Square Value (RMS)

For sinusoidal waveform RMS = Amplitude/sqrt(2)
T: period of signal (s)

VRMS

V
1 T 2
v (t)dt 0

0
T
2

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF AC MAGNITUDES

OHMS LAW FOR AC CIRCUITS

A phase vector ("phasor") is a representation of a sine wave whose amplitude (A),

phase (), and frequency () are time-invariant.
Vo

Ohms law for DC circuits:

I RMS

I
1 T 2
i (t)dt 0

0
T
2

V = I.R

v(t) = Vocos(t + V)

Ohms law for AC circuits:

= 2f rad/s

Phasorial expression (phasor = phase vector)

V VRMS

V I Z

Z R jX Z

being

Z: impedance

Modulus: RMS value of the AC magnitude

Phase: initial phase angle of the AC magnitude
Frequency: does not appear in the phasor
7

R: resistance

X: reactance

All quantities are expressed in complex, not scala,r form

= = V - I

v(t) = Vocos(t + V)
i(t) = Iocos(t + I)
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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

PHASE IN AC CIRCUITS

AC PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Out-of-phase waveforms

Voltage and current are in phase

Instantaneous AC power is always positive.
= 0 phase shift between voltage and current cos = 1
vR(t) = Ri(t)

Phase shift of 90 degrees:

A leads B

v(t) = Vocos(t + )

B lags A

i(t) = (V0/R)cos(t + )
i(t) = I0cos(t + )
V = I
ZZ==RR++j0j0

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

AC PURE INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS

AC PURE CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS

Inductor current lags inductor voltage by 90.

Capacitor voltage lags capacitor current by 90.

Instantaneous AC power may be positive or negative

Instantaneous AC power may be positive or negative

= 90 phase shift between voltage and current cos = 0

= -90 phase shift between voltage and current cos = 0

vL(t) = Ldi(t)/dt

iC(t) = Cdv(t)/dt

v(t) = Vocos(t + )
i(t)

v(t) = Vocos(t + )

V
V
1
v(t)dt 0 sin( t V ) 0 cos(t V 90 )

L
L
L

i(t) = I0cos(t + )

dv(t)
CV0 sin( t V ) CV0 cos(t V 90 )
dt

i(t) = I0cos(t + )

VV = II+90

Z = 0 + jL

i(t) C

V = I-90
11

Z = 0 - j/(C)

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

AC LOADS SUMMARY

POWER IN THE TIME DOMAIN

PURE RESISTANCE
V and I in phase = 0
P consumption but Q = 0
cos = 1
Z = R + j0
PURE INDUCTOR
V leads I by 90, =90
P =0 and Q > 0
cos = 0
Z = 0 + jL
PURE CAPACITOR
V lags I by 90, =-90
P =0 and Q < 0
cos = 0
Z = 0 - j/(C)

Instantaneous power:

p(t) = v(t)i(t) = V0cos(wt + V)I0cos(wt + )

cosAcosB = 1/2[cos(A+B) + cos(A - B)]

p(t) = V0I0cos(V - I) + V0I0cos(2wt + V + I) watt
V
I

The average value is the active or true power:

P = V0I0cos(V - ) = VRMSIRMScos

watts

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Unit 2. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

INSTANTANEOUS POWER

AC POWER

Active/true power:

P = VIcos P = I2R (Watt)

v(t)

i(t)

Reactive power:

Q = VIsin

Apparent power

S = VI =sqrt(P2+Q2)

Complex power

Q = I2X (VAr)
S = I2Z (VA)

S V I* I2 Z P jQ (VA)

p(t)
Average power/Active power/True power

p(t) = VoIocos(V - I) + VoIocos(2wt + V + I)

V, I: RMS values
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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

THE POWER TRIANGLE

AC POWER: PARALLEL-CONNECTED NETWORKS

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

QUESTION

QUESTION

Is it safe to close the breaker between these two alternators if their output
frequencies are different? Explain why or why not.

Solution: When the frequencies of two or more AC voltage sources are

different, the phase shift(s) between them are constantly changing.
http://powerelectrical.blogspot.com/2007/04/short-questions-and-solved-problems-in.html

Given the output voltages of the two alternators, it is not safe to close the
breaker. Explain why.

Solution: The greatest problem with closing the breaker is the 37 phase
shift between the two alternators output voltages.
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http://powerelectrical.blogspot.com/2007/04/short-questions-and-solved-problems-in.html

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

QUESTION

POWER FACTOR AND COS

Are the voltmeters readings possible? If so, how would you represent the
tree voltages in this circuit in rectangular and polar forms?.

Power factor definition:

cos definition:

PF = P/S

cos = cos(V I)

> o lagging
< 0 leading

When dealing with single-frequency single-phase circuits:

PF = P/S = (VIcos)/(VI) = cos

http://powerelectrical.blogspot.com/2007/04/short-questions-and-solved-problems-in.html

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE

VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY WORLDWIDE

Example. A circuit has equivalent impedance Z = 3 + j4 and

an applied voltage v(t) = 42.5cos(1000t + 30) (volt). Give
complete power information.

VRMS

42.5
2

30

V
30

I RMS

V
42.5/ 2
RMS
Z
3 j4

S VRMS I RMS * 42.5/ 2

42.5/ 2

553.13
30

30

6.01-23.13 A

6.0123.13 180.6153.13 VA

S 180.6153.13 108.4(W) j144.5(VAr)

Hence, P = 108.4 W, Q = 144.5 VAr (i), S = 180.6 VA,
and PF = cos 53.13 = 0.6 (i).

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

QUESTIONS REGARDING PF IMPROVEMENT

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Transformers, distribution systems, and utility company alternators

are all rated in kVA or MVA.

Inductive circuits:

Consequently, an improvement in the power factor, with its

corresponding reduction in kVA, releases some of this generation
and transmission capability so that it can be used to serve other
customers.

I ef
Vef

Before the improvement:

P = 23000 W = 230I0.5
After the improvement:
P = 23000 W = 230I1

Capacitive circuits:

I = 200 A

I = 100 A

crrega

Q QC

'

Q'=Q-Qc

P=P'

V2
Q
2
1/(2fC) Q V 2fC

P
P
L in parallel

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

PF IMPROVEMENT BENEFITS

PF IMPROVEMENT

Reduces reactive power and the amps absorbed by the load.

S'

R eq

tg '

Qc< 0

Leq

This is why it is more costly for an industrial customer to

operate with a lower power factor.
Example. A load of P = 23 kW with PF = 0.5 (i) is fed by a 230 V
source. A capacitor is added in parallel so that the power factor is
improved to 1. Find the reduction in current drawn from the generator.

C in parallel

Electricity bill reduction

Active power driven by transformers is optimized.

The improvement of the PF of an existing electrical installation has

many financial advantages and reduces the base cost of the kWh.

Reduce voltage drop in the conductors.

Reduces power losses in the consumers conductors.

Kr = 17/cos2 21 %

Reduces power losses in the conductors during transmission.

Kr is limited within:
+ 47 % (PF = 0.5)
4 % (PF = 1)

The conductor section can be minimized (capital savings).

The base price of electrical energy (kWh) increases if the PF
is low.
The installation is used more efficiently.
Energy is used more efficiently.
Less power has to be generated (environmental benefits).

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

PF IMPROVEMENT

PF IMPROVEMENT

Capacitor banks with automatic regulation can be used to adapt the

compensation to variable load.
Capacitor banks with automatic regulation are placed at the end of the LV
installation or in the distribution board (cuadro de distribucin), with
considerable consumption of reactive power.
Capacitor banks with automatic regulation consist of several steps of reactive
power.

Automatic capacitor bank for PF correction

Types of power faction correction:

Overalll
Partial
Individual.
Overall correction
This method is suitable for stable and
continuous operated loads.

Partial correction
This method is suitable when
distribution of loads is unbalanced and
when a distribution board (quadre de
distribuci) feeds a considerable load.

Automatic capacitor bank with several steps

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

PF IMPROVEMENT

QUESTIONS REGARDING PF IMPROVEMENT

Example. A sinusoidal source (230 V, 50 Hz) feeds an inductive
load which absorbs 8 A and 1000 W. Calculate the PF, Q and S
in the load. Improve the PF to unity and calculate the associated
cost savings.

Individual correction
This method is suitable when some loads are very heavy in relation to the total
load.
It is the most advantageous method.

P = VIcos 1000 = 2308cos cos = 0.54 (i)

Q = VIsin = 23080.84 Q = 1545 VAr
S = VI = 230.8 S = 1840 VA PF = P/S = 0.54 (i) = cos
Capacitor needed to improve the PF to unity: Qc = -1545 VAr.
This results in C = 93 F
Increase in base price due to PF: Kr = 17/cos2 21 %
When PF = 0.54 Kr = 17/0,542 21 = + 37,3 % (increase)
When PF = 1.0 Kr = 17/1,0 21 = - 4 % (discount)
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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

A 230 V and 50 Hz AC power supply feeds a 5 KVA single-phase load

that presents a PF = 0.6 lagging. Improve the PF to: a) 0.9(i) b) 0.9(c).

The consumption of 2 resistance is 20 W. Represent the power

triangle of the circuit in the figure.

Qc< 0

Q QC
tg '
P

S'

Q'=Q-Qc

'

lagging = (i)
leading = (c)

Before improving the PF: P = Scos = 3 kW, Q = Ssin = 4 kVAr

VTOT = I1Z1 = 3.162(22+52)1/2 = 17.03 V

tg25.84

4000 Q C

P
This results in C = 153.26 F

3000

17.03/(12+12)1/2

1
1

I1

= 12.04 A

QTOT = Q5 + Q1 = -3.16225 + 12.0421 = 95 VAr

I2

PTOT = P1 + P2 = 20 + 12.0421 = 165 W

a) cos = 0.9 = 25.84

Q QC

I2 = VTOT/Z2 =

P=P'

tg '

P2 = 20 = I122 I1 = 3.162 A

Q C 2547.16 VAr 230 2 (2 50C)

S
Q

STOT = (PTOT2 + QTOT2)1/2 = 190.4 VA

TOT = arctg(QTOT/PTOT) =29.93

b) When b) operates in a similar manner to a), the result is: C = 328.1 F

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE 3

EXAMPLE 4

Determine the PF2 when the measured PFTOTAL = 0.90 (i).

From the following circuit, determine P, Q, S and PF in the load.

8

S1 = 2kVA

S2 = 500 VA

PF1 = 0.8(i)

PF2 = ??

230 V
50 Hz

25

21
10

15

cosTOTAL = 0.90 (i) TOTAL = +25.84

0

P1 = 20000.8 = 1600 W

Q1 = 20000.6 = 1200 VAr

P2 = 500cos2 W

Q2 = 500sin2 VAr

tgTOT

1
1
1
1
1

0.078151.34 0.034330.96 0.133119 -1

Zeq 21 j0 8 j10 25 j15 21

The equivalent impedance of the circuit is: Zeq = 7.5219

Q1 Q 2
1200 500 sin 2
tg 25.84
P1 P2
1600 500 cos 2

PF = cos(19) =0.945 (i)

I = V/Zeq = 2300/ 7.5219 = 30.61-19 A

-425.08=500sin2 - 242.16cos2
which results in: 2 = -24.07 PF2 =0.913(c)

35

S = VI* = 230030.61+19 = 7039.2519 VA = 6655.75 (W) + j.2291.76 (VAr)

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE 5. The mesh method (malles)

From the following circuit, determine the
current in the 200 V voltage sources.

EXAMPLE 6. Series RLC circuit

10

2000 = I1(10+j50+30+j10) - I2(30+j10)

Loop 2: Vi = IiZi

-2000 = - I1(30+j10) + I2(10+30+j10)

10

30
2000 V

I1
Loop1: Vi = IiZi

50

2000 V
10

Determine a) the voltage and current in each element; c) P, Q and S in each

element and the overall power factor; c) the resonance frequency (the
frequency at which the imaginary part of the equivalent impedance is null).

I2

200 30 j10
200 40 j10
2000

0.90584.81 A
I1
40 j 60 30 j10 200 j 2200
30 j10 40 j10
40 j 60
I2

200

30 j10 200
2000 j10000
4.616186.12 A

40 j 60 30 j10
200 j 2200
30 j10 40 j10

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE 7. Parallel RLC circuit

EXAMPLE 8. The mesh method (malles)

Determine a) the voltage and current in each element; c) P, Q and S in each

element and the overall power factor; c) the resonance frequency of this
circuit.

Calculate the impedance value needed to balance this AC bridge. Express

your answer in both polar and rectangular forms. What type and size of
component will provide this exact amount of impedance at 400 Hz?

http://powerelectrical.blogspot.com/2007/04/short-questions-and-solved-problems-in.html

Zx
39

(0 jX L )1000 (0 j 691,15)1000

197590 0 j1975
350
350
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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
INSTRUMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE

How to balance a Wheatstone bridge?

The bridge is balanced when Va Vb = 0
The same can be expressed as: Vab = 0

I1

V
Z1 Z 3

Z3
Vac I1 Z 3 V
Z1 Z 3

Z3
Zx
Vab Vac Vbc V (

)0
Z1 Z 3 Z 2 Z x

I2

V
Z2 Z x

Zx
Vbc I 2 Z x V
Z2 Z x

Z 2 Z 3 Z1 Z x

Zx

Z 2 Z 3
Z1

Balanced
condition

Online resources:
http://utwired.engr.utexas.edu/rgd1/lesson07.cfm

41

Multimeters
Voltage AC/DC
Current AC/DC
Resistance
Others: capacitance, frequency, temperature, etc.

laboratory

Current probes
Voltage AC/DC (depending on models)
Current AC/DC
Wattmeters
Voltage AC
Current AC
Power : S, P, Q AC
PF
Frequency
Single-phase or three-phase

42
Single-phase

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Three-phase

INSTRUMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

Useful for carrying out low-cost energy control checks on electrical consumption
Can also be used to accurately control the consumption of any other physical
unit that has a meter with a digital impulse output.
Possible measurements:
Voltage
Current
Hz
Power (S, P, Q, PF)
Energy
Single-phase or three-phase

Three-phase

Circutor

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Unit 2. AC SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
LAB MEASUREMENTS: OSCILLOSCOPE

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