foucault'stheuseofpleasure:inanutshell

InTheUseofPleasure:TheHistoryofSexuality,Vol.2,
MichelFoucaultrevealsthatGreekethicswasaboutthe
relationshipwiththeselfandtheselfthatenabledapersonto
keepfrombeingcarriedawaybytheappetitesandpleasures,to
maintainamasteryandsuperiorityoverthem,tokeephis
sensesinastateoftranquility,toremainfreefrominterior
bondagetothepassions,andtoachieveamodeofbeingthat
couldbedefinedbythefullenjoymentofoneself,orthe
perfectsupremacyofoneselfoveroneself.Thiscalledfor
discussingfourcomponentsnamely(1)thedeterminationof
theethicalsubstance,(2)themodeofsubjection,(3)moral
work,and(4)themoralgoal.IntheGreekpistmor
knowledge,theethicalsubstanceisbodilypleasure
(aphrodisia),themodeofsubjectionwasproperuse(chrsis),
themoralworkinvolvedastruggleforcontinence(enkrateia),
andthemoralgoalwasthefreedomgeneratedbyselfmastery
(sphrosyn).
ThefirstareaofethicsforFoucaultisthedeterminationofthe
ethicalsubstance.Theethicalsubstanceisthematerialof
onesmoralconduct.Itanswersthequestion,Whichisthe
aspectorthepartofmyselformybehaviorwhichisconcerned
withmoralconduct?Theethicalsubstanceistheareaof
peopleslivesthatistobemorallyassessed.IntheGreek
pistm,theethicalsubstanceisaphrodisia.Aphrodisiaare
theacts,gestures,andcontactsthatproduceacertainformof
pleasure.Aphrodisiaarebodilypleasuresthatarerelatedwith
specificactionslikeeating,drinking,andhavingsex.

ForFoucault,aphrodisiaareconsideredbothpositiveand
negative.Theyarepositivesincetheyarenaturaland
necessary,i.e.everyonemusteat,drink,andreproducenature
encouragesanimalstoeat,drink,andprocreatebymaking
theseactivitiesimmenselypleasurable.Nonetheless,bodily
pleasuresalsohadanegativequality,whichrequiredfortheir
delimitation.ThemainreasonforthiswasthattheGreeks
deemedaphrodisiaaspossessinganinferiorcharacterfor
theywerecommontoanimalsandmen,mixedwith
privationandsuffering,anddependedonthebodyandits
necessities.
However,itwasmorethantheinferiorqualityofaphrodisia
thatrenderedthemthepointofethicalconcern.Twomajor
problemsemerge:thepredicamentofexcessiveness,andthe
horrorofpassivity.AccordingtoFoucault,excessivenessand
passivityintheGreekpistmare[f]oramanthetwomain
formsofimmorality.Becausethesetwoproblemswerethe
majorformsofimmorality,andbecausebothwerelinkedto
andassociatedwithbodilypleasures,aphrodisiaistheethical
substanceofGreekethics.Excessivenessisalackofself
restraintwithregardtopleasure.Consideringthatpleasures
obtainedinaphrodisiacactivityarehigh,onebeginstopursue
pleasurebeyondonesnaturalneedsthatcausethedesirefor
theactivitytobeginwith.Thisistheproblemofintemperance,
whichischaracterizedbygluttony,drunkenness,and
nymphomania,allofwhichareexcessiveperformancesof
otherwisenaturalandnecessarybodilyprocesses.Foucault
assertsthattheprimarydividinglinelaiddownbymoral
judgmentintheareaofsexualbehaviorwasnotprescribedby

thenatureoftheactbutbytheactivityanditsquantitative
gradations.
Intheintemperateperson,pleasuresarepursuedregardlessof
need,whichbroughtstrainedrelationswithoneself.Theother
ethicalproblemisthatoneturnspassivetopleasures.
Aphrodisiahaveanactiveandapassivesense.Inthesexual
formofaphrodisia,therearetworoles:theactive,penetrating,
masculinerole;andthepassive,penetrated,femininerole.
Thereistheonewhoperformstheactivityandtheoneon
whomitisperformed.Passivityhastwosensesthatareyet
interconnected.First,onecanseekafterpleasuresattainedby
passiveactivity,i.e.menwhoseekthepleasureofbeinganally
penetrated;second,onecouldfallshortofbeingactively
vigilantaboutonesbodilyneeds,andthroughexcessive
behaviorcouldbecomepassivetoeating,drinking,andhaving
sex(eveninitsmasculinerole)suchthatonelivestoeat
insteadofeatstolive.
Insummary,aphrodisiaarenaturalandnecessary,yet
dangerouswhenusedincorrectly.Pleasuresofthebody,while
notevilinthemselves,leadmorallyweakpeopleintoexcess
andpassivity,makingpeoplelosetheirhumanityandbehave
likeanimals,whichonlyobeytheirappetite.Hence,onemust
makebodilypleasuresanethicalconcernsinceaphrodisiaare
alwaysmorallyrelevantinGreekethics.
ThesecondcomponentofethicsforFoucaultisthemodeof
subjection.Thisistakenasthewayinwhichtheindividual
establisheshisrelationtotheruleandrecognizeshimselfas
obligedtoputitintopractice.Inshort,itisthewayinwhich
peopleareincitedtorecognizetheirmoralobligations.The

modeofsubjectionisthemanneroneshouldethicallyaddress
theethicalsubstance.Oncetheethicalsubstanceisestablished,
whatshouldonedowithitandwhy?IntheGreekpistm,the
modeofsubjectionwasproperuseofpleasures.Thisiswhere
thebookdrawsitstitle.TheGreekunderstandingoftheproper
useofpleasureisdetailedinpartstwo,threeandfourofthe
book:Dieteticsdealswitheatinganddrinking,Economics
hastodowithsexualrelationswithwomenandslaves,and
Eroticsfocusesonsexualrelationswithboyswhowerefated
togrowuptobecomefreemeninthepolis,respectively.The
Greeksdidnotdifferentiatetheseareas.Foucaultarguesthat
[f]ood,wines,andrelationswithwomenandboysconstituted
analogousethicalmaterial;theybroughtforcesintoplaythat
werenatural,butthatalwaystendedtobeexcessive.
Itisinthefirstpartofthetext,nevertheless,thatFoucault
describeschrsisingeneral.Accordingtohim,therearethree
factorstotheproperuseofpleasures:need,timeliness,and
socialstatus.Bystudyingthesethreeaspects,onewillcometo
understandnotonlyhowonetackledtheethicalsubstance,but
alsowhatmotivatesoneforusingpleasurescorrectly.First,the
properuseofpleasuresubsistedonneed.Sincedesireemerges
fromaconditionofprivation,onesfulfillmentofthosedesires
mustcorrespondtothelevelofneed.TheethicalGreekate
onlywhenhungry,anddidsoonlywiththeamountneededto
satisfythathungercorrectly.Ineffect,thepleasureofeatingis
properlyused.AsFoucaultasserts,theobjectivewasnotto
reducepleasuretonothing;onthecontrary,whatwaswanted
wastomaintainitanddosothroughtheneedthatawakened
desire.Providedthatneedsvaryfrompersontoperson,itis

theresponsibilityofeachethicalagenttoconsidertheright
amountoffood,drink,andsexoneneededtohave,andnever
exceedthoselimits.Timeliness,thesecondfactoroftheproper
useofpleasure,isconnectedtothegeneralobsessionwithtime
thattheGreekshaveregardingmedicine,government,and
navigation.KairosisoftheessenceintheGreekpistm,and
actionshadtobedoneattherighttime.Thereisatimefor
everything,andcertainpleasuresshouldbeexperiencedonlyat
certaininstances.Oneshouldeatonlyatcertaintimesofthe
day,andcertainthingsshouldbeeatenonlyduringcertain
seasons.Giventhatdifferentpeoplehavedifferentbiorhythms
andinternalclocks,itistheresponsibilityofeachethical
agenttodomattersattherighttime.Finally,theproperuseof
pleasuresubsistedononesstatus,theroletheagentplaysin
society.Howwellonehastousepleasuredependedonwhether
oneisaman,awoman,aslave,orachild.Therationalefor
Greekmentousepleasurecorrectlyisthattheirethical
strength,theirmasculinity,theirpotentialasanimportant
leaderinthepolis,allreflectedinhowtheyusepleasure.
Foucaultarguesthat[i]twasagenerallyacceptedprincipleof
governmentthatthemoreonewasinthepubliceye,themore
authorityonehadorwantedtohaveoverothers,andthemore
onesoughttomakeoneslifeintoabrilliantworkwhose
reputationwouldspreadfarandlastlongthemorenecessary
itwastoadoptandmaintainrigorousstandardsof
conduct.
Insummary,onessubjectivitywasjudgedbasedonhowone
usedpleasures.Thosewhousepleasurecorrectlythosewho
eat,drink,andhavesexonlyasissuitedtoonesneed,time,

andstatuswerebetterpeople,andwerethusjustifiedtohold
positionsofpoweroverthosewhowereethicallyweak.Thisis
thereasonwhymenarevaluedoverwomenandchildrenin
thisassertionofknowledge:menareabletocontrolthemselves
inawaythatwomenandchildrencannot.
ThethirdcomponentofFoucauldianethicsismoralwork,
whichconsistsoftheactionsthatoneperformsononeselfto
attempttotransformoneselfintotheethicalsubjectofones
behavior.Anotherwordforethicalworkisselfforming
activity.IntheGreekpistm,themoralworkisakindof
training,whichpreparesonetousepleasurescorrectly.
FoucaultquotesXenophononthisinstance:ifonedoesnot
exercisethesoul,onecannotsustainthefunctionsofthesoul,
sothatonewillnotbeabletodowhatoneoughttodonor
avoidwhatoneoughttodo.
TheethicalworkoftheGreeksrestedintrainingthebodyor
developingmasteryoveronesownperson.Throughethical
work,onelearnedhowtofaceprivationswithoutsuffering
[and]reduceeverypleasuretonothingmorethanthe
elementarysatisfactionofneeds.Onceoneistrainedintheart
ofselfmasteryandtheproperuseofpleasure,onewouldhave
thevirtuesnecessitatedtoparticipateinthepolis.Thus,forthe
Greeks,moralworkformedpartofthepaideia[education]of
thefreemanwhohadaroletoplayinthecityandindealings
withothers.
Onehastobemasterofoneselfinordertohavethefreedom
necessarytohelprunthecityandjustifythemasteryover
others.Themoralworktaughtoneofcontinence,whichisthe
capacitytohavemasteryoveroneselfinordertoavoid

improperusesofpleasure.Itisthebattlethattakesplacewhen
pleasuresarebeingputtoproperuse.Selfmastery,Foucault
asserts,islocatedintheaxisofstruggle,resistance,and
combatitisselfcontrolbuthastostruggletomaintain
control.
Foucaultdiscussesfourfacetsofcontinencebeforedescribing
moralwork:(1)itisatypeofpowerstruggle,(2)thestruggle
isagainstforceswithinoneself,(3)themasterycomesin
puttingpleasurestouseandkeepingthemundercontrol,and
(4)selfmasteryrelatestodomesticandciviclife.Foucault
understandscontinenceasakindofpowerstruggle,arguing
that[o]necouldbehaveethicallyonlybyadoptinga
combativeattitudetowardpleasures.Inshort,thereisa
torturousrelationshipbetweenoneselfandonespursuitof
pleasures.Theenemyinthisbattleispleasure,whoseorigin
andfinalitywerenatural,butwhosepotential,bythefactthat
theyhadtheirownenergy,wasforrevoltandexcess.Once
again,pleasuresarenotevilinthemselves;theintemperate
personabusespleasurestoexcess,theincontinentperson
allowshimselftobepassivetopleasure,lettingappetite
overpowerreason.Theonlymeanstoavoidexcessand
passivityistoengageinabattleagainstthem.Second,this
battleisnotanoutsidebattlebutisabattlewithoneself.
Foucaultsaysthat[t]hiscombativerelationshipwasalsoan
agonisticrelationshipwithoneself.Thebattletobefought
thevictorytobewon,thedefeatthatoneriskedsuffering
tookplacebetweenoneselfandoneself.Inshort,evenif
pleasureswerethemselvesevil,thefaultofintemperanceand
incontinencefellontheethicalagent.Intheend,itisones

responsibilitytousepleasurescorrectly,sothetruebattle
againstpleasuresisagainstethicalweakness,excessiveness,
andpassivity.Greekethicsisaboutselfmastery;onemustbe
inabattlewithoneselfandwin.
Insummary,onemustworkhardatselfmastery,struggling
againstonespassivepursuitsofpleasureandonesdesireto
seekpleasuresbeyondthelimitsofneed,time,andstatus.
Continenceisaskillthatislearnedthroughpracticeof
restriction.Thisispartofthepreparationforleadersofthe
polis.
Finally,thereisthemoralgoalofFoucauldianethics.Foucault
saysthatanactionisonlymoralinitself,initssingularity;it
isalsomoralinitscircumstantialintegration[with]acertain
modeofbeing,amodeofbeingcharacteristicoftheethical
subject.Inotherwords,themoralgoalisthekindofperson
thatoneaspirestobebyparticipatinginethicalwork.Whatis
thefreeboytrainingforwhenpracticinghowtousepleasures
correctly?Themoralgoalistheanswertothequestion,What
doyouwanttobewhenyou(morally)growup?Sphrosyn
isthemoralgoalofGreekethics.AlthoughAristotleholds
continenceandsphrosynasseparatefromeachother,
FoucaultarguesthatmostGreeksdefineoneintermsofthe
other.Continenceisthebattleforsphrosyn,andsphrosyn
isthekindofmasteryexertedoverpleasuresandappetites.The
differencebetweenthetwoisthatenkrateiaisanactiveform
ofselfmastery,whichenablesonetoresistandstruggle,andto
achievedominationintheareaofdesiresandpleasures;
whereassphrosynisaverygeneralstatethatensuresthat
onewilldowhatisfittingasregardsbothgodsandmen.

Sphrosynisastateofbeing,whereasenkrateiaisthemoral
workthatleadstothisstate.Inotherwords,enkrateiacanbe
regardedastheprerequisiteofsphrosyn,astheformofeffort
andcontrolthattheindividualmustapplytohimselfinorderto
becomemoderate(sphrn).Mostimportant,sphrosynis
directlylinkedtofreedom.Thesphrnisafreeman,notonly
intermsofpoliticalcitizenship,butalsointermsofbeingfree
frompleasures:[t]obefreeinrelationtopleasureswastobe
freeoftheirauthority;itwasnottobetheirslave.Freedomis
onequalfootingwithjustice,courage,orprudence;thatis,it
wasavirtuethatqualifiedamantoexercisehismasteryover
others.Itisthepoweroveroneselfthatqualifiesonetohave
poweroverothers.Foucaultshowsthedifferencebetweenthe
goodrulerandthetyrantasanexampleofthisfact.Tyrantsare
notmastersofthemselves,whichiswhytheyarebadrulers
overothers.
Inassociatingthemoralgoaltothemodeofsubjectionasit
describestheethicalsubstance,freedomisvirile.Assuch,
sphrosynisamasculinevirtuefortheGreeks.Ifsubmitting
topleasuresandbeingpassivetothemisanimmoralityduring
theGreekpistm,masteryoverpleasuresbecomestheactive,
masculine,powernecessaryinthepolis.Foucaultsaysthat
[s]elfmasterywasawayofbeingamanwithrespectto
oneself;thatis,awayofcommandingwhatneeded
commanding,ofcoercingwhatwasnotcapableofself
direction,ofimposingprinciplesofreasononwhatwas
wantinginreason;inshort,itwasawayofbeingactivein
relationtowhatwasbynaturepassive.Thismasteryplaces
husbandsoverwives,mastersoverslaves,parentsover

children,andoneselfoveronesappetite.
Finally,thereisarelationshipbetweenfreedomandtruth.
FoucaultsaysthatduringtheGreekpistmonecouldnot
practicemoderation,withoutacertainformofknowledgethat
wasatleastoneofitsessentialconditions.Foucaultdescribes
threeprincipleformsoftherelationshipbetweensphrosyn
andlogos:(1)wisdomrequiredmoderation,forfearthat
knowledgewillnotrulewithinapersoni.e.Platosaccountof
thecontroloftherationalpartovertheirrationalpartsin
Republic;(2)practicalwisdomisneeded;and(3)being
virtuousisneededforselfknowledge,i.e.Knowyourself
goeshandinhandwithTakecareofyourself.Insummary,
freedomandtrutharetheresultsofthebattleforenkrateia
enteredintobythesphrninordertogainmasteryoverthe
pursuitofpleasures.Ineffect,theethicallysuperioragent
correctlyusespleasures.ForFoucault,thesetwopointssumup
GreekethicsandpresentsthebasicdifferencesbetweenGreek
ethicsandmodernmorality.
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