Name: Ruth-Ann Lambert

Grade: 602b
Teacher: Mrs. Foster-McFarlane
Experiment: Number Nine
Date: February 5, 2015
Title: Transport in Animals
Aim:
Materials/Apparatus: Slide of blood smear, slide of ureter artery and vein, cows heart,
microscope, gloves.

Introduction
The cardiovascular system of vertebrates contains a muscular heart.
This muscular hearts main function is to pump blood around the body.
The arteries blood that is usually oxygenated away from the heart and two the body, however, the
artery leading to the lungs, know as pulmonary artery carry deoxygenated away from the heart
and to the lungs. The veins carry blood that is usually deoxygenated towards the heart, unless it
coming from the lungs. The veins coming from the lungs known as pulmonary veins carry
deoxygenated blood. The term oxygenated refers to the enrichment of oxygen by the red blood
cells (erythrocytes). This oxygen is carried by the haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
The red blood cells are located in the connective tissue blood along with white blood
cells(leucocytes) and plasma. Red blood cells and white blood cells make up 45% of the blood
volume while plasma make up 55% of the volume. The red blood cells and white bloods are
found bathed in the fluid matrix plasma.
Plasma is a light yellow liquid. It is composed of 90% water and 10% variety of substances in
solution and suspension. Some components of plasma include mineral ions such as Sodium ion,
Potassium ion, Magnesium Ion, Chloride Ions and Hydrogen Carbonate Ions. Plasma can also
contain sugars, fatty acids, amino acids. Plasma can also contain
Pic 1. Blood
excretory products such as urea and hormones such as insulin.
Components showing
Centrifugation

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes) are small cells (average 7-8 microns in size) that dont have
nuclei. The cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100120 days in the body
before their components are recycled by macrophages. The lack of nuclei allows space for more
haemoglobin. There are circular biconcave discs. Each cell is very thin and allows for faster and

efficient gaseous exchange. The shape makes it really flexible and this gives the ability to
squeeze through capillaries. Red blood cells consist of protein pigments, haemoglobin which
carry oxygen and it gives blood its red color. Red blood cells dont have mitochondria either so
they respire anaerobically by the Embden-Meyerhof pathway. Since they dont respire
aerobically they dont use any of the oxygen they carry. The haemoglobin combines reversibly
with oxygen to form oxy haemoglobin nearest the lung and releases the concentration of oxygen
is lower.
Red blood cells live a span of three months. Without a nucleus they cannot be repaired.
Pic 2.An erythrocyte

White Blood Cells (leucocytes) are slightly larger than red blood cells and are
not as abundant and contain nuclei. All leukocytes are produced and derived from a in the bone
marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. They are involved in protecting the body against
infectious diseases and foreign invaders. Leucocytes are capable of amoeboid movement and this
allows them to squeeze through pores in capillary walls to reach the tissues and sites of infection
Leucocytes make up approximately 1% of the total
blood volume in a healthy adult. The number of
leucocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease.
After centrifugation white cells are found in the buff, a
thin white layer of cells between the blood plasma
layer and the red blood cells.
All white blood cells are nucleated. Apart from this
common trait the blood cells are distinct in form and
function. According to Taylor, Green, Stout and Soper (2001), white
blood cells can be categorized into two groups Granulocytes and
Agranulocytes.
Granulocytes (Polymorphonuclear Leucocytes) are made in the bone
marrow and are distinguish by the presence of granules in their
cytoplasm. The nucleus can take various shapes and are usually lobed
into two or three segments. Granulocytes can be further subdivided into
neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. The most abundant being the neutrophils
Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are phagocytic. Neutrophils live
approximately six days. After treating an infection neutrophils do not return to the blood they
turn into pus cells and die. Mature neutrophils have a nucleus with several sections usually two
to five segments, each section is connected by chromatin filaments.

Neutrophils actively engulf and digest disease causing bacteria. Neutrophils have two types of
granules; primary granules and specific granules. Primary granules contain proteins that break
down and kill bacteria. Lysozymes found in the cells are used to break down bacterial cell walls.
Eosinophils usually have kidney-shaped lobed nuclei. They make up 1.5% of the total number of
white cells. They possess cytoplasmic granules that stain red when the dye eosin is applied to
them. They possess anti-histamine properties running counter to basophils. Eosinophils play an
important role in killing parasites because the granules contain a toxic protein and cationic
protein. They regulate other immune cell functions such as basophils, neutrophils, B cells and
dendritic cells. They are involved in the destruction of tumor cells and wrote the repair of
damaged tissue
Basophils make up 0.5% of the total number of white cells, thus, are the least abundant.
Basophils also have lobe nuclei. The granules in these cells stain blue with basic dyes such as
methylene blue. The granules of basophils are usually so numerous they partially cover the
nucleus. Basophils release histamine and other mediators of inflammation. When an infection
occurs mature basophils will be released from the bone marrow and travel to the site of infection.
Histamine causes dilation and increased permeability of capillaries close to the basophil. The
basophil also releases substances that increase the blood flow to the site of infection so that
platelets can reach to the infected site faster.
Agranulocytes are also known as mononuclear leucocytes, these have one-lobed nucleus and are
without granules in their cytoplasm. They make up 28% of the white blood cell population.
These can be further subdivided into monocytes and lymphocytes. A third type of agranulocyte,
the macrophage, is formed in the tissue when monocytes leave the circulation.
Lymphocytes make up 24% and these are produced in the thymus gland and lymphoid tissues
from cells which originate in the bone marrow. They are much more common in the lymphatic
system. The blood has two types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. B cells make antibodies
and bind to pathogens enabling destruction. T cells are able to kill cells of the body that are
infected by a virus. T cells possess a memory system which allows them to remember past
invaders and prevent disease when a similar invader is encountered again.
Monocytes, along with neutrophils compose the phagocytic leucocytes. They make up 4%. They
present pieces of pathogens to T cells so that the pathogens may be recognized again and killed,
or so an antibody response can be created. Monocytes are also known as macrophages after they
migrate from the bloodstream and enter tissue.

The blood vessels transport blood throughout the human body. The major types of blood vessels:
the arteries(carries blood away from heart), the veins (carries blood towards the heart) and

capillaries ( enable the actual exchange of water, gas and other chemicals between blood and the
tissues). The arteries and veins have three layers but the tunica media of the artery is thicker.
Tunica intima (the thinnest layer): a single layer of simple endothelial cells glued by a
polysaccharide intercellular matrix,
Tunica media (the thickest layer in arteries): circularly arranged elastic fiber, connective tissue,
contains polysaccharide substances. The tunica media may (especially in arteries) be rich in
vascular smooth muscle, which controls the diameter of the vessel.
Tunica adventitia: (the thickest layer in veins) entirely made of connective tissue. It also contains
nerves that supply the vessel as well as nutrient
capillaries in the larger blood vessels.
Capillaries consist of little more than a layer of
endothelium.
3.Diagram Showing Connection Between
The veins and arteries consist of a space Pic
Vein,Capillary and Artery
where the blood flows know as lumen.
This can be used to differentiate between the two. The
lumen of the artery is smaller to maintain the pressure so
the
blood can flow to the parts of the body more efficiently.
The
lumen of the vein is larger, it does not require pressure for the movement of the blood because it
is in no rush The veins contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood. Muscle contraction
around the veins helps one-way flow of blood towards the heart. Only arteries nearest to the
heart have valves which help to maintain a continuous flow.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body. They form networks of vessels coming in
contact with every cell of the body. No cell is more than 25 micrometers away from the capillary
The human heart is situated between two lungs and behind the sternum in the thorax.
It consists of four chambers the right
and left atria and the right and left
ventricle. The atria receives blood from
the veins and pump it to the ventricles
which pump the blood to the arteries.
The walls of the ventricles are thicker
than the walls of the atria. The double
circulation of the heart consists of a
pulmonary circulation and a systematic
circulation. To and from the lungs is

known as pulmonary circulation whilst circulation around the body is known as systematic
circulation.
Discussion:
(Drawings)
The first slide observed was the blood smear slide so search for both erythrocytes and leucocytes,
permitted to draw only two leucocytes. . The leucocytes observed were both granulocytes namely
basophil and eosinophils. Both granulocytes were beside each other.
The basophil was expected to have granules and a lobed nucleus. This was what was observed.
The granules were so numerous in the cytoplasm it was really difficult to see the nucleus
properly.
The eosinophils had two lobed nuclei. It contain granules but less numerous than that of the
basophil granulocyte. Also, the granules in the basophil were larger than those in the eosinophil
Both granulocytes were easy to distinguish.
The second slide was labeled ureter vein and artery. This was a cross section. The vein and artery
were laid side by side on the slide. The expected image was that the tunica media artery would be
larger than that of the vein and also the lumen of the artery would be smaller or more constricted
that the vein. This was seen and observed also. All three layers of the blood vessel could be
identified. The tunica intima was observed in both artery and vein, being a single epithelial layer.
The nucleus for the cells in the tunic intima could be observed and they were distinctly round in
shape.
The vein was slightly larger than the vein in size, the vein being 266 micrometers while the
artery was 125 micrometers even though the tunica media of the artery was larger and thicker.
Around tunica adventitia was a jelly-like looking layer which was discovered to be an extension
of the tunica adventitia layer itself.
The tunica intima layer was also observed to have an almost similar jelly-looking substance
around the cells which were discovered to be a polysaccharide intercellular matrix that acted as
glue for the endothelial cells.
The tunica media muscles appeared circular in muscles wrapping around the tunica intima and
lumen. This may be justified by the fact that the tunica media is needed to control the diameter of
the lumen.

The cows heart was observed. It was dissected in half and observed by the entire class. It was
expected to see clearly the right and left sides of the heart showing all four chambers but this was

not the case. The cows heart was not cut properly and it ended up covering most of the left side
of the heart including the left atrium and left ventricle. Apart from that everything else was seen
clearly and the right side of the heart was easily seen.
It was not how much thicker the left side of the heart was. The left side along with the septum
left the right side of the heart with only about a quarter of the space. This may be justified by the
fact that the heart belonged to a cow. A cows body would be larger in comparison to a human
and so the blood would need to travel a longer distance, thus the muscles of the left side of the
heart are much more developed to aid in the rapid and forceful pumping of the blood around the
cows body.
The aorta was identified because it was the thickest and largest blood vessel attached to the heart.
Through discussion and observation it was deduced that blood would flow from the left ventricle
to this blood vessel and therefore it was identified as the aorta.
The chordae tendineae of the bicuspid valve was identified and observed as well.
For color contrast, The muscles were darker than the blood vessel apart from the pulmonary
artery. The darkening of the pulmonary artery could just be degradation because the heart was
old. Inside the chambers of the heart was slightly darker than the muscles itself.
The erythrocyte was observed, it was easy to discover. It was expected that, like the drawings
usually seen, the red blood would have been completely red in color. However, upon observing
the red blood cell it was noticed that the center of the red blood cell was clear, this was identified
to be the vacuole of the cell.

Errors: Heart was incorrectly dissected.

Precautions: Gloves were worn when dealing with the heart to protect from harmful bacteria.
Limitation: Heart was incorrectly dissected, left side of the heart could not be seen properly

Conclusion: The blood vessels, the Cows heart and the Erythrocytes and Leucocytes were
observed and drawn.