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Abstract
In the investigation of soil cover design options for nal decommissioning of reactive mine waste, it is often necessary to analyze or
predict the anticipated cover performance as a function of the cost of implementation, which is governed by the type, number and
thickness of the layers in the cover system. An example of such investigation is presented in this study where one-dimensional
evaporation from hypothetical moisture-retaining cover systems is simulated to assess the inuence of several cover properties and
hydrogeologic parameters on performance. The commercially available transient ow model, SoilCover, was used to compute suction
and water content proles for different cover design scenarios. The predicted water content prole and porosity of layers were then used
to estimate the oxygen diffusion coefcients of the various layers. The oxygen diffusion coefcients were used to estimate oxygen ux
through the cover systems. The oxygen ux was, in turn, related to the maximum acid ux.
The studied cover and hydrogeologic parameters included soil type, thickness of barriers, and water table elevation. Two types of
inltration and oxygen barrier and two types of capillary layer with different thicknesses were studied. The water table was either kept
constant at the base of the waste (tailings) or dropped by 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 m over 120 days. The results showed that the relationship
between water table depression and the thickness of capillary layers, on one hand, and desaturation of the inltration and oxygen barrier,
on the other, is not linear. Relationships between oxygen ux and barrier thickness and between cost increase and performance
improvement of the studied cover systems are presented. Finally, a method that outlines steps for site-specic and economically feasible
design of multi-layer cover systems is introduced.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Soil cover; Sand-bentonite; Optimum design; Inltration barrier; Capillary layer; Oxygen diffusion; Water level; Environmental management
1. Introduction
1.1. Layered soil cover systems
The contaminated efuent generated when reactive
sulde-bearing mine waste comes into contact with water
and oxygen is called acid rock drainage (ARD). If
preventative and control measures are not taken, ARD can
contaminate surface and ground water in communities
around a mine site. Limiting accessibility of water and
oxygen to the waste can reduce ARD production.
Covering waste (for example, tailings) with a soil layer
that has a low hydraulic conductivity limits accessibility of
water to the tailings. In addition, when the soil cover is
Corresponding author.
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15
7
O2 g H2 Ol ! FeOH3 s 2H2 SO4 aq.
4
2
(1)
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Is thickness of infilt. & O 2 barr.< |AEV* | of infilt. barrier | hr** | of lower capillary layer?
Is | AEV| of infiltration and oxygen barrier | h r| of upper capillary layer?
Is thickness of lower capillary layer>its | AEV| ?
NO
YES
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(2)
where d10 is the particle size (in mm) than which 10% of the
soil is ner, and AEV is the air entry value of the material
in cm of water. Nicholson et al. (1991) suggested that
Eq. (2) may be used to estimate AEV of an inltration and
oxygen barrier. However, it should be pointed out that the
data presented by Lambe and Whitman (1969) was for
cohesionless soils, and therefore the equation may not be
suitable for cohesive soils. Therefore, in the present study it
is suggested that Eq. (2) be used for cohesionless soils and
laboratory test be used for cohesive soils.
Lambe and Whitman (1969) also presented data on the
maximum height of rise of water in cohesionless soils
subjected to downward vertical drainage. This rise is
similar to residual water height (hr) in an upper capillary
barrier in a three-layer cover consisting of a middle low
permeability layer. If the data are plotted on log-linear
axes, the log (d10) value (d10 in mm) versus the hr (cm
water) exhibits a linear trend over the range of sandy gravel
to silt (Fig. 2). Therefore, the d10 value presents an easily
measured parameter to provide an initial estimate of the hr
of cohesionless materials (such as sand) used in upper
capillary layer.
The design steps integrating the above requirements for
the capillary barriers and inltration and oxygen barrier in
a multi-layer cover system are outlined in Fig. 1. The use of
Fig. 2 and Eq. (2) at the rst stage of the design process can
reduce the amount of subsequent laboratory testing. If the
answer to the three questions in the owchart of Fig. 1 is
YES, then it is recommended that laboratory tests (soil
water characteristics tests) be run to obtain more reliable
values of AEV and hr.
The numerical analyses were performed using a saturatedunsaturated evaporation ux model, say SoilCover
0.1
0.01
log(d10)=.00479(AEV)-0.579
r 2=0.97
0.001
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
77
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overlying mine waste (tailings). Evaporation was considered as top boundary condition at soil surface, and suction
as bottom boundary condition at the covertailings interface. Temperature, relative humidity, radiation, and wind
speed were used as climatic input data. Other input soil
properties included saturated hydraulic conductivity, porosity, soil water characteristic curve and hydraulic conductivitysuction function. Proles of suction, degree of
saturation and water content obtained as output were used
to calculate oxygen diffusion coefcient and then oxygen
ux and, nally, to evaluate the performance of the cover
systems.
3.2. Oxygen diffusion coefficient and flux calculation
procedure
Millington (1959) proposed the following equation for
diffusion of gases in non-aggregated porous media:
D
1 Sw 2 PT y2x ,
D0
(3)
(4)
P2x
T
cm per cm , is
i.e., the minimum or effective pore area,
associated with a maximum area occupied by solid,
(1PT)x cm2 per cm2.
In the present study, Eqs. (3) and (4) were used to
calculate the diffusion coefcient of each soil layer in the
cover systems, following the method of Millington and
Shearer (1971). Diffusion coefcient and thickness of the
layers were then used to compute oxygen diffusion ux as
described in the sections that follow.
The computation of steady-state diffusion through a
multi-layered sequence is based on the steady-state diffusion through a nite layer (Ficks rst law):
qC
,
(5)
qx
where F is the mass ux [M/L2T] and other parameters are
as previously dened. The concentration prole through
the sequence of layers is calculated by equating the ux
from each consecutive pair of layers at the interface
between them. The ux can be equated at the interface for
F De
Table 1
Laboratory-measured saturated hydraulic conductivities of study soils
Soil type
WA coarse sand
WA ne sand
sand-bentonite
Tailings/silt
Ksat (cm/s)
5.3 102
6.1 103
5 108
5.8 106
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0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
WA coarse sand
WA fine sand
tailings and silt
sand bentonite
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.1
10
100
1000
Suction (kPa)
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
10-11
10-12
10-13
10-14
10-15
10-16
10-17
10-18
10-19
10-20
0.1
WA coarse sand
WA fine sand
tailings
sand bentonite
10
100
Suction (kPa)
Fig. 3. Soilwater characteristic curves and suctionhydraulic conductivity functions for the soils used in soil cover scenarios.
characteristic curve and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivitysuction function. The volumetric water content
proles and the porosities of the layers were used to
estimate oxygen diffusion coefcients using the procedure
proposed by Millington and Shearer (1971). The estimated
diffusion coefcients and the selected thickness of the
layers were then used to estimate oxygen ux through the
cover systems. This ux is a maximum value (worst-case
scenario) and in reality the ux would be less because of the
lower ux during transient state. The results are presented
in terms of cases related to the type of inltration barrier
(sand-bentonite, or silt) implemented in the cover system. It
should also be noted, however, that oxygen uxes
calculated using the average Sr are only approximate
and, in some cases, may not necessarily represent the actual
ux through the cover.
3.4. Initial and boundary conditions
A perched water table condition was simulated in the
uppermost ne sand to ensure that it was initially
saturated. As noted by Gardner and Fireman (1958),
Wilson et al. (1997) and Yang and Yanful (2001), a high
79
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2.2
30 cm
WA fine sand
60 cm
sand-bentonite
2.0
1.8
WA coarse sand
Elevation (m)
30 cm
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
100 cm
tailings
0.4
0.2
0.0
-10
-5
Case A1
10
15
10
15
30 cm
WA fine sand
60 cm
sand-bentonite
1.6
tailings
Elevation (m)
1.4
1.8
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-10
-5
Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of soil cover Cases A1 and A2 and proles of suction.
the gradual drop in the water level until the suction at the
residual water content is attained. Due to the low AEV of
the coarse sand (Fig. 3), it loses water rapidly by drainage,
resulting in a decrease in hydraulic conductivity and overall
ux of water and, hence, a high degree of saturation in the
inltration barrier.
In Case A2 (Fig. 4) the Waite Amulet coarse sand layer
was removed from the cover system studied in Case A1, in
order to evaluate the feasibility of reducing costs by
removal of the lower capillary layer. Comparison of
suction proles for Cases A1 and A2 in Fig. 4 shows that
the suction at the base of the sand-bentonite layer increased
by 39%, from 6.9 kPa for Case A1 to 9.6 kPa for Case A2.
When a lower capillary layer is used, its steep hydraulic
conductivitysuction function results in a pressure prole
that starts at zero at the water table, and decreases to
negative pressure until near the residual suction value.
4.1.1.2. Influence of upper capillary layer. To investigate
the inuence of the upper capillary layer in the performance of a cover system with a 60-cm thick sand-bentonite
inltration barrier, when the water level drops 1 m from the
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0.38
1.0x10-8
0.37
8.0x10-9
Volumetric water content
Oxygen diffusion coefficient
0.36
6.0x10 -9
4.0x10 -9
0.35
2.0x10 -9
0.34
0.0
0.39
0.33
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
Cost increase
Performance improvement
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
20
0
60
81
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30 cm
1.8
WA fine sand
1.6
1.4
sand-bentonite
Elevation (m)
60 cm
tailings
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
20
Case A2
40
60
80
100
day 1
day 15
day 30
day 60
day 90
day 120
30 cm
1.8
WA fine sand
1.6
1.4
sand-bentonite
WA fine sand
Elevation (m)
60 cm
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 7. Schematic diagrams of soil cover Cases A2 and A3 and proles of degree of saturation.
top of the coarse sand which was 6.9 kPa in Case A1 (Fig.
4) increased to about 10 kPa (45% more) in Case A4 (Fig.
8). The degree of saturation proles for both Cases A1 and
A4 presented in Fig. 8 show that the inltration barrier was
nearly 100% saturated in both cases, because the suctions
of 6.910.7 kPa induced at the contact between the coarse
sand and the inltration and oxygen barrier was still
smaller than its AEV value, which is approximately
100 kPa (Fig. 3).
4.1.4. Case A5: influence of upper capillary layer with fixed
water level
As Fig. 9 shows, Case A5 was similar to Case A4 in the
sense that the elevation of the water table was kept
constant at the base of the tailings. However, the thickness
of the upper capillary layer (Waite Amulet ne sand) was
reduced from 30 to 15 cm. Table 2 shows the inuence of
the thickness of upper capillary layer on the performance
of a cover with a 60-cm-thick inltration barrier and a 30cm-thick lower capillary layer when the water table was
kept at the bottom of the tailings. Increasing the thickness
of upper capillary layer from 0 to 15 cm increased the cost
of the cover system by 16.6% but improved the performance by only 3.5%. However, while doubling the
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2.2
30 cm
WA fine sand
60 cm
sand-bentonite
2.0
1.8
Elevation (m)
30 cm
1.6
WA coarse sand
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
100 cm
tailings
0.4
0.2
0.0
-4
-2
Case A4
10
12
14
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)
day 1
day 15
day 30
day 60
day 90
day 120
20
40
60
80
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
100
20
40
60
80
100
WA fine sand
60 cm
sand-bentonite
30 cm
WA coarse sand
100 cm
tailings
39
3e-8
38
2e-8
37
2e-8
36
2e-8
35
34
1e-8
33
5e-9
32
31
constant water level
Case A5
10
15
20
25
30
Thickness of top capillary barrier (cm)
15 cm
Fig. 8. Schematics and suction prole for Case A4 and proles of degree of saturation for Cases A1 and A4.
35
Fig. 9. Schematics of Case A5 and volumetric water content and oxygen diffusion coefcient versus thickness of top capillary layer.
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Table 2
The inuence of thickness of top capillary layer on performance and cost of a soil cover system with a 60 cm thick sand-bentonite inltration barrier and a
xed water level
Soil cover
case
Thickness of top
capillary layer
(m)
Thickness of
bottom capillary
layer (m)
Average vwc in
inltration
barrier (%)
Oxygen diffusion
coeff. of
inltration
barrier (m2/s)
Oxygen ux
through soil
cover (kg/m2/s)
Performance
improvement
with thicker, top
capillary layer
(%)
Cost increase
with thicker, top
capillary layer
(%)
A0
A4
A5
0
0.30
0.15
0.30
0.30
0.30
32.06
38.58
36.89
2.4 108
3.4 1011
6.9 1010
9.4 1012
5.8 1012
9.0 1012
38.0
3.5
33.3
16.6
Note: (i) vwc volumetric water content; (ii) A0, A4, and A5 modeled cover scenarios (Figs. 8 and 9).
40
Performance improvement (%)
40
Cost increase
Performance improvement
30
20
10
30
20
10
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Thickness of top capillary layer (cm)
35
6
8
10 12
Cost increase (%)
14
16
18
Fig. 10. Percentage of cost increase and performance improvement versus thickness of top capillary layer, and correlation between cost increase and
performance improvement due to adding top capillary layer.
quantities to merit consideration in cover projects (Nicholson et al., 1989). Thus in a number of cases, it may be
necessary to evaluate non-clayey materials, such as silt, as
potential barriers in multi-layer cover systems. Mbonimpa
et al. (2003) used articial silt as inltration and oxygen
barrier in a cover system. In Cases C1C10 of the present
study, silt was investigated as a potential alternative to a
clay-type barrier such as the sand-bentonite.
4.2.1. Cases C1, C2, C3, and C4: influence of water depth
A single-layer silt cover (60 cm thick) placed directly on
3 m of tailings (mine waste) was investigated as shown in
Fig. 11. The inuence of water table depression on the
drainage behavior of the silt barrier was evaluated. The
elevation of the water table, initially at the silttailings
interface in all cases, was decreased to 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 m
below the interface in Cases C1, C2, C3, and C4,
respectively.
The water table was lowered by 0.5 m in Case C1. The
suction at the bottom of the silt inltration and oxygen
barrier in Case C1 at Day 120 was 5 kPa (Fig. 11), which
was less than the AEV of the silty tailings (approximately
10 kPa) (Fig. 3). As a result, the average degree of
saturation in the silt inltration and oxygen barrier in
Case C1 at Day 120 was still 90.3% (Fig. 11).
The water table was lowered by 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 m over
120 days in Cases C2, C3, and C4, respectively, as indicated
in Fig. 12. Lowering the water table increased suction at
the base of the cover, promoted drainage and decreased the
degree of saturation. The average degrees of saturation of
the silt inltration and oxygen barrier in Cases C2, C3 and
C4 (Fig. 12) at Day 120 were approximately 81.1%, 66.9%,
and 57.9% respectively. Fig. 13 shows the desaturation
that occurred in the silt cover in Cases C1C4.
The data are further highlighted in Fig. 14 as a plot of
the average degree of saturation in the single silt cover
versus water level drop below the base of the cover in Cases
C1C4. Fig. 14 shows that at the end of the rst day, the
degree of saturation was the same for all four cases of the
modeled single silt cover. The reason for this behavior
probably is that during the rst day the loss of water by
evaporation for all cases was the same and equal to the
potential evaporation, which is controlled by environmental conditions and not by soil properties and/or the depth
of water level. At later times, the loss of water from covers
is controlled by the actual evaporation, which is governed
by soil properties and water level location. Signicant
reductions in the degree of saturation occurred when the
water level was lowered deep enough to exert suctions that
exceeded the AEV of the silt (10 kPa or 1 m of head), as
shown in Fig. 14. This shows that the elevation of the water
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60 cm
initial water level
85
silt
50 cm
final water level
300 cm
tailings
Case C1
0.6
Elevation of infiltration barrier (m)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
0.4
0.3
day 1
day 15
day 30
day 60
day 90
day 120
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
-5
10
15
20
25
Suction (kPa)
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 11. Schematic of Case C1 and proles of degree of saturation and suction for Case C1.
table need not be very deep for a single layer soil cover with
a relatively low AEV, such as a silt cover, to desaturate.
4.2.2. Cases C5, C6, and C7: influence of thickness of lower
capillary layer
As mentioned before, Case C4 (Fig. 12) modeled a soil
cover consisting of only a silt inltration and oxygen
barrier (without any capillary layer). The inltration and
oxygen barrier desaturated when the water table was
lowered to a depth that caused suctions in the silt to exceed
its AEV. In Cases C5C7, the 60-cm-thick silt inltration
and oxygen barrier was placed above different thicknesses
of Waite Amulet coarse sand lower capillary layer, as
shown in Fig. 15. Similar to Case C4, the covers were
subjected to a gradual 3-m drop in water level over a 120day period. The objective of studying these cases was to
evaluate the inuence of different thicknesses of a lower
capillary layer on performance of silt as inltration and
oxygen barrier. Three cases, C5, C6 and C7, with respective
lower capillary layers 15, 30 and 50 cm thick were
considered. For a large site, the use of reduced thickness
of capillary layer can lead to signicant cost savings, if
performance can be shown to be acceptable.
Fig. 15 presents the prole of degree of saturation in the
inltration barrier for Case C5 when the cover system
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60 cm
initial water level
silt
100 cm
final water level
300 cm
tailings
Case C2
60 cm
initial water level
60 cm
silt
silt
200 cm
tailings
300 cm
300 cm
tailings
Case C4
0.6
Elevation (m)
0.5
0.4
0.5 m (Case C1)
1 m (Case C2)
2 m (Case C3)
3 m (Case C4)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
20
40
60
80
100
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100
90
80
70
day
day
day
day
day
day
60
50
40
30
1
15
30
60
90
120
20
10
0
1m
3m
0.5 m
2m
(Case C1) (Case C2) (Case C3) (Case C4)
Water level drop
60 cm
initial water level
15 cm
300 cm
silt
WA coarse sand
tailings
Fig. 14. Inuence of water level drop on the degree of saturation of the inltration barrier.
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Case C5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Degree of saturation (%)
day 1
day 15
day 30
day 60
day 90
day 120
60 cm
silt
30 cm
WA coarse sand
60 cm
50 cm
silt
WA coarse sand
300 cm
tailings
300 cm
tailings
Case C6
final water level
Case C7
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of soil cover Cases C5C7 and prole of degree of saturation for Case C5.
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72
70
68
66
64
62
60
58
56
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
Cost increase
Performance improvement
10
20
30
40
50
60
25
20
15
10
0
0
25
50
83
Fig. 18. Performance improvement versus cost increase for a silty cover
with lower capillary barrier.
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0.6
Cover elevation (m)
silt
60 cm
100 cm
tailings
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Case C8-Degree of saturation (%)
Case C8
day 1
day 15
day 30
day 60
day 90
day 120
30 cm
WA fine sand
15 cm
60 cm
silt
60 cm
100 cm
tailings
100 cm
Case C9
WA fine sand
silt
tailings
Case C10
Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of soil cover Cases C8C10 and prole of degree of saturation for Case C8.
100
90
80
70
60
day 1
day 15
day 30
day 60
day 90
day 120
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
15
30
Fig. 20. Inuence of the thickness of upper capillary layer on degree of saturation of silt cover.
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3.5x10 -8
3.0x10
-8
2.5x10 -8
2.0x10-8
1.5x10 -8
1.0x10
-9
0.5x10 -9
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time (day)
Fig. 21. Total oxygen ux through soil cover with top capillary layers of
0, 15, and 30 cm thick.
100
80
80
Cost increase
Performance improvement
60
60
40
40
20
20
100
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
7. Conclusions
An investigation of the inuence of a number of soil
cover properties and hydrogeologic parameters on performance has been presented. The investigation simulated
one-dimensional evaporation from hypothetical moistureretaining cover systems using the commercially available
transient ow model, SoilCover, to compute suction and
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Millington, R.J., Quirk, J.P., 1961. Permeability of porous solids.
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