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GuidedToursoftheBGA

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TheBeginner'sGuidetoAeronautics(BGA)wascreatedasaWebbased"textbook."ThecreationoftheBGAisa
researchprojecttoexploretheuseofthepersonalcomputerandtheInternettopresenteducationalmaterialstostudents,
teachers,andlifelonglearnersinamoreinteractivewaythanaprinted,boundtextbook.
Asageneralrule,theWebconsistsofmanyindividualpagesthatareconnected,orrelated,tooneanotherthrough
hyperlinks.TheWebis,therefore,muchlessstructuredthanaboundbook,inwhichonepagefollowsanotherina
definite,numberedsequence.WehaveintentionallyorganizedtheBGAtomirrorthisunstructuredapproach.Userscan
navigatethepagesoftheBGAthroughhyperlinksbasedontheirowninterestandinquiry.
ForthosewhoprefermorestructuretotheinformationavailableattheBGA,wehaveorganizedanalternativetothe
unstructuredapproachanumberofguidedtoursthroughthesite.Eachtourisorganizedaroundasingletopic,andusers
movefrompagetopagethroughthetourbyusingspecialbuttonsatthebottomofeachpage.
Click

tomovebacktothepreviouspage.

Click

tomovetothenextpage.

Click

toreturntothispageattheendofeachtour.

(Somepageswillbe"crossed"bymorethanonetour,soitisimportanttorememberwhichtouryouareon.Ifyouclickon
ahyperlinkyouwillleavethetouryoucanrejointhetourbyusingthebrowser's"Back"command.Ifyouwishtoaborta
tourandreturnhere,justclickonthe"GuidedTours"labellocatedabovethebuttons.)
Allofthetoursbeginandendonthispageunlessotherwisenoted.Descriptionsofeachtouraregivenbelowjustclickon
thenameofthetourtostartyouonyourway.Havefun!
Fundamentals
Newton'sLawsofMotionThemotionofaircraftcanbeaccuratelydescribedbytheclassicalLawsofMotion
developedbySirIsaacNewtoninthelate1600's.
Forces,Torques,andMotionAsanobjectmovesthroughspaceittranslatesandrotates.Thetranslationsarein
directresponsetoforcesontheobject.Therotationsareinresponsetotorquesontheobject.
ThermodynamicsThermodynamicsisthestudyoftheeffectsofwork,heatandenergyonasystem.Thereare
threelawsofthermodynamicsbasedonlargescaleobservations.
CombustionModernaircraftarepoweredbyjetengineswhichproducethrustbyburningafuel.Combustionisthe
chemicalprocesswhichcombinesfuel,oxygen,andasourceofheattoproduceheatandexhaustproducts.
BasicFluidDynamicsEquationsThemotionofanyfluidcanbedescribedbytheconservationofmass,
momentum,andenergy.
CompressibleAerodynamicsAdditionalforcesarepresentwhenanobjecttravelsthroughagasatspeedsnearor
fasterthanthespeedofsoundforthegas.Shockwavesmayalsobepresentintheflowfield.
AircraftWeightWeightisamajordesignconsiderationforallaircraft.Equationshavebeendevelopedtocompute
theaircraft'sweightandcenterofgravityduringdesign.
Gases
StandardAtmosphereModelTheatmosphereisathinlayerofgasthatseparatesthesurfaceoftheplanetfrom
outerspace.Thepropertiesofthegaschangewithaltitudethroughtheatmosphere.
GasStaticsThepropertiesofagasarerelatedtooneanother.Youcanlearnaboutthepropertiesofagasby
consideringastaticvolumeofgas.
SpeedofSoundSmalldisturbancesinagasaretransmittedatthespeedofsoundwhichdependsonthe
temperatureofthegas.TheMachnumberistheratioofanobject'sspeedtothespeedofsound.
SoundWavesSmalldisturbancesinagasaretransmittedthroughthegasassphericalwaves.Ifthesourceofthe
disturbanceismovingthewavesaredistorted.
ShockWavesandExpansionsAlargedisturbanceinasupersonicflowgeneratesshockwavesorexpansionfans.
Shockwavesaresmallregionswherethepressure,temperatureanddensityincrease.Expansionsareregions
wherethepressure,temperature,anddensitydecrease.
PitotStaticTubeAPitotStaticTubeisadeviceformeasuringthespeedofanaircraftthroughtheair.Itdepends
onanapplicationofBernoulli'sequationforamovingfluid.
WindTunnelsWindTunnelsarelargedevicesusedtotestmodelsofproposedaircraft.(Thistourdoesnotreturn
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tothispage)
PoweredAircraft
ForcesonanAirplaneTherearefourforcesthatactonanairplane.Themotionofanaircraftdependsonthe
relativemagnitudeoftheforces.Soyoumustfirstunderstandwhattheforcesare,howtheyaredirected,thenature
oftheforces,andhowtheyarerelated.
CruisingAircraftIfthefourforcesonanaircraftareperfectlybalanced,theaircraftfliesinastraightlineata
constantspeed.Equationshavebeendevelopedwhichdescribecruisingflight.
IntotheWindTheaerodynamicforcesonanairplanedependonthedifferenceinvelocitybetweentheairplaneand
theair.Determiningtheforcesandresultingmotioniscomplicatedbythewind.
PartsofanAirplaneAirplanesarecomposedofmanypartswithmanydifferentfunctions.Learntorecognizeand
identifythedifferentpartsofanairplane.
FuselageThefuselage(orbody)oftheairplaneholdsallofthepartstogetherandcarriesthepassengersor
cargo.
JetEnginesMostmodernaircraftarepoweredbygasturbine,orjetengines.
WingsThewingsgeneratemostoftheliftnecessaryforflight.
AileronsAileronsarepartsofthewingwhichareusedtorolltheaircraft.
SpoilersSpoilersarepartsofthewingwhichareusedtorolltheaircraftandtodecreaseliftandincrease
dragduringlandings.
FlapsandSlatsFlapsandSlatsarepartsofthewingwhichareusedduringtakeoffandlandingtoincrease
liftanddrag.
ElevatorsElevatorsarecontrolsurfacesconnectedtothehorizontalstabilizerandareusedtopitchthe
aircraft.
StabilatorsStabilatorsarecontrolsurfaceswhichprovidebothhorizontalstabilityandpitchcontrolforthe
aircraft.
RudderARudderisacontrolsurfaceconnectedtotheverticalstabilizerandusedtoyawtheaircraft.
ControlSurfacesOnamodernaircraft,thereareseveralmovingpartswhichareusedtocontrolthemotionofthe
aircraft.Thistourexaminesthesepartsandtheresultingmotion.
Gliders
ForcesonaGliderGlidersareunpoweredaircraft.Theforcesonglidersandtheresponsetoexternalforcesis
quitesimilartopoweredaircraft.Examples:paperairplanesandtheSpaceShuttle
GlidingFlightGlidersareunpoweredaircraft.Theflightofagliderisalittleeasiertoanalyzethantheflightofa
poweredaircraft
Kites
ForcesonaKiteKitesareunpoweredaircraft.Theyareverysimilartoglidersexceptthat,insteadofmoving
throughair,akiteisheldstillandtheblowingairmovespastthekite.
KiteFlyingYoucanlearnagreatdealaboutaerodynamicsbyflyingakite.
KiteModelerKiteSimulatorKiteModelerisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesignandflighttesta
kite.
ModelRockets
ForcesonaModelRocketTheforcesonamodelrocketaresimilartoforcesonanaircraftalthoughthethrustis
usedtoovercomeweight.
StabilityofaModelRocketAmodelrocketreliesonaerodynamicstoprovidestabilityduringflight.
FlightofaModelRocketTheflightofamodelrocketdependsontherelativesizeoftheforcesontherocket.
^M
PartsofaModelRocketFlyingmodelrocketsisarelativelysafeandinexpensivewayforstudentstolearnabout
aerodynamicsandpropulsion.
ModelRocketEnginesDisposablesolidrocketenginesareusedinmodelrockets.
RocketModelerModelRocketSimulatorRocketModelerisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesign
andflighttestamodelrocket.
OtherFlyingObjects
FallingObjectsAnobjectfallingthroughtheatmosphereissubjectedtotwoforces,weightanddrag,andattainsa
constantterminalvelocity.Iftheobjectwerefallinginavacuum,onlygravitywouldactontheobject.
ObjectsthatGenerateLiftManyobjectsgenerateliftastheymovethroughafluid.
CurveBallBaseballSimulationAbigleaguebaseballplayercanthrowacurveballbecauseofaerodynamic
forcesontheball.Investigatetheforcesontheballbyusingthissimulationprogram.
AircraftLift
TheoriesofLiftLiftistheforcethatkeepsanaircraftflying.Manytheoriesforthegenerationoflifthavebeen
proposed.
FactorsthatAffectLiftLiftistheforcethatkeepsanaircraftflying.Therearemanyfactorsthataffecttheamount
ofliftgeneratedbyabody.
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LiftEquationLiftistheforcethatkeepsanaircraftflying.Thereisasimplealgebraicequationtorelatethefactors
thataffectlift.
FoilSimLiftSimulatorFoilSimisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesignawingonlineand
determinethetheoreticalliftofthewing.
AircraftDrag
SourcesofDragDragistheforcethatopposesthemotionofanobjectthroughtheair.Thereareseveraldifferent
sourcesofaircraftdrag.
FactorsthatAffectDragDragistheforcethatopposesanaircraft'smotion.Therearemanyfactorsthataffectthe
amountofdraggeneratedbyabody.
DragEquationDragistheforcethatopposestheaircraft'smotion.Thereisasimplealgebraicequationtorelate
thefactorsthataffectdrag.
AircraftThrust
PropulsionSystemsThrustistheforcethatpushesanairplanethroughtheair.Therearemanydifferenttypesof
propulsionsystemswhichgeneratethrust.
PropellersForthefortyyearsfollowingtheWrightBrothersfirstflight,aircraftusedpropellerstoproduce
thrust.Moderngeneralaviationaircraftstillusepropellers.
JetEnginesMostmodernaircraftarepoweredbygasturbine,orjetengines.Thereareseveraldifferent
typesofjetengineswhichareusedfordifferentmissions.
TurbojetsTheturbojetisthemostbasictypeofgasturbineengine.
AfterburningTurbojetsTodeveloptheextrathrustneededforsupersonicflight,anafterburneris
oftenconnectedtotheexitofaturbojetorturbofanengine.
TurbofansMostmodernairlinersarepoweredbyhighlyefficientturbofanengines.
TurbopropsManysmallcommuterairlinersusehighlyefficientturbopropengines.Theturbopropuses
agasturbineenginetoturnapropeller.
RamjetsAramjetengineproducesthrustbyburningafuelathighpressureandexhaustingthegasthrougha
nozzle.Thehighpressureisproducedbytheforwardspeedofthevehicle.
RocketsArocketengineproducesthrustbyburningafuelathighpressureandexhaustingthegasthrougha
nozzle.Theoxygenforcombustioniscarriedwiththepropulsionsystem.
PartsofaJetEngineJetEnginesarecomposedofmanypartswithmanydifferentfunctions.Learntorecognize
andidentifythedifferentpartsofajetengine.
InletTheinletsitsupstreamofthecompressorandbringsairintotheengine.
CompressorThecompressorincreasesthepressureoftheairwhiledeliveringittotheburner.
CombustororBurnerCombustionofthefueltakesplaceintheburner.Fuelismixedwithhighpressureair
fromthecompressorandburned.
PowerTurbineThepowerturbinesitsdownstreamoftheburnerandextractssomeenergyfromthehot
exhausttopowerthecompressor.
NozzleThenozzleisaspeciallyshapedtubewhichacceleratesthehotexhaustgastoproducethrust.
ThrustEquationMathematicalequationshavebeendevelopedwhichdescribethegenerationofaircraftthrust.
CalculatingFuelFlowRateMathematicalequationshavebeendevelopedwhichdescribethefuelusageofajet
engine.
EngineSimEngineSimulatorEngineSimisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesignaturbine
engineonlineanddeterminethetheoreticalthrust,fuelflow,andweightofyourengine.
AircraftMotion
BasicAircraftMotionThemotionofanairplanethroughtheaircanbedescribedasacombinationoftranslation
androtation.
CruisingFlightIfthefourforcesonanaircraftareperfectlybalanced,theaircraftfliesinastraightlineata
constantspeed.
AircraftRollMotionArollmotioniscausedbydeflectingtheaileronswhichcausesthewingstipstomoveupand
down.
AircraftPitchMotionApitchmotioniscausedbydeflectingtheelevatorswhichcausestheaircraftnosetomove
upanddown.
AircraftYawMotionAyawmotioniscausedbydeflectingtherudderwhichcausestheaircraftnosetomoveside
toside.
BankingTurnsAnairplanechangesdirectionbyrollinginthedirectionoftheturnandproducingagradualcurved
flightpath.
GradualClimbAnairplaneclimbswhenevertheliftisgreaterthantheweight.Therateofclimbisincreasedby
highexcessthrust.
SimulationPrograms
FoilSimLiftSimulatorFoilSimisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesignawingonlineand
determinethetheoreticalliftofthewing.
EngineSimEngineSimulatorEngineSimisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesignaturbine
engineonlineanddeterminethetheoreticalthrust,fuelflow,andweightofyourengine.
CurveBallBaseballSimulationAbigleaguebaseballplayercanthrowacurveballbecauseofaerodynamic
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forcesontheball.Investigatetheforcesontheballbyusingthissimulationprogram.
RangeGamesRangeGamesisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatpresentsproblemsforyoutosolve.The
problemsinvolveaspectsofcruisingflightandaircrafttakeoff.
RocketModelerModelRocketSimulatorRocketModelerisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesign
andflighttestamodelrocket.
KiteModelerKiteSimulatorKiteModelerisaninteractivecomputerprogramthatletsyoudesignandflighttesta
kite.
AtmosphereModelSimulatorThisinteractivecomputerprogramletsyoustudyhowthepropertiesofthe
atmospherechangewithaltitude.
MachandSpeedofSoundCalculatorThisinteractivecomputerprogramcomputesspeedofsoundandtheMach
numberforagivenvehiclespeedandaltitudeusingthestandardatmospheremodel.
SoundWaveSimulatorThisinteractivecomputerprogramletsyoustudyhowthedopplershiftoccursandhow
Machwavesareformed.
SingleShockWaveSimulatorThisinteractivecomputerprogramletsyoustudyashockwavegeneratedby
supersonicflowpassingawedge.
MultipleShockWaveSimulatorThisinteractivecomputerprogramletsyoustudyshockwaveinteractionsandthe
generationofcenteredexpansionfans.
IsentropicFlowCalculatorThisinteractivecomputerprogramsolvestheisentropicflowequationsforavarietyof
inputs.ItalsocalculatestheMachangle,PrandtlMeyerangleandcorrectedairflow.
NozzleSimulatorThisinteractivecomputerprogramletsyoustudyhowrocketandturbineenginenozzlesoperate.
Presentations
TopicsinAerodynamicsandPropulsionPowerPointpresentationspreparedforteachersandstudents.
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Editor:TomBenson
NASAOfficial:TomBenson
LastUpdated:Jun122014
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