SOIL STABILIZATION

Abstract
A stabilized soil has increased strength. It has greater bearing capacity, and decreased water
sensitivity, which diminishes volume change during wet/dry cycles. Soil stabilization is used
to provide a firm base or sub-base for all types of paved are as, to improve foundation
conditions, and as a lining for ditches and banked earth work s. The need for stabilization, the
uses of stabilization and the various agents used for stabilization and methods used for
stabilization with the application is discussed.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Stabilization in a broad sense incorporates the various methods employed for modifying the
properties of a soil to prove its engineering performance. Stabilization is being used for a
variety of engineering works, the most common application being in the construction of road
and airfield pavements, where the main objective is to increase the strength or stability of soil
and to reduce the construction cost by making best use of locally available materials.
1.1 HISTORY
It is discovered from archaeological excavations that during Indus civilization the art of
burning bricks and utensils made of earth was made perfect to a very high degree. It is
rather doubtful that they purposely stabilised by adding sand and/or lime, although the
chemical analysis of this soil shows that it contains sand and lime in adequate quantities
and of proper proportions.
Burning of bricks and utensils prepared of soil is in itself a method of stabilisation, which
concludes that the art of soil stabilisation was perfected by Indians from ancient time.
The soil could be stabilised by adding fine powder of coarse sand, stones and rock.
The floor of burnt brick is called surkhi. The Indians knew that addition of surkhi to the
soil is one of the ways to stabilise it. Addition of ash of burnt coal is also another method
of stabilising soils.
It seems that a number of methods of soil stabilisation as given in treatise of Silpa Sastra
were developed by Indians and were used successfully for various purposes, before the

advent of Western knowledge in India. The lime stabilised soil used as plaster to the wall
is the best plaster known as yet.

1.2 DEFINITION
Natural soil is both a complex and variable material. Yet because of its universal
availability and its low cost winning it offers great opportunities for skilful use as an
engineering material.
Not uncommonly, however the soil at any particular locality is unsuited, wholly or
partially, to the requirements of the construction engineer. A basic decision must therefore be
made whether to:

Accept the site material as it is and design to standards sufficient to meet the

restrictions imposed by its existing quality.

Remove the site material and replace with a superior material.

Alter the properties of existing soil so as to create a new site material capable of

better meeting the requirements of the task in hand.

The latter choice, the alteration of soil properties to meet specific engineering requirements is
known as Soil stabilization.
Improving an on-site soils engineering properties is referred to as either soil
modification or soil stabilization.
The term modification implies a minor change in the properties of a soil, while stabilisation
means that the engineering properties of the soil have been changed enough to allow field
construction to take place.
Soil stabilization aims at improving soil strength and increasing resistance to softening by
water through bonding the soil particles together, water proofing the particles or combination
of the two. Usually, the technology provides an alternative provision structural solution to a
practical problem.

1.3 NEED OF STABILIZATION:

The load-bearing capacity of the soil helps the engineer to design the foundation to
support the deign loading. It is desirable from an engineering standpoint to build upon a
foundation of ideal and consistent density. Thus, the goal of soil stabilization is to provide a
solid, stable foundation.
When the available soil is not suitable enough for construction then the soil can be used by
manipulating its composition by adding suitable stabilizers.

Stabilizing enhances the given property of the soil type.

Increase Tensile and Shear strength.

Reduce shrinkage.

1.4 USES OF STABILIZATION:

It is used for many purposes and it increases different soil properties as listed below:

It is used to reduce the permeability and compressibility of the soil, soil mass in
earth structures and to increase its shear strength.

It is used to increase the bearing capacity of foundation soils.

It is used to improve the natural soils for the construction of highway and
airfields.

It is also used to make an area trafficable within a short period of time for
emergency purposes.

It is used to increase the unit weight of the soil.

It helps to decrease the void ratio of the soil.

It increases the shear strength of the soil.

2.0 SOILS
2.1 IDENTIFICATION OF SOILS
TABLE 1:TYPES OF SOILS

S.no.

Type of Characteristic

Soil
Gravel

Suitability

Small pieces of stone varying from the alone is of no use for mud wall
size of a pea to that of an egg. If you building - the tiny lumps of stone
soak what you think is gravel for 24 have nothing to bind them together.
hours in a bucket of water, and if it

Sand

disintegrates, it is not gravel.

Similar small pieces of stone (usually similar to gravel, it is of no use for
quartz), which are small than a pea but wall making by itself - but if mixed

Silt

each grain, are visible to

with clay, i.e. sandy clays or

the eye.

clayey sands, it is the ideal mud wall

building soil.
The same as sand except that it has been by itself is also no good for building
ground so finely that you cannot see walls. It will hold together but is not
individual grains.

strong. Furthermore, it will

not compact so it is also of no use for

Clay

pressed blocks or rammed earthwork.

Soils that stick when wet - but very hard can be rammed or compressed but in
when completely dry. Some of these drying out they often shrink. During
clays shrink when they

the monsoon they get damp

dry and expand when wet, but there are and expand again and crack form.
5

Organic

also clays, which do not shrink at all.

Soil mainly composed of rotting, are mainly useless for wall building.

Soil

decomposing organic matters such as A reliable rule is that if a soil as good

leaves, plants add

for growing plants

vegetable matter. It is spongy when wet, in, it is not good for building walls
usually smells of decaying matter, is with.
dark in colour and usually
damp.
2.2 TESTING OF SOILS
There are two kinds of tests:

o Field tests

Colour tests

Touch and smell test

Biscuit test

Hand wash test

Cigar test

Adhesion test

o Lab tests

Sieve test

Sedimentation test

COLOUR TEST
Procedure
o

Observe the colour of soil.

Interpretation
o

Deep yellow, orange and red, ranging to deep browns indicate iron content
which is good as building mud.

Greyish or dull brown, ranging to dirty white indicates more clay.

Dull brown with slightly greenish colour indicates organic soil.

ADHESION TEST

Procedure
o

Make ball out of wet soil.

Pierce a knife into it and remove.

Observer the knife after removing.

Interpretation
o

If little soil sticks on the knife then it has more silt.

If lot of soil sticks on the knife then it has more clay.

If the knife is clean after removal than the soil has more sand.

BISCUIT TEST

Procedure
o

Make a smooth paste from the soil removing all gravels.

Mould it into a biscuit of 3cm diameter and 1cm height.

Leave it to dry and observer for shrinkages or cracks.

Break the biscuit to noting how hard it is.

Interpretation
o

If biscuit cracks or leaves gap from the mould then it contains more clay.

If its very hard to break then soil contains more clay.

If it breaks easily and can be crumpled between finger then it has good sandclay proportion.

If breaks and reduce to powder then the soil has more sand or silt.

(Fig.1). Biscuit test

TOUCH & SMELL

Procedure
o

Rub small quantity of dry soil on palm to feel its texture.

Moisten the soil and rub again.

Interpretation
o Soil that feels course when dry but sticky when wet contains lumps of clay.
o Soil that feels course when dry but gritty when wet contains sand.
o Soil that feels course when dry but little gritty when wet contains silt.
o

If the wet soil gives off musty smell then it contains organic matter.

HAND WASH TEST

Procedure
o

Play with wet soil till your hands get thoroughly dirty.

Wash your hands to see how difficult it is to clean.

Interpretation
o

If hands get cleaned quickly, then soil contains more sand.

If it takes little time to clean and feels like flour then soil contains more silt.

If it feels soapy or slippery and takes time to clean then soil contains more
clay.

(Fig.2). Touch/Smell/Wash text

CIGAR TEST
Procedure
o

Make a smooth paste from the

soil removing all gravels.

Roll it on palm to make a cigar.

Slowly push it outside your

palm.

Measure the length at which it

breaks.

Interpretation
o

Length below 5cm - too much

sand.

Length above 15cm - too much

clay.

Length between 5cm to 15cm good mixture of sand and clay.

(Fig.3) Cigar Test

SIEVE TEST

Procedure
o

Pass soil from series of standard sieves set on top of on another with finest
sieve at bottom.

Observer the soil collected in each sieve.

Interpretation
o

Silt will be collected in lowermost sieve.

Gravels will be collected on top.

Sand and lumps of clay will be collected in intermediate sieves

SEDIMENTATION TEST

Procedure
o

Take a transparent cylindrical bottle or jar of 1Lt. Capacity.

Fill it with soil and water.

Shake well and allow it to settle for 30 min.

Interpretation
o

Coarse gravels will be settled at bottom, followed by sand, silt and clay on top.

Measuring the layers will give us the approximate proportions of each content.

3.0 METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES:

It must also be recognized that stabilization not necessarily a magic wand by which every soil
property is changed for the better. Correct usage demands a clear recognition of which soil
properties must be upgraded, and this specific engineering requirement is an important
element in the decision whether or not to stabilize. Properties of soil may be altered in many
ways, among which are included chemical, thermal, mechanical and other means.
The chief properties of a soil with which the construction engineer is concerned are: volume
stability, strength, permeability, and durability.
Methods of stabilization may be grouped under two main types:
1. Chemical or additive addition of cement, lime, bituminous or other chemical agents
2. Mechanical most common form, it is the physical compaction of the soil
3.1 Chemical Stabilisation
One method of improving the engineering properties of soil is by adding chemicals or other
materials to improve the existing soil. This technique is cost effective : for example, the cost,
transportation, and processing of a stabilizing agent or additive such as soil cement or lime to
treat an in-place soil material will probably more economical than importing for the same
thickness of base course.
Additives can be chemical, meaning that the addictive reacts with or changes the chemical
properties of the soil, thereby upgrading its engineering properties.
Additives can also be mechanical, meaning that upon addition to the parent soil their own
load bearing properties bolster the engineering characteristics of the parent soil.
Placing the wrong kind or wrong amount of additive or improperly incorporating the
additive into the soil can have devastating results on the success of the project.

In order to properly implement this technique, an engineer must have:

A clear idea of the desired result
An understanding of the type(s) of soil and their characteristics on site
An understanding of the use of the additive(s), how they react with the soil type and
other additives and how they interact with surrounding environment
An understanding of and means of incorporating (mixing) the additive
An understanding of how the resulting engineered soil will perform.

3.1.1 TYPES OF SOIL STABILIZERS

There are many kinds of additives available. Not all additives work for all soil types and a
single additive will perform quite differently with different soil types. Generally, an additive
may be used to act as a binder, alter the effect of moisture, increase the soil density or
neutralise the harmful effects of a substance in the soil.
Following are some of the most widely used additives and their application:

Portland cement

Lime

Fly ash

Calcium chloride

Bitumen

Chemical or Bio-remediation

Various other indigenous stabilisers include

Straw

Plant Juices

Gum Arabic

Sugar Or Molasses

Cow Dung

Animal Urine

Tannic Acid

Oil

Portland cement

It is a mechanical additive, used for soil modification which improves the soil quality or
soil stabilization which is to convert the soil to a solid cement mass

Amount of cement used will dictate whether modification or stabilization has occurred

Nearly all types of soil can benefit from the strength gained by cement stabilization

Best results have occurred when used with well-graded fines that posses enough fines
to produce a floating aggregate matrix

Lime

It is a chemical additive, has been used as stabilizing agents in soils for centuries

It reacts well with medium, moderately fine and fine-grained clay soils.

In clay soils, main benefit from lime stabilization is reduction of the soilss plasticity,
by reducing the soils water content, it becomes more rigid

It increases the strength and workability of soil and its ability to swell

It is very important to achieve proper gradation, by breaking up the clay into small
sized particles, and allow lime to introduce homogeneously and properly react with
the clay

Lime can be applied to dry soil, but in populated or dust blown areas, lime is mixed
with water to form slurry

Curing time is 3 to 7 days to allow lime to react with soil, surface of soil is wetted
periodically

Fly ash

It is a chemical additive, consisting mainly of silicon and aluminium compounds, is a

by-product of the combustion of coal

It can be missed with lime and water to stabilize granular materials with few lines,
producing a hard, cement-like mass.

It acts as a pozzolan and/or filler product to reduce air voids

Common application is as part of lime-cement-flyash (LCF) to coarse-grained soils

that possess little or no fine grains

As it is essentially a waste product, it is very inexpensive

Calcium chloride

It is a chemical additive, has the ability to absorb moisture from the air until it
liquefies into a solution.

Presence lowers freezing temperature of the moisture present in the soil, so it is a

proven for cold-climate application

If the water in soil cant freeze, there is less soil movement, and become more stable

Also works as a binder, making the soil easier to compact and reducing dust

Bitumen

It is a mechanical additive, that occurs naturally or as a by-product of petroleum

distillation

The black pitch used to make asphalt is bitumen

Asphalt cement, cutback asphalt, tar and asphalt emulsions are used

Soil type, construction method and weather are all factors in choosing the type of
bitumen to use as additive

Use of bitumen lead to fewer weather-related delays during construction and makes
compaction easier and more consistent

Chemical or Bio remediation

Petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, PCBs, solvents, pesticides and other hazardous natural
and man-made substances which come as the resultant of industries often
contaminated the soil

Even contaminated real estate is valuable pollution is undesirable efforts are made
to return the contaminated soil to an acceptable condition for human habitation

Goal is to convert hazardous substances into inert ones and to prevent them from
spreading or leaching

Type of additive depends on the contaminant and environment

Chemical additives are often proprietary chemical cocktails, but the science is well
understood and quite effective at neutralizing hazardous substances

Bio- remediation is typically done by introduction of natural means like bacteria or insects
that eat contaminants and convert them to natural substances.

3.2 MECHANICAL STABILIZATION

Mechanical Soil stabilization refers to either compaction or the introduction of fibrous
and other non-biodegradable reinforcement to the soil. This practise does not require
chemical change of the soil, although it is common to use both mechanical and chemical
means to achieve specified stabilization.

3.2.1 METHODS OF MECHANICAL STABILIZATION

Compaction
Soil Reinforcement
Addition of Graded Aggregate Materials
Mechanical Remediation
Compaction
Compaction typically employs a heavy weight to increase soil density by applying pressure
from above. Machines are often used for this purpose, large soil compactors with vibrating
steel drums efficiently apply pressure to the soil, increasing its density to meet engineering
requirements. Operators of the machines must be careful not to over-compact the soil, for too
much pressure can result in crushed aggregates that lose their engineering properties.
Soil Reinforcement
Soil problems are sometimes remedied by utilizing engineered or non-engineered mechanical
solutions. Geo-textiles and engineered plastic mesh are designed to trap soils and help control
erosion, moisture conditions and soil permeability. Larger aggregates, such as gravel, stones
and boulders are often employed where additional mass and rigidity can prevent unwanted
soil migration or improve load-bearing properties.

Addition of Graded Aggregate Materials

A common method of improving the engineering characteristics of a soil is to add certain
aggregates that lend desirable attributes to the soil, such as increased strength or decreased
plasticity. This method provides material economy, improves support capabilities of the sub
grade, and furnishes a working platform for the remaining structure.
Mechanical Remediation
Traditionally, mechanical remediation has been the acceped practice for dealing with soil
contamination. This is a technique where contaminated soil is physically removed and
relocated to a designated hazardous waste facility far from centres of human population. In
recent times, however, chemical and bio remediation have proven to be a better solution, both
economically and environmentally. It is often cheaper to solve tha problem where it exists
rather than relocate the problem somewhere else and possibly need to deal with it again in the
future.
4.0 STABILISATION PROCESS
Both new construction and rehabilitation projects are candidates for soil stabilization. While
the precise stabilization procedures will vary depending on many factors including location,
environment, time requirements, budget, available machinery and weather the following
process is generally practiced:

Assessment and testing

Site preparation

Introduce additives

Mixing

Compacting and shaping / trimming

Curing

Assessment and Testing

The soils of the site are thoroughly tested to determine the existing conditions. Based on
analysis of existing conditions, additives are selected and specified. Generally, a target
chemical percentage by weight and a design mix depth are defined for the sub-base
contractor. The selected additives are ssebsequently mixed with soil samples and allowed to

cure. The cured sample is then tested to ensure that the additives will produce the desired
results.
Site Preparation
The existing materials on site, including existing pavement if it is being reclaimed, is
pulverised utilizing a rotary mixer. Any additional aggregates or base materials are introduced
at this time. The material is brought to the optimal moisture content by drying overly wet soil
or adding water to overly dry soil. The grade is shaped if necessary to obtain the specified
material depth.
Introduce Additives
Cement, lime or fly ash can be applied dry or wet. When applied dry, it is typically spread at
a required amount per square yard (meter) or station utilizing a cyclone spreader or other
device. When lime is applied as slurry, it is either spread with a tanker truck or through the
rotary mixers on-board water spray system. Calcium chloride is usually applied by a tanker
truck equipped with a spray bar.
Bituminous additives are typically added utilizing an on-boar emulsion spray system on a
rotary mixer. It can also be sprayed on the surface, but this method requires several
applications and additional mixing.
Mixing
To fully incorporate the additives with the soil, a rotary mixer makes several mixing passes
until the materials are homogenous and well-graded. It is crucial that the rotary mixer
maintains optimal mixing depth, as mixing too shallow or too deep will create undesireable
proportions of soil and additive. Inappropriate proportions of soil and additive will decrease
the load-bearing properties of the cured layer. Some projects require multiple layers of treated
and compacted soil. When applying cement and fly ash, it is important to finish mixing as
soon as possible due to the quick-setting characteristics of the additives.
Compaction and Shaping/Trimming
Compaction usually follows immediately after mixing, especially when the additive is cement
or fly ash. Some bituminous additives require a delay between mixing and compaction to
allow for certain chemical changes to occur.
Compaction is accomplished through several passes using different machines. Initial
compaction is begun utilizing a vibratory pad foot compactor. The surface is then shaped and
trimmed to remove pad marks and provide a more suitable profile. Intermediate compaction
follows utilizing a pneumatic compactor, which provides a certain kneading action that
further increases soil density. A tandem drum roller is used on the finishing pass to provide a

smooth surface. A final shaping gives the material a smooth finish and a proper crown and
grade.
Curing
Sufficient curing will allow the additive to fully achieve its engineering potential. For
cement, lime and fly ash stabilization, weather and moisture are critical factors, as the curing
can have a direct bearing on the strength of the stabilised base. Bituminous-stabilized bases
often require a final membrane of medium-curing cutback asphalt or slow-curing emulsified
asphalt as a moisture seal. Generally, a minimum of seven days are required to ensure proper
curing. During the curing period, samples taken from the stabilized base will reveal when the
moisture content is appropriate for surfacing.
5.0 Factors Affecting the Strength of Stabilized Soil
Presence of organic matters, sulphates, sulphides and carbon dioxide in the stabilized soils
may contribute to undesirable strength of stabilized materials (Netterberg and Paige-Green,
1984, Sherwood, 1993).
5.3.1 Organic Matter
In many cases, the top layers of most soil constitute large amount of organic matters.
However, in well drained soils organic matter may extend to a depth of 1.5 m (Sherwood,
1993). Soil organic matters react with hydration product e.g. calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
resulting into low pH value. The resulting low pH value may retard the hydration process and
affect the hardening of stabilized soils making it difficult or impossible to compact.
5.3.2 Sulphates
The use of calcium-based stabilizer in sulphate-rich soils causes the stabilized sulphate rich
soil in the presence of excess moisture to react and form calcium sulphoaluminate (ettringite)
and or thamausite, the product which occupy a greater volume than the combined volume of
reactants. However, excess water to one initially present during the time of mixing may be
required to dissolve sulphate in order to allow the reaction to proceed (Little and Nair, 2009;
Sherwood, 1993).
5.3.3 Sulphides
In many of waste materials and industrial by-product, sulphides in form of iron pyrites (FeS2)
may be present. Oxidation of FeS2 will produce sulphuric acid, which in the presence of
calcium carbonate, may react to form gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) according to the
reactions (i) and (ii) below

i. 2FeS2 + 2H2O +7O2= 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4

ii. CaCO3 + H2SO4 + H2O = CaSO4.2 H2O + CO2
The hydrated sulphate so formed, and in the presence of excess water may attack the
stabilized material in a similar way as sulphate (Sherwood, 1993). Even so, gypsum can also
be found in natural soil (Little and Nair, 2009).
5.3.4 Compaction
In practice, the effect of addition of binder to the density of soil is of significant importance.
Stabilized mixture has lower maximum dry density than that of unstabilized soil for a given
degree of compaction. The optimum moisture content increases with increasing binders
(Sherwood, 1993). In cement stabilized soils, hydration process takes place immediately after
cement comes into contact with water. This process involves hardening of soil mix which
means that it is necessary to compact the soil mix as soon as possible. Any delay in
compaction may result in hardening of stabilized soil mass and therefore extra compaction
effort may be required to bring the same effect. That may lead to serious bond breakage and
hence loss of strength. Stabilized clay soils are more likely to be affected than other soils
(Figure 1) due to alteration of plasticity properties of clays (Sherwood, 1993). In contrary to
cement, delay in compaction for lime-stabilized soils may have some advantages. Lime
stabilized soil require mellowing period to allow lime to diffuse through the soil thus
producing maximum effects on plasticity. After this period, lime stabilized soil may be
remixed and given its final compaction resulting into remarkable strength than otherwise
(Sherwood, 1993).
5.3.5 Moisture Content
In stabilized soils, enough moisture content is essential not only for hydration process to
proceed but also for efficient compaction. Fully hydrated cement takes up about 20% of its
own weight of water from the surrounding (Sherwood, 1993); on other hand, Quicklime
(CaO) takes up about 32% of its own weight of water from the surrounding (Roger et al,
1993; Sherwood, 1993). Insufficient moisture content will cause binders to compete with
soils in order to gain these amounts of moisture. For soils with great soil-water affinity (such
as clay, peat and organic soils), the hydration process may be retarded due to insufficient
moisture content, which will ultimately affect the final strength.
5.3.6 Temperature

Pozzolanic reaction is sensitive to changes in temperature. In the field, temperature varies

continuously throughout the day. Pozzolanic reactions between binders and soil particles will
slow down at low temperature and result into lower strength of the stabilized mass. In cold
regions, it may be advisable to stabilize the soil during the warm season (Sherwood, 1993;
Maher et al, 1994).
5.3.7 Freeze-Thaw and Dry-Wet Effect
Stabilized soils cannot withstand freeze-thaw cycles. Therefore, in the field, it may be
necessary to protect the stabilized soils against frost damage (Maher et al, 2003; Al-tabbaa
and Evans, 1998). Shrinkage forces in stabilized soil will depend on the chemical reactions of
the binder. Cement stabilized soil are susceptible to frequent dry-wet cycles due to diurnal
changes in temperature which may give rise to stresses within a stabilized soil and, therefore,
should be protected from such effects (Sherwood, 1993; Maher et al, 2003).
6.0 APPLICATIONS
Foundations
There are three basic soil conditions that pose particularity serious problems for architects,
engineers and building contractors. First is the swelling and shrinkage movements of
expansive clays; secondly, the occurrences of settlement or densification from load bearing
forces; and, thirdly, the influence of moisture on the soil and building structure. Individually
any one of these soil behaviors would create tremendous economic damage to a building
structure.
The chemical stabilization process addresses these three basic soil concerns in several
meaningful ways including: reduction of shrink/swell potential and plasticity on expansive
clays, increased load bearing support as measured by unconfined compressive strength, and
reduction of the treated soils permeability, making it less susceptible to water infiltration.
New Pavements
Pavements, especially flexible pavements, are constantly under changing conditions, thus
they are inherently unstable. Water infiltration weakens the underlying soil condition and
variable loading moves those conditions throughout the pavement structure. Asphaltic
concrete pavements are constantly under the debilitating effects of oxidation and the actions
of water stripping the asphaltic binder from the aggregate structure.
The use of chemical stabilization in roadway design speaks directly to these issues of longterm life-cycle stability.
Pavement Rehab

There is a solution to deteriorated pavements! A perpetual pavement foundation can be

achieved by the in-place recycling of the existing pavement materials and stabilizing them
with cement. This process, known as Full Depth Rehabilitation (FDR), provides significant
cost savings, a sustainable allocation of resources, and the structural enhancement required
for long-term performance. Cement stabilized bases have provided economical and long
lasting pavement foundations for more than 70 years.

Bio-soils pads
The processing and removal of biosolids from waste management and composting facilities
has traditionally been a major operational concern. Most large processing centers require
removal of compost or sludge by large heavy equipment. This heavy loading creates a high
fatigue factor on the native subgrade soils, causing the processing table to become weak and
unstable under repetitive loading. This issue, along with the added concern of bio-solids
commingling with the underlying soft soils during harvesting, lead to additional processing
cost.
Depending upon the type of soil, stabilization can be accomplished with quicklime, limepozzolans blends, and Portland cement. This method of stabilization is conducted under a
controlled environment to provide a consistent and uniform mat structure. The stabilized mat
creates a harden surface that allows for many years of maintenance access for compost and
sludge processing and removal.
Environmental remediation
Chemical Stabilization/Solidification (S/S) of soils contaminated with hazardous waste is a
tried and proven chemical remediation technology. Both the technology and its acceptance
has progressed dramatically over a number of years as a simple, cost effective and flexible
treatment method for remediation of soils and recycling them back to usable land
applications.
Soil stabilization/solidification (S/S) is a process that immobilizes contaminants, mitigating
the risk of exposure and potential harm to human health and the environment. Cement or lime
is mixed with impacted soil and hardens to form a soil-cement matrix that encapsulates the
impacted materials. The process is performed on site with soil in-place or on adjacent mixing
tables.
Site winterization

Construction sites are susceptible to rain delays that cost both time and money. When winter
hits, project managers turn to the only proven method for site winterization, the process of
chemically treating the surface soils to provide a high-strength and low- permeable
cementitious barrier.
This type of treatment ensures immediate access to construction sites after a storm event,
while eliminating fatigue rutting from repetitive loading. By reducing the permeability of the
native soil, the treatment process reduces the susceptibility of the subgrade to saturation. An
added benefit of this type of soil modification is the vast improvement of the subgrade
strength characteristics and decreased potential for shrink/swell fluctuation of any clayey
material. Since the construction process requires heavy loading from construction equipment,
the subgrade soils are required to carry loads far greater than their design intended.
Winterization is the changing of soil behavior, principally through the reduction of excess
moisture, in order to expedite construction. Winterization is commonly performed on
subgrade and sub-base materials in order to expedite compaction and subsequent paving.
When free water is encountered, an evaluation should be made to determine if water is
infiltrating from an outside source. If the flow of water is continuous, dewatering will be
required prior to any treatment. Dewatering should extend to at least 12 inches below the
bottom of the treatment zone to reduce wicking of water. If it is determined that the water is
only perched, areas containing any standing water should be pumped prior to treatment.
Treating before winter rains hit typically is the most economical choice. Pre-winter
treatments require a lower percentage of stabilizing reagent and a shallower depth of
treatment. This process creates an impervious liner at the surface grade that prevents winter
rains from saturating the underlying soils.
Water resources
The use of chemical stabilization in Water Resource projects has increased considerably over
the last 30 years. Chemical Stabilization in the form of Soil-Cement or Soil-Lime has been a
main focus of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) in the construction of dams and other
water resource applications.
The first use of Soil-Cement stabilization for slope protection was a test section constructed
by USBR at Bonny reservoir in eastern Colorado in 1951. Observation of the performance of
this test section for the first 10-year period of service indicated excellent performance of the
stabilized section which was subject to harsh wave action and repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing. This successful application lead to the conclusion that the use of chemical

stabilization for slope protection, levee and dam cores, impervious liners, and maintenance
accessibility was feasible based on both economical and service life considerations.
The key factor that accounts for a successful chemical stabilization project is careful
predetermination of engineering control factors in the laboratory and implementation and
verification of those results during construction.
Other applications like:
Staging and Storing Hardscape
When the need for a native hardscape surface is required for expanded storage needs or
temporary event staging, the process of soil stabilization address the performance needs of
heavy loading, extended durability, dust control, and storm water runoff. By stabilizing the
existing soils, a temporary or permanent mat structure is developed that can handle repetitive
heavy loading, while maintaining a durable low dust exposed wearing surface.
Synthetic Sports Field
The new synthetic sports fields are popular for their high durability and low
maintenance features. One of the major installation needs of synthetic fields is an appropriate
drainage system. These turf systems allow water to permeate through the surface to be
collected by either a blanket or manifold drainage system. A stabilized mat structure under a
blanket drain system or integrated into a manifold system allows for an impervious, highstrength soil structure that is maintained even when saturated over time.
Equestrian Facilities
Equestrian facilities, used for a wide variety of horse- training functions, require a
stable non-yielding substructure under the loose cutting surface materials. By stabilizing the
underlying soils, a great reduction in maintenance is achieved, since the underlying soil can
no longer contaminate the loose wearing surface materials. The stabilized section also allows
for all weather use, because the stabilized section is impervious to water and will not loose
strength or grade over repetitive use.
Hard-court Stability
Tennis, basketball, and other hardcourt surfaces require a high degree of stability,
since any grade variations that may develop would be magnified under these applications. If
courts are built on clay soils, grades will move as underlying soils shrink and swell with
moisture fluctuation. All soils types would benefit from the long-term benefits of an
underlying stabilized section, including reduction of water infiltration, reflective shrinkage
cracking, and un-controlled grade fluctuation.
Extreme Conditions

When extreme conditions are encountered, it's important to prevent costly overruns
from consuming contingent dollars at the onset of project construction. Extreme conditions
may be the result of intrusion into the site water table, encountering of bay mud or dredging
materials, or a condition that requires added structural support from the existing unsuitable
soils. HSI has experienced the most extreme site conditions and presents constructability
plans that resolve these issues in the most cost-effective manner.

7.0 LATEST TRENDS

Rapid urban and industrial growth demands more land for further development. In order to
meet this demand land reclamation and utilization of unsuitable and environmentally affected
lands have been taken up. These, hitherto useless lands for construction have been converted
to be useful ones by adopting one or more ground improvement techniques. The field of
ground improvement techniques has been recognized as an important and rapidly expanding
one.
7.1 Vibro-compaction
Vibro-compaction, sometimes referred to as Vibrofloation, is the rearrangement of
soil particles into a denser configuration by the use of powerful depth vibration.
Vibrocompaction is a ground improvement process for densifying loose sands to create
stable foundation soils. The principle behind vibrocompaction is simple. The combined
action of vibration and water saturation by jetting rearranges loose sand grains into a
more compact state. Vibrocompaction is performed with specially-designed vibrating
probes. Both horizontal and vertical modes of vibration have been used in the past.
The vibrators used consist of

material, usually sand, is added from

torpedo-shaped probes 12 to 16 inches

the ground surface to fill the void

in

at

space created by the vibrator. A

frequencies typically in the range of 30

compacted radial zone of granular

to 50 Hz. The probe is first inserted

material is created.

diameter

which

vibrates

into the ground by both jetting and

vibration. After the probe reaches the
required depth of compaction, granular

(Fig.4) Vibro-compaction

APPLICATIONS:

Reduction of foundation settlements.

Reduction of risk of liquefaction due to seismic activity.

Permit construction on granular fills.

7.2 Vaccum consolidation

Vacuum Consolidation is an effective means
for improvement of saturated soft soils. The
soil site is covered with an airtight
membrane and vacuum is created underneath
it by using dual venture and vacuum pump.
The technology can provide an equivalent
pre-loading of about 4.5m high conventional
surcharge fill. Vacuum-assisted consolidation
preloads the soil by reducing the pore
pressure while maintaining a constant total
(Fig.4) Vaccum consolidation

stress.
APPLICATIONS:

Replace standard pre-loading techniques eliminating the risk of failure.

Combine with a water pre-loading in scare fill area. The method is used to build large
developments on thick compressible soil.

Combine with embankment pre-load using the increased stability

7.3Preloading
Preloading has been used for many years without change in the method or application to
improve soil properties. Preloading or pre-compression is the process of placing additional
vertical stress on a compressible soil to remove pore water over time. The pore water
dissipation reduces the total volume causing settlement. Surcharging is an economical
method for ground improvement. However, the consolidation of the soils is time dependent,
delaying construction projects making it a non-feasible alternative.
The soils treated are Organic silt, Varved silts and clays, soft clay, Dredged material The
design considerations which should be made are bearing capacity, Slope stability, Degree of
consolidation.

APPLICATIONS:

(Fig.5) Preloading

Reduce post-construction

Settlement

Reduce secondary compression.

Densification

Improve bearing capacity

7.4 Heating
Heating or vitrifaction breaks the soil
particle down to form a crystalline or glass
product. It uses electrical current to heat
the

soil

and

modify

the

physical

characteristics of the soil. Heating soils

permanently alters the properties of the
soil. Depending on the soil, temperatures
can range between 300 and 1000 degree
Celsius. The impact on adjacent structures
and utilities should be considered when
heating is used.
APPLICATIONS:

(Fig.6)Heating

Immobilization of radioactive or contaminated soil

Densification and stabilization

7.5 Ground freezing

Ground freezing is the use of refrigeration to convert in-situ pore water to ice. The ice then
acts as a cement or glue, bonding together adjacent particles of soil or blocks of rock to
increase their combined strength and make them impervious. The ground freezing
considerations are Thermal analysis, Refrigeration system geometry, Thermal properties of
soil and rock, freezing rates, Energy requirements, Coolant/ refrigerant distribution system
analysis.
GROUND FREEZING
APPLICATIONS:

Temporary underpinning

Temporary

support

for

an

excavation

Prevention of groundwater flow

into excavated area

(Fig.7) Ground freezing

Temporary slope stabilization

Temporary

containment

toxic/hazardous waste contamination

7.6 Vibro-replacement stone columns
Vibro-Replacement extends the range of
soils that can be improved by vibratory
techniques to include cohesive soils.
Reinforcement of the soil with compacted
granular columns or stone columns is
accomplished by the top-feed method. The
important

Vibro-replacement

stone

columns are Ground conditions, Relative

density, Degree of saturation, Permeation.

(Fig.8) Vibro-replacement

of

PRINCIPLES OF VIBRO-REPLACEMENT:
The stone columns and intervening soil form and integrated foundation support system
having low compressibility and improved load bearing capacity. In cohesive soils, excess
pore water pressure is readily dissipated by the stone columns and for this reason, reduced
settlements occur at a faster rate than is normally the case with cohesive soils.
There are different types of installation methods which can be broadly classified in the
following manner:

Wet top feed method

Dry bottom feed method

Offshore bottom feed method

VIBRO-REPLACEMENT APPLICATIONS:

Reduction of foundation settlement

Improve bearing capacity/reduce footing size requirements

Reduction of the risk of liquefaction due to seismic activity

Slope stabilization

Permit construction on fills

Permit shallow footing construction

7.7 Micro piles

Micro-piles are small diameter piles (up to 300 mm), with the capability of sustaining
high loads (compressive loads of over 5000 KN).The drilling equipment and methods
allows micro piles to be drilled through virtually every ground conditions, natural and
artificial, with minimal vibration, disturbances and noise, at any angle below horizontal.
The equipment can be further adapted to operate in locations with low headroom and
severely restricted access.

(Fig.9) Micro piles

(Fig.10) Enlarged section of Micro piles

APPLICATIONS:

For Structural Support and stability

Foundation for new structures

Repair / Replacement of existing foundations

Arresting / Prevention of movement

Embankment, slope and landslide stabilization

Soil strengthening and protection

7.8 Grouting
routing is the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation to change the
physical characteristics of the formation. Grouting selection considerations are Site specific
requirement, Soil type, Soil groutability, Porosity. Grouting can be prevented by Collapse
of granular soils, Settlement under adjacent foundations, Utilities damage, Day
lighting. Grouting can provide Increased soil strength and rigidity, reduced ground
movement, Predictable degree of improvement.
DESIGN STEPS:

Identify underground construction problem.

Establish objectives of grouting program.

Perform special geotechnical study.

Develop initial grouting program.

Develop performance prediction.

Compare with other solutions.

Refine design and prepare specifications.

GROUTING TECHNIQUES:

The various injection grouting techniques used by grouting contractors for ground
improvement / ground modification can be summarized as follows:

Permeation

Compaction Grouting:

Claquage

Jet Grouting

JET GROUTING:
Jet grouting is a general term used by grouting contractors to describe various construction
techniques used for ground modification or ground improvement. Grouting contractors use
ultra high-pressure fluids or binders that are injected into the soils at high velocities. These
binders break up the soil structure completely and mix the soil particles in-situ to create a
homogeneous mass, which in turn solidifies. This ground modification / ground improvement
of the soil plays an important role in the fields of foundation stability, particularly in the
treatment of load bearing soils under new and existing buildings; in the in-depth
impermeabilization of water bearing soils; in tunnel construction; and to mitigate the
movement of impacted soils and groundwater.

(Fig.11) Jet Grouting

(Fig.12) Jet Grouting stages

7.9 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH STRUCTURES:

A segmental, precast facing mechanically

stabilized earth wall employs metallic
(strip or bar mat) or geosynthetic (geogrid
or

geotextile)

connected

reinforcement

to a

that

is

precast concrete

or

prefabricated metal facing panel to create a

reinforced soil mass.
(Fig.1
3) Section of Mechanical stabilization

PRINCIPLES:

The reinforcement is placed in horizontal layers between successive layers of

granular soil backfill. Each layer of backfill consists of one or more compacted lifts.

A free draining, non plastic backfill soil is required to ensure adequate performance of
the wall system.

For walls reinforced with metallic strips, load is transferred from the backfill soil to
the strip reinforcement by shear along the interface.

For walls with ribbed strips, bar mats, or grid reinforcement, load is similarly
transferred but an additional component of strength is obtained through the passive
resistance on the transverse members of the reinforcement.

Facing panels are typically square, rectangular, hexagonal or cruciform in shape and
are up to 4.5m ^2 in area.

MSEW- Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls, when the face batter is generally
steeper than 70 degrees.

RSS- Reinforced Soil Slopes, when the face batter is shallower.

APPLICATIONS:

RSS structures are cost effective alternatives for new construction where the cost of
embankment fill, right-of-way, and other consideration may make a steeper slope
desirable.

Another use of reinforcement in engineered slopes is to improve compaction at the

edges of a slope to decrease the tendency for surface sloughing.

DESIGN:

Current practice consists of determining the geometric reinforcement to prevent internal and
external failure using limit equilibrium of analysis.
7.10 SOIL NAILING:
The fundamental concept of soil nailing
consists of reinforcing the ground by
passive inclusions, closely spaced, to
create

in-situ

soil

and

restrain

its

displacements. The basic design consists

of transferring the resisting tensile forces
generated in the inclusions into the ground
through the friction mobilized at the
interfaces.

(Fig.14) Soil Nailing

APPLICATIONS:

Stabilization of railroad and highway cut slopes

Excavation retaining structures in urban areas for high-rise building and underground
facilities

Tunnel portals in steep and unstable stratified slopes

Construction and retrofitting of bridge abutments with complex boundaries involving

wall support under piled foundations

8.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Current knowledge permits the conclusion that soil stabilizing agents, including cement,
asphalt, lime and other chemicals as well, can serve many useful purposes. Similarly, the
various mechanical methods of soil stabilization goes a long way and in a more permanent
situation towards ground improvement. In general, these purposes are to: increase soil
strength or bearing capacity, minimize soil compressibility and/or the flow of migration of
subsurface moisture, prevents erosion from surface water, provide a stable working platform

for construction, aid in the mechanical compaction of soils and reduce the expansive property
of soil.