Anthropomorphism

In this illustration by Milo Winter of Aesop's fable,

extquotedblThe North Wind and the Sun extquotedbl, an
anthropomorphic North Wind tries to strip the cloak o of a
traveler

Anthropomorphism, or personication, is attribution

of human form or other characteristics to anything
other than a human being. Examples include depicting
deities with human form and ascribing human emotions
or motives to forces of nature, such as hurricanes or
earthquakes.
Anthropomorphism has ancient roots as a literary device in storytelling, and also in art. Most cultures have
traditional fables with anthropomorphised animals, who
can stand or talk as if human, as characters.
The word anthropomorphism was rst used in the mid1700s.[1][2] The word derives from the Greek
(nthrpos), human, and (morph), shape or
form.

Pre-history

From the beginnings of human behavioural modernity in The 40,000 year-old Lion gure of Hohlenstein Stadel
the Upper Paleolithic, about 40,000 years ago, examples
of zoomorphic (animal-shaped) works of art occur that
may represent the earliest evidence we have of anthropomorphism. One of the oldest known is an ivory sculpture, with the head of a lioness or lion, determined to be about
the Lwenmensch, Germany, a human-shaped gurine 32,000 years old.[3][4]
1

IN LITERATURE

It is not possible to say what these prehistoric artworks created He them.[8]

represent. A more recent example is The Sorcerer, an
enigmatic cave painting from the Trois-Frres Cave, Arige, France: the gures signicance is unknown, but it
is usually interpreted as some kind of great spirit or mas- 2.1 Criticism
ter of the animals. In either case there is an element of
anthropomorphism.
Some religions, scholars, and philosophers objected
This anthropomorphic art has been linked by to anthropomorphic deities. The Greek philosopher
archaeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of Xenophanes (570480 BCE) argued against the concepmore systematic hunting practices in the Upper Palae- tion of deities as fundamentally anthropomorphic:
olithic (Mithen 1998). He proposes that these are the
product of a change in the architecture of the human
mind, an increasing uidity between the natural history
and social intelligences, where anthropomorphism
allowed hunters to identify empathetically with hunted
animals and better predict their movements.[5]

In religion and mythology

Main article: Anthropotheism

But if cattle and horses and lions had hands

or could paint with their hands and create
works such as men do,
horses like horses and cattle like cattle
also would depict the gods shapes and make
their bodies
of such a sort as the form they themselves have.
...
Ethiopians say that their gods are snubnosed
[] and black
Thracians that they are pale and red-haired.[9]

In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism refers to

the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, He said that the greatest god resembles man neither in
or the recognition of human qualities in these beings.
form nor in mind.[10]
Ancient mythologies frequently represented the divine as Both Judaism and Islam reject an anthropomorphic deity,
deities with human forms and qualities. They resem- believing that God is beyond human comprehension. Juble human beings not only in appearance and personal- daisms rejection of an anthropomorphic deity grew durity; they exhibited many human behaviors that were used ing the Hasmonean period (circa 300 BCE), when Jewish
to explain natural phenomena, creation, and historical belief incorporated some Greek philosophy. Judaisms
events. The deities fell in love, married, had children, rejection grew further after the Islamic Golden Age in the
fought battles, wielded weapons, and rode horses and tenth century, which Maimonides codied in the twelfth
chariots. They feasted on special foods, and sometimes century, in his thirteen principles of Jewish faith.[11]
required sacrices of food, beverage, and sacred objects
to be made by human beings. Some anthropomorphic Hindus do not reject the concept of a deity in the abstract
deities represented specic human concepts, such as love, unmanifested, but note practical problems. Lord Krishna
war, fertility, beauty, or the seasons. Anthropomorphic said in the Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 12, Verse 5, that it is
deities exhibited human qualities such as beauty, wisdom, much more dicult for people to focus on a deity as the
and power, and sometimes human weaknesses such as unmanifested than one with form, using anthropomorphic
because people need to perceive with their
greed, hatred, jealousy, and uncontrollable anger. Greek icons (murtis),
[12][13]
deities such as Zeus and Apollo often were depicted in senses.
human form exhibiting both commendable and despica- In Faces in the Clouds, anthropologist Stewart Guthrie
ble human traits.
proposes that all religions are anthropomorphisms that
Anthropomorphism in this case is referred to as originate in the brains tendency to detect the presence
or vestiges of other humans in natural phenomena.[14]
anthropotheism.[6]
From the perspective of adherents to religions in which
humans were created in the form of the divine, the
phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the
giving of divine qualities to humans.
Anthropomorphism has cropped up as a Christian heresy,
particularly prominently with the Audians in third century
Syria, but also in fourth century Egypt and tenth century
Italy.[7] This often was based on a literal interpretation of
Genesis 1:27: So God created man in His own image,
in the image of God created He him; male and female

3 In literature
3.1 Religious texts
There are various examples of personication as a literary device in both Hebrew Bible and Christian New Testament and also in the texts of some other religions.

3.3

Fairy tales

3.3 Fairy tales

Anthropomorphic motifs have been common in fairy
tales from the earliest ancient examples set in a mythological context to the great collections of the Brothers
Grimm and Perrault. The Tale of Two Brothers (Egypt,
13th century BCE) features several talking cows and in
Cupid and Psyche (Rome, 2nd century CE) Zephyrus, the
west wind, carries Psyche away. Later an ant feels sorry
for her and helps her in her quest.

3.4 Modern literature

From the Panchatantra: Rabbit fools Elephant by showing the
reection of the moon

3.2

Fables

Anthropomorphism,
sometimes referred to as
personication, is a well established literary device
from ancient times. It extends back to before Aesops
Fables[15] in 6th century BCE Greece and the collections of linked fables from India, the Jataka Tales
and Panchatantra, which employ anthropomorphised
animals to illustrate principles of life. Many of the
stereotypes of animals that are recognised today, such
as the wiley fox and the proud lion, can be found in
these collections. Aesops anthropomorphisms were so
familiar by the rst century CE that they coloured the
thinking of at least one philosopher:
And there is another charm about him,
namely, that he puts animals in a pleasing light
and makes them interesting to mankind. For
after being brought up from childhood with
these stories, and after being as it were nursed
by them from babyhood, we acquire certain
opinions of the several animals and think of
some of them as royal animals, of others as
silly, of others as witty, and others as innocent.
Apollonius of Tyana[16]

Apollonius noted that the fable was created to teach

wisdom through ctions that are meant to be taken as ctions, contrasting them favourably with the poets stories
of the deities that are sometimes taken literally. Aesop,
by announcing a story which everyone knows not to be
true, told the truth by the very fact that he did not claim
to be relating real events.[16] The same consciousness of
the fable as ction is to be found in other examples across
the world, one example being a traditional Ashanti way of
beginning tales of the anthropomorphic trickster-spider
Anansi: We do not really mean, we do not really mean
that what we are about to say is true. A story, a story; let
it come, let it go.[17]

John Tenniels depiction of this anthropomorphic rabbit was featured in the rst chapter of Lewis Carroll's Alices Adventures in
Wonderland

Building on the popularity of fables and fairy tales, specifically childrens literature began to emerge in the nineteenth century with works such as Alices Adventures in
Wonderland (1865) by Lewis Carroll, The Adventures
of Pinocchio (1883) by Carlo Collodi and The Jungle
Book (1894) by Rudyard Kipling, all employing anthropomorphic elements. This continued in the twentieth
century with many of the most popular titles having anthropomorphic characters,[18] examples being The Tales
of Beatrix Potter (1901 onwards),[19] The Wind in the Willows (1908) by Kenneth Grahame, The Lion, the Witch,
and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis and Winnie-the-Pooh
(1926) by A. A. Milne. In many of these stories the ani-

mals can be seen as representing facets of human personality and character.[20] As John Rowe Townsend remarks,
discussing The Jungle Book in which the boy Mowgli must
rely on his new friends the bear Baloo and the black panther Bagheera, The world of the jungle is in fact both
itself and our world as well.[20] Another notable work is
George Orwell's Animal Farm.
The fantasy genre developed from mythological, fairy
tale, and Romance motifs[21] and characters, sometimes
with anthropomorphic animals. The best-selling examples of the genre are The Hobbit[22] (1937) and The Lord
of the Rings[23] (19541955), both by J. R. R. Tolkien,
books peopled with talking creatures such as ravens, spiders, and the dragon Smaug and a multitude of anthropomorphic goblins and elves. John D. Rateli calls this
the extquotedblDoctor Dolittle Theme in his book The
History of the Hobbit [24] and Tolkien saw this anthropomorphism as closely linked to the emergence of human language and myth: extquotedbl...The rst men to
talk of 'trees and stars saw things very dierently. To
them, the world was alive with mythological beings... To
them the whole of creation was myth-woven and elfpatterned.'[25]
In the 20th century, the childrens picture book market expanded massively.[26] Perhaps a majority of picture books have some kind of anthropomorphism,[18][27]
with popular examples being The Very Hungry Caterpillar (1969) by Eric Carle and The Grualo (1999) by Julia
Donaldson.
Anthropomorphism in literature and other media led to
a sub-culture known as Furry fandom, which promotes
and creates stories and artwork involving anthropomorphic animals, and the examination and interpretation of
humanity through anthropomorphism.[28]
Various Japanese manga have used anthropomorphism as
the basis of their story. Examples include Squid Girl (anthropomorphised squid), Hetalia: Axis Powers (humanised countries), Upotte!! (humanised guns), and Arpeggio
of Blue Steel (humanised ships).

4.1

In lm, television, and video

games
Film

Some of the most notable examples are the Walt Disney

characters, the Magic Carpet from Disneys Aladdin franchise, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Oswald the
Lucky Rabbit; the Looney Tunes characters, Bugs Bunny,
Day Duck, Porky Pig; and an array of others from the
1920s to present day.

IN FILM, TELEVISION, AND VIDEO GAMES

In the motion picture Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009), most of

the characters are anthropomorphic animals very similar
to the style seen in the Furry Fandom. They are given especially human characteristics such as body shape, hands,
and clothing, among other things.

4.2 Television
Since the 1960s, anthropomorphism has also been represented in various animated television shows such as Biker
Mice From Mars (19931996) and SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron (19931995). Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, rst aired in 1987, features four pizza-loving anthropomorphic turtles with a great knowledge of ninjutsu, led
by their anthropomorphic rat sensei, Master Splinter.
TUGS (1988) is a British childrens series, set in the
1920s, featuring anthropomorphic tugboats. They moved
like real boats but would sometimes perform certain actions without the aid of humans although not seen. Like
real boats they obeyed maritime laws but would sometimes perform actions of their own will.
In the American animated TV series Family Guy, one of
the shows main characters, Brian, is a dog. Brian shows
many human characteristics he walks upright, talks,
smokes, and drinks Martinis but also acts like a normal
dog in other ways; for example he cannot resist chasing a
ball.
A CanadianNew Zealand-American animated TV show
called Turbo Dogs (2008) starred anthropomorphised dog
characters. In 2010, a French-American animated TV
show The Mysteries of Alfred Hedgehog was mostly consisted of woodland anthropomorphic characters.
A British TV series, Thomas and Friends, features anthropomorphised trains, airplanes, helicopters and cars.
Both the YouTube series The Annoying Orange and its
American television adaptation The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange feature anthropomorphised
fruits and vegetables.
An AmericanCanadian series, Johnny Test, features a
talking dog named Dukey, who is genetically engineered
by the title characters sisters, which they all try to keep a
secret from anyone else (except in a couple of episodes).
in the go animate web series angry dog features an anthropomorphic long tempered pit bull and other animal
characters with human characteristics

4.3 Video Games

Sonic the Hedgehog, a game released in 1991, features

a speedy blue hedgehog as the protagonist. This series
characters are almost all anthropomorphic animals such
as foxes, cats, and other hedgehogs who are able to speak
In the lms Cars (2006) and Cars 2 (2011), all the char- and walk on their hind legs like normal humans. As with
acters are anthropomorphized vehicles.
most anthropomorphisms of animals, clothing is of little

5.2

Minimalism

or no importance, where some characters may be fully human body. In Soft Light Switches Oldenburg creates
clothed while some only wear shoes and gloves.
a household light switch out of Vinyl. The two identical
Another example in video games is Super Mario Bros., switches, in a dulled orange, insinuate nipples. The soft
which was released in 1985. Some of the characters vinyl references the aging process as the sculpture wrininclude Yoshi, a dinosaur who is able to talk, run and kles and sinks with time.
jump, and Bowser, a Koopa that is able to perform most
human characteristics, with some exceptions, as he can
5.2
breathe re.

Minimalism

In the essay Art and Objecthood, Michael Fried

makes the case that extquotedblLiteralist art extquotedbl
4.4 Radio programs
(Minimalism) becomes theatrical by means of anthropoThe Signature Series is a radio program based in Canada morphism. The viewer engages the minimalist work, not
that explores the personality traits of the 24 keys of west- as an autonomous art object, but as a theatrical interern music by personifying them and giving each key a action. Fried references a conversation in which Tony
Smith answers questions about his six-foot cube, Die.
gender, a story and specic character traits.
Q: Why didn't you make it larger so that it would loom
over the observer? A: I was not making a monument. Q:
then why didn't you make it smaller so that the observer
5 Art history
could see over the top? A: I was not making an object.
Fried implies an anthropomorphic connection by means
of a surrogate person-that is, a kind of statue.
The minimalist decision of hollowness in much of their
work, was also considered by Fried, to be blatantly
anthropomorphic. This hollowness contributes to the
idea of a separate inside; an idea mirrored in the human
form. Fried considers the Literalist arts hollowness to
be biomorphic as it references a living organism.[29]

5.3 Post Minimalism

Anthropomorphic pareidolia by Giuseppe Arcimboldo

5.1

Claes Oldenburg

Claes Oldenburg's soft sculptures are commonly described as anthropomorphic. Depicting common household objects, Oldenburgs sculptures were considered Pop
Art. Reproducing these objects, often at a greater size
than the original, Oldenburg created his sculptures out
of soft materials. The anthropomorphic qualities of the
sculptures were mainly in their sagging and malleable exterior which mirrored the not so idealistic forms of the

Curator Lucy Lippard's Eccentric Abstraction show, in

1966, sets up Briony Fer's writing of a post minimalist
anthropomorphism. Reacting to Frieds interpretation of
minimalist arts looming presence of objects which appear as actors might on a stage, Fer interprets the artists
in Eccentric Abstraction to a new form of anthropomorphism. She puts forth the thoughts of Surrealist writer
Roger Caillous, who speaks of the spacial lure of the
subject, the way in which the subject could inhabit their
surroundings. Caillous uses the example of an insect who
through camouage does so in order to become invisible... and loses its distinctness. For Fer, the anthropomorphic qualities of imitation found in the erotic, organic
sculptures of artists Eva Hesse and Louise Bourgeois, are
not necessarily for strictly mimetic purposes. Instead,
like the insect, the work must come into being in the
scopic eld... which we cannot view from outside.[30]

6 In science
In the scientic community, the use of anthropomorphic
language that suggests animals have intentions and emotions has traditionally been deprecated as indicating a
lack of objectivity. Biologists have been warned to avoid

9 SEE ALSO

assumptions that animals share any of the same mental, social, and emotional capacities of humans, and to
rely instead on strictly observable evidence.[31] In 1927
Ivan Pavlov wrote that animals should be considered
without any need to resort to fantastic speculations as
to the existence of any possible subjective states.[32]
More recently, The Oxford companion to animal behaviour (1987) advised that one is well advised to study
the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion.[33] Some scientists, like William M
Wheeler (writing apologetically of his use of anthropomorphism in 1911), have used anthropomorphic language in metaphor to make subjects more humanly comprehensible or memorable.[34]

of which either believe in or unintentionally form an outlook of human exceptionalism. Darwin to the chagrin
of many religious philosophers dismissed these ideas
of human exceptionalism in his book The Descent of Man
by saying that our dierences are only in degree and not
in kind.[42]

Despite the impact of Charles Darwin's ideas in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Konrad
Lorenz in 1965 called him a extquotedblpatron saint extquotedbl of ethology)[35] ethology has generally focused
on behaviour, not on emotion in animals.[35] Though in
other ways Darwin was and is the epitome of science,
his acceptance of anecdote and anthropomorphism stands
out in sharp contrast to the lengths to which later scientists
would go to overlook apparent mindedness, selfhood,
individuality, and agency:
The study of great apes in their own environment
has changed attitudes to anthropomorphism.[37] In the
1960s the three so-called extquotedblLeakeys Angels
extquotedbl, Jane Goodall studying chimpanzees, Dian Lyo and Merly, 2010 Summer Youth Olympics in Singapore.
Fossey studying gorillas and Birut Galdikas studying
orangutans, were all accused of that worst of ethological
sins anthropomorphism.[38] The charge was brought
about by their descriptions of the great apes in the eld; 7 In Sports, Expositions, Olympics
it is now more widely accepted that empathy has an important part to play in research.
Anthropomorphic animals are often used as mascots for
Frans de Waal wrote: To endow animals with human sports teams, Worlds Fair, and Olympics.
emotions has long been a scientic taboo. But if we do
not, we risk missing something fundamental, about both
animals and us.[39] Alongside this has come increasing
awareness of the linguistic abilities of the great apes and
the recognition that they are tool-makers and have individuality and culture.
Writing of cats in 1992, veterinarian Bruce Fogle points
to the fact that both humans and cats have identical
neurochemicals and regions in the brain responsible for
emotion as proof that it is not anthropomorphic to
credit cats with emotions such as jealousy.[40]

6.1

Antonym

In the context of the sciences, the term anthropomorphism has been deprecated to the point that, when applied to a scientist, the term functions as a pejorative (see
above). There is also a risk of straying o the path of
objectivity, however, when scientists choose to assume
that only humans possess any degree of certain traits.[41]
This assumption is called anthropocentrism, practitioners

8 Gallery
A glass door in the Chatham House
Almada tram in smiley livery
Pareidolia of an Indian face in a rock

9 See also
Aniconism: antithetic concept
Animism
Anthropic principle
Anthropocentrism
Anthropology
Anthropomorphic maps

7
Great Chain of Being
Humanoid
Moe anthropomorphism
National personication
Pareidolia: seeing faces in everyday objects
Pathetic Fallacy
Speciesism
Anthropomorphic animals
--- Human-animal hybrid
--- Funny animal
--- Furry fandom
--- Talking animals in ction
--- Zoomorphism

10

Notes

[1] Harper, Douglas. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper.

[11] Rambam, Book of Science, Fundamentals of Torah,

chapter 1, Section 8, quotes Rabbi Abraham Ben Davids
response to Maimonides: It is stated in the Torah and
books of the prophets that God has no body, as stated
'Since G-d your God is the god (literally gods) in the heavens above and in the earth below and a body cannot be in
both places. And it was said 'Since you have not seen any
image' and it was said 'To who would you compare me,
and I would be equal to them?' and if he was a body, he
would be like the other bodies.
[12] Fowler, Jeanne D. (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 4243. ISBN
1898723605.
[13] Narayan, M. K. V. (2007). Flipside of Hindu Symbolism.
Fultus. pp. 8485. ISBN 1596821175.
[14] Guthrie, Stewart E. (1995). Faces in the Clouds: A New
Theory of Religion. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN
0-19-509891-9.
[15] The Hawk and the Nightingale, recorded by Hesiod in his
Works and Days is regarded by some as the earliest fable
attributable to a literary work. See for instance Britanica. 1910. p. 410.: The poem also contains the earliest
known fable in Greek literature
[16] Philostratus, Flavius (c.210 CE). The Life of Apollonius,
5.14. Translated by F.C. Conybeare. the Loeb Classical
Library (1912)
[17] Kwesi Yankah (1983). The Akan Trickster Cycle: Myth or
Folktale? (PDF). Trinidad University of the West Indes.

[2] Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster.

[3] Lionheaded Figurine.
[4] Dalton (1 January 2004). Lion Man Oldest Statue.
VNN World.
[5] Gardner, Howard (9 October 1997). Thinking About
Thinking. New York Review of Books. Archived from
the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
I nd most convincing Mithens claim that human intelligence lies in the capacity to make connections: through
using metaphors
[6] anthropotheism. Ologies & -Isms. The Gale Group, Inc.
2008.
[7] Fox,
James
Joseph
(1907).
extquotedblAnthropomorphism extquotedbl. Catholic
Encyclopedia 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
[8] This article incorporates text from a publication now in
the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728).
extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Cyclopdia, or
an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (rst ed.).
James and John Knapton, et al. Anthropomorphite.
[9] Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Xenophanes frr. 15-16. Many other translations of this passage
have Xenophanes state that the Thracians were blond.
[10] Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies V xiv 109.13

[18] The top 50 childrens books. The Telegraph. 22 Feb

2008. and Sophie Borland (22 Feb 2008). Narnia triumphs over Harry Potter. The Telegraph.
[19] Beatrix Potter. Victoria and Albert Museum.: Beatrix
Potter is still one of the worlds best-selling and best-loved
childrens authors. Potter wrote and illustrated a total of
28 books, including the 23 Tales, the 'little books that
have been translated into more than 35 languages and sold
over 100 million copies.
[20] Gamble, Nikki; Yates, Sally (2008). Exploring Childrens
Literature. Sage Publications Ltd;. ISBN 978-1-41293013-0.
[21] John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy,
p 621, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
[22] 100 million copies sold: BBC: Tolkiens memorabilia go
on sale. 18 March 2008
[23] 150 million sold, a 2007 estimate of copies of the full story
sold, whether published as one volume, three, or some
other conguration.The Toronto Star 16 April 2007
[24] Rateli, John D. (2007). The History of the Hobbit: Return to Bag-end. London: HarperCollins. p. 654. ISBN
978-0-00-723555-1.
[25] Carpenter, Humphrey (1979). The Inklings: C. S. Lewis,
J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and Their Friends.
Boston: Houghton Miin. p. 43. ISBN 0-395-276284.

[26] It is estimated that the UK market for childrens books was

worth GBP 672m in 2004. The Value of the Childrens
Picture Book Market...
[27] Ben Myers (10 June 2008). Why we're all animal lovers.
The Guardian.
[28] Patten, Fred (2006). Furry! The Worlds Best Anthropomorphic Fiction. ibooks. pp. 427436. ISBN 1-59687319-1.
[29] Fried, Michael (1998). Art and Objecthood. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-26319-3.
[30] Fer, Briony (1999). Objects Beyond Objecthood. Oxford Art Journal 22: 2536. doi:10.1093/oxartj/22.2.25.
[31] Introduction to Flynn, Cli (2008). Social Creatures:
A Human and Animal Studies Reader. Lantern Books.
ISBN 1-59056-123-6.
[32] Ryder, Richard. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes
Towards Speciesism. Berg, 2000, p. 6.
[33] Masson and McCarthy 1996, xviii
[34] For example: The larval insect is, if I may be permitted
to lapse for a moment into anthropomorphism, a sluggish,
greedy, self-centred creature, while the adult is industrious, abstemious and highly altruistic...Wheeler, William
Morton (November 1911). Insect parasitism and its peculiarities. Popular Science 79: 443.
[35] Black, J (Jun 2002). Darwin in the world of emotions
(Free full text). Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
95 (6): 3113. doi:10.1258/jrsm.95.6.311. ISSN 01410768. PMC 1279921. PMID 12042386.
[36] Darwin, Charles (1871). The Descent of Man (1st ed.). p.
39.
[37] Also in captivity: A thoroughgoing attempt to avoid anthropomorphic description in the study of temperament
was made over a two-year period at the Yerkes laboratories. All that resulted was an almost endless series of
specic acts in which no order or meaning could be found.
On the other hand, by the use of frankly anthropomorphic
concepts of emotion and attitude one could quickly and
easily describe the peculiarities of individual animals...
Whatever the anthropomorphic terminology may seem to
imply about conscious states in chimpanzee, it provides an
intelligible and practical guide to behavior. Hebb, Donald O. (1946). Emotion in man and animal: An analysis
of the intuitive processes of recognition. Psychological
Review 53 (2): 88106. doi:10.1037/h0063033. PMID
21023321.
[38] cited in Masson and McCarthy 1996, p9 Google books
[39] Frans de Waal (1997-07). Are We in Anthropodenial?
extquotedbl. Discover. pp. 5053.
[40] Fogle, Bruce (1992). If Your Cat Could Talk. London:
Dorling Kindersley. p. 11. ISBN 9781405319867.
[41] Merriam Webster Anthropocentrism..
[42] The Descent Of Man.

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

11 References
Masson, Jerey Moussaie; Susan McCarthy
(1996). When Elephants Weep: Emotional Lives of
Animals. Vintage. p. 272. ISBN 0-09-947891-9.
Mithen, Steven (1998). The Prehistory Of The
Mind: A Search for the Origins of Art, Religion and
Science. Phoenix. p. 480. ISBN 978-0-7538-02045.

12 External links
Anthropomorphism entry in the Encyclopedia of
Human-Animal Relationships (Horowitz A., 2007)
Anthropomorphism entry in the Encyclopedia of
Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceight
Anthropomorphism in mid-century American
print advertising. Collection at The Gallery of
Graphic Design.

13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Anthropomorphism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism?oldid=627852799 Contributors: Derek Ross, Wesley,

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Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Mondhir, Trdel, Anthony Dean, Stefanomione, DL5MDA, RuM, Mandarax, Dpaking, Idraeus, Graham87,
BD2412, Jcmo, Search4Lancer, Xydexx, Ketiltrout, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Syndicate, NatusRoma, Jweiss11, Amire80, Lendorien, Fire King,
Husky, FlaBot, Hiding, Vanished user sfoi943923kjd94, Valentinian, ManuBhardwaj, VolatileChemical, Kummi, YurikBot, TheTrueSora, Torinir, Zaroblue05, Pigman, Epolk, RadioFan2 (usurped), Wimt, Artful Dodger, NawlinWiki, Msikma, Journalist, Anetode,
RayMetz100, GHcool, Leontes, DeadEyeArrow, Aristotle2600, Gentaur, Igin, BooooooooB, Langdell, Th1rt3en, Plankhead, Black
Kat, LeonardoRob0t, Fram, Curpsbot-unicodify, Cassandraleo, Nimbex, Sugar Bear, GrinBot, Miilousuede, Finell, Brentt, Edward Waverley, Sarah, Jbalint, SmackBot, FocalPoint, 1dragon, K1234567890y, C.Fred, Vald, Delldot, Darklock, Proctris, Portillo, Hmains,
The Famous Movie Director, BenAveling, Parrothead1983, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Cush, SonicHOG, Slimline, Trebor, Crashmatrix, Miles the Fox, Apeloverage, Victorgrigas, Boris Crpeau, Sadads, Veggies, Kotra, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Eliezg, Tamfang,
Rrburke, Cernen, MrRadioGuy, Underbar dk, Chaos386, Cubbi, Richard001, Weregerbil, Only, Alamagoosa, T, Ohconfucius, Rdavout,
Mukadderat, Rory096, Dak, Wavy G, SilkTork, Coyoty, Jaywubba1887, The Man in Question, Filanca, George The Dragon, Ryulong,
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DiCa, Peter Chastain, TyrS, Ginsengbomb, WFinch, Kenshinyer, Dr Dima, Koven.rm, Naniwako, Anonywiki, AntiSpamBot, Rosenknospe, 83d40m, SurgeStrip, Gr8white, Redtigerxyz, Cigraphix, VolkovBot, Macedonian, Jmrowland, Kaiilaiqualyn, TXiKiBoT, Ruggiero, Wassermann, Jalo, Zignokuur, TravelingCat, Victory93, Alcmaeonid, Euicho, MattW93, Fanatix, Thomas94, Vmarshall51, SieBot,
Madman, MunkyJuce69, Kellermoon, Revent, Artist Formerly Known As Whocares, Nate Speed, Zxzcvbnm, Sworddeer, Oxymoron83,
Android Mouse Bot 3, Mark.j.preston, Onebadtown, Mayalld, Spitre19, CultureDrone, Latics, Mygerardromance, Iamwisesun, Wonchop, Sbacle, Lyndsayruell, Martarius, ClueBot, Victor Chmara, Mike Klaassen, Czarko, Divineprimates, McHrebin, Mhjackson, Andrei
Iosifovich, Phileasson, Alexbot, Novil Ariandis, Kissmyapocalypse, Computer97, Spassam, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Boygenius97,
JKeck, XLinkBot, Maky, DaL33T, Stitchill, Avalik, JessH7, Dave1185, King Pickle, Addbot, Betterusername, Barnacles phd, Annielogue,
Ronhjones, Leszek Jaczuk, , Lihaas, RP9, Chzz, 84user, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, , ScAvenger, Zorrobot, Jarble, Depositum, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Apollo1758, Jkktay, Jim1138, BlazerKnight, Materialscientist,
Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, SpaceTravellor, Ep347, Llyntegid, Nappyrootslistener, Villa88, Mononomic, Live Light, Grim23, Anna
Frodesiak, GrouchoBot, Jenwill, Mullumjay, ProtectionTaggingBot, Pigby, RibotBOT, Bellerophon, Conty, Shadowjams, SD5, Gus the
king, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Bubblewman, ScotsmanRS, VI, Citation bot 1, Daalse, Pinethicket, SoccerMan2009, A8UDI, RedBot,
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Sama66, Reaper Eternal, Tbhotch, 2009DjDark1, Nashalonto, GraMar89, In ictu oculi, DASHBot, EmausBot, Britannic124, Boutrosbourtosghali, Exok, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Tyranny Sue, Number800509, Ddeman, Jenks24, Gyriodpagecreator2001, Jacobisq, L
Kensington, SavageEdit, Carmichael, Jobboman, Spicemix, Mattstump13, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Sherlock701, Baseball Watcher, Jared300,
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Ziggypowe, EcheletteLopper, YFdyh-bot, Garamond Lethe, Ravilov, Mogism, Ddj001, Bananasoldier, JohnTD2, Monkbot, Autobot0705
and Anonymous: 470

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