The Great Arch To the memory of English State Formation as Cultural Revolution Philip Abrams PHILIP CORRIGAN and DEREK SAYER With « Foreword by GE, Aylmer | | | | | Basil Blackwell0 tp Conan nd Deck Sage 1985 phe 14s aa Backed 108 Cowiy Hons, Oued ONG I, UK Bl lace a 4602 Pash ene Sout Suse 150, ‘New Yor NY foie, GSA igs reve: cg fot theqonton ef har perfor the ‘rou l om an een 25 part ah pubes maybe eouce, tense motem, oan ny frm ot ‘yay mss elec mechan pheorpying. rearing ‘terse mou po pre othe pen ve inthe Ute Sato Atrio isbok isl abet othe onion thot ssl ae by way of te or oberan eles a Ive ono here clad with epee conse ‘many fom of binding reve ober ths ht wrk is pba {nd witha sir ondton nating condo eng goed ‘om te sangeet pas Bri Libary Cote in Pion Date ‘Congr Pal ‘Teepeatarch:sateormaton ura revlon ado plo, FElané—Soci ie and come Lee "IL Ser Desk sa" pate ISBN 0-630-14085-7 Phi iter of Cony agin Pelion De Gorin neha Siege gt Ince a 1. Gee Pais ovement fete ne er Gra nin Sel eginr i ry “naoy ia Sol de Gru rainy Viger Beak Tehie IRBOe oes "ante seen ISBN oss-s4s4-9 ISBN 0431-155 (py “Types by Kewprint Ca Lt, Oxford Proud Gre Bia The Ba oe Ea, Bah seeuges pee Contents Foreword by G.E. Aylmer Acknowledgements nnroduction 1. ‘A Remarkably Centelized Country" Suite Formation in Medieval England 2 “This Realm of England ie an Empire's The Revolution ofthe 1580s, 3. An Elect Nation: The Elizabethan Consolidation 4) Monall God Enthroned: One Bourgeois Revolution (of Many) From Theatre to Machine: ‘Old Corruption” 6 "The Working Class Question’: Society” and society 7 Epilogue: Theres, Above All, an Agency" Afverhoughts Notes Bibliography Index 5 S 55 n a ns 166 182 py 268Foreword The Great Arch is emphatically not» conventional history book Nonaielss as bsorlan tam pleted so fave been kd to wite a Foreword to i bene I beleve it would be a mastorcane ii were otiead by historians song oers “The sulborsssocologse nr Toronto and Glasgow respecvl, have writen ao erended avai sorvey. Thee theme ihe {ovation ofthe Englnh vate om Anglo-Saxon Ge so the er hnccenth century. Estentaly they senate formation a loa evel sd tha ew "moval selon fr so-etensive wi {Ee ormelion and nae forms ae always sated and legitimated Sa preul moral echoes The moder English sete has merged over many censor seen co-terminons wil the nation, tev with «boop cxptlat economic sytem and patria {AMT mle dominoted soil order Tae nlc eb wich they SSknovicige among the founders of soil sone pam #0 Mane, ow io Duc and then to Weber; among modern writes om nls sory and sire, to Chastopher Fil EP. Thompson. Raymend Wills and above all the Ine Philip Abrams (whore pups they both wer) The infence of Novbee Ess ad Miche Fotealt aho evden, Bue nor obese 30 "The book burn with poll pussion. Thine most evident in he inundation, the Eplogee and the ARerdioughts. Mach of the innervening caper taken ip wth closely reasoned discs of ‘Bicopmcns ver the cemurey ere the sutbor” comremporsy politcal comionentnrades ery ie, One ay indeed not hare Err swspoiy, br sil ready aie the achievement Ths ‘ork of courage, scope and miense thoroughness. Merover the Sreumencis pesto ily and cogent, wie the diffeatoes ane itRittons ofthe eeidonce te velo Cverconced or gli ver Te shergoantiy of materia ssdiated compel respec. et rie same ume te patern imposed upon ite always of the rors tuakingand ever mel deat Thir thor abo emerable as aninllecal partnership, The reader willbe hard put to ‘Ecl whee Corina begin and Save snes of ove ets No dubs cee te minor difrencesin oe and se deectabeberren them but thar nla consonance unreal complete an he ise authorship mich narr tan x aul such pornos to cae “deny a writers ow fares poste wo be persuaded ofthe hinoril eae pat forward whos scepting the conelstons craw fom aus el cock individ eae at, ke the preset writer ach wl sly San cts both fom thereat and ee bingrghy To the many poste quotations ced from 1 remarkable ange of authors ‘oad only sugges wing Jnnes Madison in Feds, St Bx wits govermcs el bo the rent ofl seein o human tort If men were ang so povrem ule Kens. age ‘ere gwen tem ahr eal nov al convo on gover Toculleccary fo faminys vermen kh sts bested by en over mens he garda fx ie you mano ne Expo incon yr: anin ce ne pl ie ame 1No dubs she present aushors world wish to controver the ase of the male gender, but char may noc be thought akogether to dispose of the argument, The Great Arch deserves to be taken very seriously. Tt presents challenging cate which cannot be brushed aside, and a the very least demands 2 serious, easoned response. G.E. Aylmer Acknowledgements This book has been long in the making, and owes much so many people. Our very consicerable debts to many historians ~ whose Primary researches we extensively rely upon ~ and sociologists will be evident from our refereaces and bibliography. We both owe much to the late Philip Abrams, who encouraged our work over many years, and to whose memory this book is dedicated, ‘Since 1982 we have been involved in a discussion group on the formation of the English state, meeting sally at St Peter's Caleze, Orford, and have benefited greatly from both the papers and discussions at is sessions. Earlier versions of pars ofthis book have been presented as papers at the Universities of Chicago, Dar Es Salaam, Sussex and Toronto, and ro the 1981 Manchester Round Table; we would like to thank participants for their Interest and comments. Kim Pickin and Sean Magee, of Basil Blackwell, deserve four thanks for their unfailingly supportive editorial work throughout, ‘We would alo like to acknowledge the support of the University of Glasgow in its provision of departmentlly located word-processing facilites for academicuse; frequently revised maauscipt, by authors living and working on different sides ofthe Adan, would have been very much more cumbersome v0 produce without this teshnology. Special thanks are due to Michael Clanchy, Jason Ditton and David Landes, who were kind enough to re and give detailed comments on parts of the manuscript, ané to Gerald Aylmer, who rest tall and {eve much wafol advic: Apart from saving ut Thom sevetal eur their encouragement af our general projet ie deeply appreciated. I goes without saying thas the responsibility for any remaining errors 4 well as for the overall argument of the book — historical, ‘esiological and politcal ~is our own. Philip Comigen, Toronto, Ontario, Canada "Berek Sayer, Casa, Sead‘A natonal economy i pole space, ransformed bythe sate esl ofthe neces and innovations of exami fe, ato {coherent unified economic space whose combined ates say tend in the tame direction. Only England masaed this apie at aa ely det. In rufrence 0 England the term ‘etoluion recurs: arculae,poldeal, sancil and industri ‘evolions. To this ist must be added ~ giving it whatever ame {you chooks = the revlusen tht crewed. England's natn marker erand Brande (1977: 98) ‘ec ws now pt the pieces Back and sar the game wih diferens move fn ths ease we wl suppose that 3832 happened at diy ‘oe er play) To did moe ha she Catenion at leis provoctve thar Chae capt before the Grand Remoastrance snd tar ceumscrbedconscaonal monarchy vas enabled, bloody, in 64, without Marston Moor, the eval fermen, the exci ofthe King, and the Goroes Kevoaton fn thi een the model bade woul be wally 3 a os forthe Revlon and paraowcly might plore’ be iter eran for tay wed hve cocomtuc fom War of the Roses she Td Monarchy here» premaie Kobespcns in Henry Vila dor of se ere’ {be stander of coy miter the repo conics of te Sencha seventeenth centres, snd fom 1632, pices that fest ach which in fc, inthe epochal see, make Up the bourgeois olution Tm objting r+ model which concerts seton apon cone dramate episode the Revohsson = to which alt pee Sere an afer mun be relied: and which inst upon ase {pel ths Revaluion agaist wheal thos ay be dee Mine which dae fore atonm very so become Spent with acral history. EP. Thompuon (1948: 47) Introduction ‘Theresa war on, Ir san undeclard cil war innigated by Me Scag ht squads of picket and his poi sodas against ‘he rat of society. The enemy wits dares insurrection agains Tepismateauhorty. The challenge ca be mecin only one way if ‘he vals of liberal demoeracy an libery under the nw ae 10 Drevll~ hy enforcing the terender of Mr Searill andthe atonal exeesve ofthe mineworker” anon ‘Only by that outcome, declared nd plainly recognized, ill she mata lft he checked, the path of extra parkamestary polis blocked, the ciminal conspiracy to imate cizens 2 ‘heir pls of wor and in their omer deesed be wll of ade tions 10 challenge the’ polis of the elected goverment Troken, snd their aby fo frustate necessary changes in the ‘somone onder sigaifictny eeduced. ‘Thus The Times (2 August 1984), edtoraizing inthe depths of the 1984-5 British miners" strike. The crunch, of court, is in the lst cause: ‘necessary changes in the economic order. One way of ‘scribing what this book is about eto say cht i is concerned with how forme of social order were historically onmrucred, wien whic such descriptions could plausibly be susaineds the butchering of ‘mining communities seen 35 mere economic necessity, their defence as something akin 1 weason, Social theory as long acknowledged some sar of connection ‘beeen sae formation and the ie of moder capitalism, bot in genera tems ad nthe apes cave of England hats or empires EEsuvin hiebook For Mex Weber, ils he closed nation sae which iMforded to capt it chance of developmen for Karl Mars, tourgeos socey must acer ill in texte relations tational and internally mus oranite tll a6 eae’® Thar he Crump of modem copa cvioaton volved wheal clr fevoltin oo a revolution at mochin the way the world was madea erronuer1on| sere of ai how goods were produced and exchanged — ao idly recognized, wheter in socologea Maris or lenin Teste Buri reason between ste formation and carl evokion ia the long making of bourgnis suaton, wher for England oe snore generally eon asad, Nether the profound call cients hea een Sete regulation of earl arms at adegutely ates in mh of the feature. Sil less is state formation grasped ay the cual Ilona ape culm uk ty th Ma {bd socolopedl of tests content with denonsrdion in ener theoreti terms ofthe Ranconaty of the non sate to cpt roduc, ting this ata end Yo anys tthe than nto Prelude to hiwosal gary. Wain hve! wing tol, Sete Formation is often bivel off iam the scaled ub-siplins of snide, ‘simes, bu oral el oral host to the community, de church, the ste, snd God. ids #1) ‘The witch was as much 2 focus of colletve representations as the figure of the Virgin Queen; both symbols are instructive. Second, witceraft wat overbelmiagy a female crime (¢howgh not exci Sel so, fay ler notwithstanding its revealag that the Sereoryps should ‘overiook” thi), thus fuer exemplifies cat Structuring by gender of society and ts sefimages rough sexe toutes which we have remarked before, Dominant clara images Gf women and thet ‘proper place’ in he order of things are wall ilesened bere. Daughter of Eve were dangerous; women not under fatarcal nthority were particly dangerous. Aeom Europe, te Teg singe eapory of convicted wiches, who vere tually burned to death see ol cngle women’ The cent century ss sees the begining of the long maralinization of healing Feral legion sine sedious rumour and libs grew apace hur his peioe owt libris and anchor had dinsppeared the 15305, gradually asale war ao made upon the right of Sanctuary, Benficof clergy wes progressively withdrawn fom ceria Cateporics of crime (1489 onwards) an offender (rom 1532). After 157% tone succesfully claiming beneft of ergy were imprisoned by the cl pomens nt tbe Church, In ths period ao, se power and jarodicdon grew of the so-called prropuive cours mare notably Sir Chamber The later ated pon informacion by the Acorney General and tied imma, withose 3 jury in Bakers words ‘ths gave the Crown a ditinet sdeanage in prosecutions of an npopelarcharten snd the eare wa 0 mips eon and oie poll fin (99,18), Sar Chanter Ia ean the laws of criminal Hil, conspiracy, forgery and pri Ee laraytcreon ls suppresion et did sot do sey with ‘Pala misdemeanor; they, could tll be promeated and by iBformavon, bo in King’s Bench. 'A parialary unsvouy side of Tudor justice was the growth of, torture a an instrument of adil proces = was reguley esed on ‘Catholics ahcr 1570, and before tat on suspected thieves and murderers and on gypois (see Langa 1977) and of physical ‘mutation ara formel punishment. To instance two aes of siding Concern to the sat vagrants los ears and. were banded, whist ‘thors of wikous tats had their iin hands cu off A procama- dion of 1338 mage avalon royal oss punishable by the os of both hands, These were not medieval survivals, bot emphatcly insruments ofthe ascent moder rate torre ad een largely Urlnown in England berwecn 1310 andthe rogn of Edward IV, {he te of mutation was rare in the later ale ages. The Tadors flo sloped somewhat caver ate to habe cor. Under EEzaberk cust were imprisoned without il inthe Flee, and he joes 191 held tis oe lawful whore ‘essons of sate were at ue. The Tudor may, at Ekon argues, have ruled lel (bt sceWillams 1979-394) through the law, but tie a8 wel to remember that that law was frequently heutal and, a6 we have indicated above, routinely weighed against the accused, Brutality is to gentle a word forthe oslaught apis rps, he most ereweing outgroup of Let us tun, finaly, to she ate of economies social regulation. ‘On paper the Talo created a formidable machinery of conte far furreathig anyching haowa in the medieval pevod. Over 300 Soni att wee Psd) the Tse So oe penal in tee provisions Statutes were supplemented by an unending Stream of proclamations an ler of instruction frm Cound an foyal ole In some cans ~cunom, grin commisoacn~ ew bureaucratic machinery was etablabed The ‘Crown also made cxsmsive use of patent, Heencer and monopolies, parca under Hhebethhe Geipwih esate wa paring + consistent poli, the degre to which rguasion was. sual flowed, and is overall ews, however, ae al macs of bat Stongse Tor hiss “Th eld of economic elation in which Tudor governments were most sacceafl wan probably tha of forego inde. Goseroment interened extensively al levl ofthe exe va, then Englands major export (and, through stom an important sours of royal fevenve). Crown policy ‘was eral to the outcome of vanes beeween Enginh até forign merdans ~ the Hansen merchants ing ffecvely outed inthe 15608 and wo the direction of Eogish sloth exports. Government alo played ky relent eablshnet ofthe gen charered trading Compass, nluding the Eas India Company, founded by royal charter in 1600. By the nd of the entry foreign erale wat overwhelmingly concetrted ip the Bnd of ew Leadon onopolis, « die oneuece of reqalion. Domesicaly Tada goverment temper mule industry by ‘issuing patents to foreigners with wanted shils = a import substation policy and ler espeally under Elza, wo Engh ten Historians fers tothe imate esogomic benef Cen Under Bizabeh the sytem ramified beyond any purely sconomic ‘objectives, co become primarily a meant of boosting Crown evens tnd rewarding orites y teen ofthe ceary rong postion to monopole hal surfaced in Parlament. One important req where state policy was both fay consent ad reasonably suceshl was the reultion af com supply Te imporant, here, not 0 disociae « namowly consrued ‘economic history” from bot tte formation and eeformason and 3 csciely focus if litfsed, mortepaivsl philosophy. The Hoe eves eoparued wel eben iin of focal sractste by TK. Rabb and FF. Powter. Rab tends or Sacer points drawn from Bloc the involvamene of Engh pes ‘ith rade sexton apart fom her pecs om the continent it Jaricpaton in commerce reveled cohesvncs and ety in Be opper levels of England's socal sroctre” (1967.13) Rabb tionally, and Foner, who focute on London, ar abe vo elt tis to's secclly mord revolution, in which peole ke Haldar and illower ‘fined od ved snatondl spe (01) = ne igre = of sav sermon al cp vn pple Torward a new conmography and new conceptions of Bsr, Such ‘tines sped efi ke he joes companies Rs Tables (op id 109 show tha in Is04 13.2 pe com of MDs were Jnvestors in 1604 31.2 por cont (he 1604 Commons signicae in thae 33.2 per ent of nce MP were tvestors and in 1638207 pet eon. Foster came: the “delberatne regan’ of the elie of ltabethan Londons meinge which begat 800 am, or carer st sshich ‘ot oniy material goods and contions, bt the whole moral Tontkion of buman beings as subject to through amination He Srgoerthain hse of rns ofrlingthe oreo emanated nt s0 mich from ersn courts or even very comely fom facta laws, at fom the asorsy of owe ental with ie Eft and proton (1997 9). Startory regulation ofthe labour marker? had been festre of age pli rom oe he Saito abr of 195. A ftatate of 1399 had imposed naonal maximum wages empowering Is to stee stele hr was reenact twee in che Bloat enury and again under Henry VIL. The Hlpsbetian Sate of ‘Arufcts of 19 acumpind more dead egularon provided for [Pr to deermine maxim wags foreach shire; among eter {Rovsons wr pion san ung i mas wat esac nd compulnory employment (genereds men in hash. ty, omen in Binge serch af Oe wenpbyed. Tee eee undoubtedly scive ia making siessments sod whist wages frequnny acer th Iga toxins hey sped wel ew te “Eng sort of ng “The Poor Law = actually 2 series of messures from the ary sistcensh enor onan coed i ues of 1597 an 1691 hay been viewed by Mars bepnning with Mar hime) terms of steering ofthe abou maker babtsting he poor and dnp sedto wae labour, Agsin he hatory lng one, Penal epssson Spans ‘sturdy vagahonds' had exited snc the te of Richaré Te Thader he Taos repressive legeltion grew; we eno rhea ait dais hrs. Of steer ig moral mesg i te atte of 1531 si ese ete wal eT Prove fogs oc whipped ante te ompotes poove Belicensed by JPs. Licensing is anew deporar,indiatve ol rowing sac involvement (and of ee wh oe See rsoraay oer ae nee orc agngy matlcetnoncyirned tobe forse next o0-and the sol tay of topuesvaaban aad surdy beggars variously subject o whipping, branding boring brought es, enaveneny tice Ine Raps ley aed txecton, Gopi, inag symbol of «pest Rina tics Bln andor we ree pray oy Tt ose tat poi Larder of Evel rte ofc te Festi ofthe pac (181) and Date of cms esas ‘otk on Commons proedre andthe igh ayo eee a ccna ure of the une “bemoaned ows of gr sad Sing ‘re! Cur 17762 Fp tegen es "The Flasher pero sv "a mee ences oe oe of ‘he ate (ila 199; 250 ints eof eu jen cps Sd fe For aw ee ess cena, wee fy inoducon of acompatery paakensn levied by Overseer ofthe Poor nde the supervisor of Jey second, the povion of work ot the weds ote IST AC Foes tna no hve any fees in sying th ey cas ie szrceor work} a the bing 6 Hose of Coreen tranny ine sae bene 19 a T997ond ps se e io ch eagrnts cud be sunmary coe ar Keng had by cosas and aor park ofa Br for esa poor sony moral category cel o debate and leon {Scars irom thee now = te fon of reenson rus baad Terr sagery so ese every” ie 3) Dur he tbr the goverment powered proves muias ergy purely aula, 0 Sppras apn under mae. Pr Gourct demanded, snd gon syematc sences Tor vegas 1570 sad san afr 158 Archer index of hie fens dea headed moomer ware pec ewpage spas aoe) slhousey son =a hey wet apt beh te ite eta 2 rtepac luo nna on re es co ; coo, Cones sad Ge Although the years after 1550 saw relatively linle by way of revolutionary innovation in state formation, they were very important in consolidating and extending the revolution of the 1530s; eve i the ‘momentum was ultimately to sll. Key intiutions of government “poe rumaner consouinarion o matured = the Privy Coun the system of county goverment, Paslment Coon, in pores, devel" Under Elsah fn inet Couosl oi the grog power of Seca of Ste Bogan wih abot 19 members ecg o0 Tucdays, Thorday ad Saturays ac by the 18900 was mew mos dap, wh fet ouncilors by 1003 the Counc had a define srs of ese, Siri, reir and beeper of oe, often nt on Sindy Saringat7 or am, and fed bogeno delegate work to commen Sod olan ber ‘excelent saeaive of the Screen of Sate pans (923cch 4) nos new developmen in Janes Vs ei the Secretary no longer moving wit King in 413 and she convene Sloaznion drag that ade of one Secreary tovaling with he tine one remaining inthe metsopol: Many conumenator: pin 0 efvowiug setacanton of ier prac aod te longer of office holding he beginnings ofr Sedged te service ‘local ee however the geney and voluntary se ceil A ler ba arsed remained Tn the localities the will ofthe cenval goverment depended for ts xcetion fon the voluntary co-opertion of > hurarchy of parctume uppasé offal: ord and Depary Listenans, Sheri, Justices of the Pesce, High nd Petty ‘Consables, Overseers of the Poor, ind Charchwardes. Withowt the ‘Sropration the central goteramene wat helpless. (1961-7) Parliament was one crystallization ofthis structure of rule. "The entre ‘membership of the Council satin one of the ew houses'(MacCafirey 1963: Bai) 50 200 did representatives of loca elites. Parliament also, and increasingly ae we mave into the seventeenth century, provides + prism through which we can glimpre emergent contradictions in that Erctuce, We have alresdy indicated smbivalences im the post-1533¢ satus of Parliament. They are evident in Thomas Smith, who could both Gin his Discourse on the commonwealth of England of 1363) see Parliament as ‘the most high and absolate power of the realm of England ,.. the power of the whole ream, both the head and the body (quoted in Eton 1963: 128-9) and (in 1560) write "What ean 2 ‘commonwealth desire more than peace iberey,quetnes, isle aking fof base money, and few Patiaments? (quoted in Roskell 1964: 30). Parliament was one focus of what David Matthews considers “he bureaucrae class, constancly shifting in its form and emphasis and ‘varying ints methods of recruitment, that was to provide a element Df continuity in social structure” (1948: 1) herween the seventeenth tnd the ainetench centuries; a “ruling class (id: 9) centred upon the ‘county offciale’ who ‘provided a felerum for adminisrative action" (ibid 3}, At the same fime the state had other foc, around Crown,~ THe nuzaxrr comounision Sela amt seo br me of nb isos par Sua ane ito Sus spi eget pemaen eeree g ca let Sa ferme no Sonica Comat lgarcia pl iz leoecnen Cone ae gerne feet corse atone ene ora ca ner ur dune elt hy army le Beet Wine oat Renee Seg a Rat at weabos gy i Sob ate gn ed feign Lacenmenitys here the ink Beeween ace ook wgigion focued on the monarchy, is ceneal Se ae battery of hich this was organized. Too nase Enterprise, that Tudor economic regulation hones crerall eect of all this was to give ‘the Sear © Presence it had not enjoyed before rae 825 ofthe times ~comtaing, but inthe dlfeene ways sendented explosion inthe making of wpe ae ok hie’ Casino map of Erland inthe et and Shoe pietees gape se con mp hes ton i pes 2am lhe whol ein, padi oe ens Baten batk Nowell od Secon and Ne ae Bey Cea 20 Abe anyon pled ie Coane for lewe to eave abroad cise Bee PY arte Mn of Eoghan Ande fou hie on ea 5) gh tame, snd koow his own couney ee arsoul i SoBe Tet ofthe offe of Comal ond i i br na (93, wl ee Ph oy SiPSSateR ta he would Seome Pra Seaan a te * Smits Dione, and maps ae word do es comousoanox n wha 4 parc noe ofthe ison of he shies. nd nha get ee stance et Fe el ce if on: mae pon ghee Sold hoor on he ue rerument inthis ineresingly kaown and ng Bir otlo ie ewe devine eared mrad north or west han Sullor, Shensbury a Brot, ours 0078 mnt4 Mortall God Enthroned: One Bourgeois Revolution (of Many) ‘Tha che sid Charles Sua bung admined King of Eland, od: cern ested with Limit. power to govern by ad cording to the laws ofthe lod, and not eters snd by hie ‘rast oath, and ofce, being obliged toute the power commited to him for the good and bene ofthe people, sad forthe preservation of thee ight and Uber: yeu never, ot of {wicked desi 9 erect and uphold sn hime anni ad ‘yrmania power to rule scoring to his wl and eo overhvo ‘he rights and Hbertis of he people est ake aay and mae ‘oid the foundations thereat and ofall redress and red of ‘migovernmens, which by the Kandamenca onsiuios of ie Kingdom were reserved om the people's bea inthe right nd power of lequent and russe Paint or aol meee {ngs of Council he the said Chaves Stuart, for accompa ‘of uch ht designs and forthe protecting of hrs and hs ‘dherens in his and ther wicked pacino thes en ath teatonioudy and aliousiy levied war against the present Parament, and th people therein representa feoat The Charge agains the King’ 20 Janary et printed in Gardiner 1979557122 ‘The origins of she Civil War, and the question of its connection (or ‘xherwise) with wider social nd economic changes in particular he rise of capitalism ~ have been the topic of perenial debate” Marais Ihave tended to seek the ‘bourgeois revolution’ here. For Christopher Hill, “he 1640s and 50s marked the end of medieval and Tador England ,.. in agrarian relations the middle ager were brought to an end in 1646 , in wade, colonial and foreign policy, the end ofthe middle ages in England came in 1650-81"... the middle ages in indusiry and incenal trade also ended in 1641... in finance the ‘middle ages in England ended in 1643 «1681 wat no less a turning point forthe church than for the sae’ (196942 135, 146, 135, 169, 190) Hill sees the destruction of the royal bureaucracy ia 1640-1 a6 lowe rouncsott revoLUTION (oF Mat) a “the most dave single event in Bris istry” (id: 9), On the ther band Gerld Ayimer ean find no major state-sructral ehange hte revolutionary yer oat persed, apr, of coarse rom the thelion of High Commision, Sar Chamber, the Cour of Wards nd the Counc of the North (961). In many ways the Restoration tas, aparetly, js that ‘We Cannot do jssie to these debates hee. Nor do we have any presale il War, Be pot J ee raking, parcularty around the paradox inroduced in the last Paragraph Where the orgs of the Civ Wat have been sough in tov thn mere, sede et dou ave mont fen be Meanie around gentry peerage oF CourvCounty diineons. Ge way of econsracing how the ice might more ustlly be Srmined bs bee provided by Zorn, wh sae. Engh seal amr big soe ng he sn ‘Senin ceoturies the conseqaenee| was o vere sh poskion fo deploy cpt sapere, trade nd sndustey ~ the conan of social lie By the og of the sevenacenth century there changes ha stamped upon the ansowacy of ld and snigeroe landlords wao ontrutd to form the byes of she sol and poli catchy anew character hat se them apa Bor ther contemporties in every other Furopean monarchy... Thete doesnot seem to be anything in these changes, however, tht necesaly requires» the sconamisdacie of ie Elizabethan peerage -- Nor profitable inthis connection so distinguish pow rom gent Sentey om [ealtny merchant or genty eagagedexlusaly in agrclare fom those ‘Secupi lo ia commtca or indivi etepise Nelcer is ie very teal tho there or pooper landed forte should often Rave been nade posi by the guns derived from wade and office... The las whose formation ithe presen focus of incest was being cotinunsly cecruited, fn iematurallycomprned diverse clement 0 sates wealth and sours of income, Bus despite thse and other ferences members Were species of the sme genus They commuted s single economic cas, for what they had in common ma the posression asp that they employed forthe td of profi nd farther acumlauon. (a Stone 19656: 1-22) Siaply to counterpose a supposedly feudal peerage) and 2 bbomogencously capitalist gentry will noe do. The embourgeoiement “Zag pins wo ma eng bok des By A and wheter fowned by peess, gentry, merchants or even the more prosperous {poomnen ~ was much more clearly becoming capital, a profit-velding javeneay ether than primary sure evi followers of loyalty. There were "improving peers to be found (as well as ‘backwoods gentry). The ‘aristocratic’ cvsis discussed by Lawrence Stone" indest need toe seen 25 pars of + general isis whic isthe ‘making of eaptlism in England, burit was less afnancial eis than a* ‘ox nourceots nrvouimos (OF Mas) complet ers of lpimacy = 2 elsurl cris, Bot the growing omimeriaiaaion of Iandondteant relationship aad Tedor bate ‘etralzaon et ha progressively eroded special eal buses of arstorate power and authority: mented, andthe ideologies of Obligation and alleance Bound up wath The 1579 mii messres, discused above, were one symiprom of this. These actors are Jmmporanc deepsea elements nthe background ote mi-ecacury ‘pbeavas. Ths not to sy they ae in any mechani sense thee ‘uses, nor tha Hee was ay neal about thei coure oF ‘A he hear ofthe noson of ‘Country’ Hener locates group he calls‘cuntry magnates” These were nether Trevor Roper Scour en Ro hs aetna py nr yu Toe rd ten" provo-aptal gentry They aypcally ba lrg landholdings, sau how their ncome mainly from land rather than office. Cowntey ‘magna salient feaure, for Hester and is one which i highly {ermane o oor concerns — ie thi They provided the realm withthe most inportane par ofthat government at {he King’s eormmand? wich iethe mos sgifcans sa the Enis poly. “They were the Depusy Lewterans. They were the Sheril, They were Pe “They were th commisioner inthe counties. wae Chet same men who «ame to Patamet ftom the counses and the boroughs make up the get pat ofthe membership ofthe Howse of Common. Ts major of lo magnates ses to hav increased ght wp r0 164, so that nthe Howe of ‘Conmons ofthe Long Paramene all ther groups appear a asi. Gn Srone 1965: 3) Morrill offers a related emphasis in his study ofthe norchern gentry. By the early seventeenth century, he argues 4 new conception of gensny bad woul supplanted seo on. Mach es ‘phasis was sow pled on the raring within rl sciyy an the new ‘concept was intended to gi common srengh and purpose to al those tiles, The new conception was ap adaprcon of Ana's deitin of the iden aman oie we a lore fred from mae reoeupaions fr che rc of oipang himself govern he pels he nant "The gentry were the goeror (% 1) This ‘County’ cause deew suppor from ouewth the wadtonl poli an tor prov mers incase y Londo Priveges,crasnen angered hy merchant contra oer andar End rade and many ofthe iin sor in wownand county. Many fenteysynpathized wih ercism of the London companied] lke nouRoHOISnEvoULTION (ors) * icles presence them as JPs with immense problems of poor relief andthe maintenance of order, and [ts] prosperity was bound 4p with ther own as woolgeowers snd landlords of spinner and ‘wesvers (Manning 1978: 160). Tae work of Mannig, Sharp (1980), nd Hirst (1973) shows the extensive presure, belore 1610, on {eademen MPs from below. ‘We need 0 see mich formations a ‘Coun’ and “Counsry” at “risorie Blot’ ~ formed; defined (and sl-defined) through rea Iistorial experences rather chan at cardboard cutouts mechanically represening economic intrest (ras clea pliealparues Such reductionism is found on both sider ofthese debates, Inthe cae of “County we ate dealing woth 3 bloc rated in, but rexching ost beyond, the politcal nation, fommed around, in sim, exclsion from ‘Court’ offic, favour, privilege ~ and. perceived rents 0 thet socil power, pancularly to thir properny nights eprsented bythe tie of the oval prerogative. "County coraportan needs co be fxplained not abstractly bt in terms ofthe history ofthe fit half of the setemtonth entry, not least the history of sae forme ther Seles I Zagorn's sens their mode of ie was indeed inereasingy & bourgeois one, but their partiolar formation isnot adequstely or suffiieny explained by dhs alone: Nor therefore ace the evens of Tid on. fe did, however, colour their aspirations: they soughe 4 panicolar sor of freedom fromm the incubus of court and s poisy ‘Within which they would have “presence” atd “visibility” comune Surste with both the facts of thet exonomie power and is modal “Typically of such politial formations “County” had trong, and totalizing, sense of their virtue ther sel-deBned wort and the aetulization of that worthiness inthe world Significantly, ths was Cxpressed in rms of Engl values and tradiions. Silat contours san also be found in ltersrogale, notably the cain Srom those onsiering themselves “worthy men’ agains royal powers sad appointees, again “Old Comruption, inthe Economical Reforms movement of the 178s, and te Inter movement or radial ort of the sate apparatuses and ther operting ideologies fom the 10s fnwards. Revthe "aca men’ of he ety and middle severed enry could consider ‘Improvemeat ther rights so 100 could the bourgeoe radial of the 1830s speak of nd work for “a national system of Improvement’ ‘We ths thnk Zagrin correc in secing the cont of 1640-2 as ‘one ongialy sternal wo the rling clases’ andthe measures of thore Yeas 2 iniatver coming from within the casks of the pola!%6 ‘ose sourcaois mevaLumion (oF wan) {si sking wth wat nanny repens of Ena’ dina ca is Priam wey to work a 161049 to pda a hte ang ad one. Amin wide green, te wo taro ye ner Were take Sepang siden se cl var ale soe of the igh peophe ‘Bere Cows sd wr wn fee ose fee Sith ingens vend ropy mcrae ap woey esl oun pent of monopan, ren ben sd encore cohen {eugene 1900: 59). We need also w be aware of the dynamics of conflict, and the preures fom below, The baclelines afer 2 id not corespnd {o the former Cour/Couney spit and PU (1983, 1969, 9605) hs persussvly argued than he Civil War economia “progresive ements =the economically advanced areas of the south and ea, the big towns (Chogh nor always thr ruling igsstesy the pos, the Navy, the mass of Londoners, 2nd the maslacturng aes the oomies supported Palament ut remaine worthy of pause that ieisunaly fu chese 1610-2 meseues~ pcre wih unm by represetaes of hey sectors of te tadoral polite nation, Hf Zagora is vight ~ that are most olen hailed s amongst the most enduringly bourgeois plied legacies ofthe revluson ‘One er atgumene in the gency convovery is parcisly perinent to our themes. Trevor Roper ~ notorotely ~ saw both Poranism and recusuncy a: an economic refx ofthe ‘Out those excluded trom the coun ori 4 sgring pce of xooomie ‘edetonim (953). In fact whatever the daoper roo of arstcrate tris, much of the hosliy stacked to the court focused ite supposed paps lesnings. Aimer while denying that the events of 1640-9 can plausibly e explained ss happening ‘bese + defined beara people tse nd mpc ne ca Kf GhrtchSetlement is clear hat “witows the geet ani-Catholle phobia and all ts ranficaons tr ard wo se that these events fwould fave happened as they dhl (1985s 157), By 1600 sme 20 per Cent ofthe peerage was Catholic, What wat see tack of diplomat Su economic patriotism — detente wih Spin, us-down of he Navy, {are vo support the Protestant casein the Tiny Yeas War ~ ws cxremely unpopult with the Coustry group, Lawrence Sone tee aud’ polices on sieal and doctrine x the ial isrnent hich brought the edie to the ground” (963: 64), ‘What Trevor-Roper mholy overlooks show Protestant linked wich other Key clemoncs in Country's charges notably of Chass Iuweracy and arbivarines ship money, prerognve court, the emo without Parana on amp compinent ie conceptions of national densi, coaeeptonsdesply anchor in the way of ile of the ‘aru rue’, whose fonation we have ‘ows sourexait REVOLUTION fF mas) 7 suffcenly explored above There conceptions were forms rough ‘wht the oppention fo the king bot ished shes owe ens 308 Trulted the soci vison leter coches avery impornt point svhee be args thats From the Apology ofthe Commons in 1604 ro the Declaration of Right ia 168 there county gentlemen who il he Howse of Commons ine ‘of soni const leanne effi. And dhe iter document not an ‘Secron of the social rapremacy ofthe midl-classgetey or the poli fapremacy of the House of Cammans iis precisely whacon the face ol it opens to bes chris of libees of free Englishmen im the right ne of ‘Magna Cast, she Confirmatios Carraro andthe Peon of igh i Stone test 39), “hig relates to his identification of country magnate’ as the core ofthe County party. Tievor-Roper offers no doubt unintenonal Suppor for ts anchoring of Cove sypaions ina disintiey Sulla plea culture when he chrsrerzes County’ favre foreign policy af "a povateeing war with Spain an the days of “Goren Blizaberh of fomos memory, in which geneman could “eta ship and judiciously nanageher™ (1959). We should ofcourse, ‘be equaly anal of us who Hester's ree Englishmen’ were what Kindo liber’ they had in ind, and for whom. The forms were those of national sukur, the substance increasingly sn the ese we have drown from Zagora ~bourgeos (and goo without ying, cadsringly masculine) ‘One doer not need to svallow the hisorieal myeh wholesale in order to recognize it comemporar) force. The points thx the Good Gis Caise "hae monn other Binge ~ but ene embacied fe and given socal expression through notions of Engishaess. And the England in qucston was both a esi govemed by Kingn- Palament and due proces, and, by 1640) Potent natin Religion was not inthe seventeen cenary, « Gaporble St of faionlizstion tas vial clement in the framework win which ople thought acuding sinking their poles, Protea, ke Src ofPsaent rte of ay wan ap eal a ot Dolitea clare which was by this tine both coherent and dninee Thay tend proudly) Engishs That clare, moreover, ws, rly ibe ir sometines scien, ways of dong this ‘which Homers country magnates’ had thir beng. It eannor be omprehended other han against the backdrop of ae frmation sod tepuation we have so fat sketched ods book "Pha cule, nly, wa by 161 suicindy mason n is scope — and apna only she atocedent history we have outline, parca in the Tador period, can eaplan this 10 end beyond the governing