Chapter 15 - Interpersonal &

Organizational Communication
Communication Defined: The Transfer of Information &
Understanding
Communication - the transfer of information and understanding from one
person to another.
You are an efficient communicator when you can transmit your message
accurately in the least time.
You are an effective communicator when your intended message is accurately
understood by the other person
Communication has been said to be a process consisting
of "a sender transmitting a message through a medium
to a receiver who responds."
The sender is the person wanting to share information - called a message - and
the receiver is the person for whom the message is intended.
Sender Message Receiver
Encoding is translating a message into understandable symbols or language.
Decoding is interpreting and trying to make sense of the message.
Sender [Encoding] Message [Decoding] Receiver
The medium is the pathway by which a message travels.
Feedback is when the receiver expresses his or her reaction to the sender's
message.

Noise is defined as any disturbance that interferes with the transmission of a

message.

Noise occurs in

nonverbal communication
o as when our physical movements send a message
that is different from the one we are speaking,
cross-cultural communication
o as when we make assumptions about other people's messages
based on our own culture instead of theirs

Media richness indicates how well a particular medium conveys information

and promotes learning.

Face-to-face communication, also the most personal form of communication,

is the richest.

It allows the receiver of the message to observe multiple cues, such as

body language and tone of voice.
It allows the sender to get immediate feedback, to see how well the
receiver comprehended the message.

Impersonal written media is just the reverse,

Only one cue and no feedback, making it low in richness.

Matching the Appropriate Medium to the Appropriate

Situation
Rich medium

Best for nonroutine situations and to avoid oversimplification.

E.g. learning about a major company reorganization from your boss, which
might affect your position.
o Rich Face to face, more personal
o Lean Bulletin board, less personal
Usually people would prefer face-to-face.
The danger of using a rich medium for routine matters (such as monthly
sales reports) is that it results in information overloading-more
information than necessary.

Lean medium

Best for routine situations and to avoid overloading.

E.g. getting routine monthly sales reports
o Rich Phone calls, time consuming
o Lean Emails or text messages, less time consuming
Usually people would prefer just an email.
The danger of using a lean medium for nonroutine matters (such as a
company reorganization) is that it results in information
oversimplification-it doesn't provide enough of the information the
receiver needs and wants.

A communication barrier - is anything interfering with accurate

communication between two people.

3 Types of Barriers
1. Physical barriers
a. sound
b. time
c. space
d. timezone differences
e. telephone line static
f. crashed computers
2. Semantic barriers
a. semantics is the study of the meaning of words.
i. Unusual pronunciation while dealing with other cultures
b. jargon is terminology specific to a particular profession or group.
i. HR Human Resource, VP Vice-president, ASAP- as soon as
possible
ii. Buzzwords words primarily designed to impress rather than
inform.
1. leverage, interface
3. Personal barriers
a. individual attributes that hinder communication
i. Variable Skills in Communicating Effectively
1. Some people are simply better communicators than
others.
ii. Variations in How Information Is Processed &
Interpreted
1. People use different frames of reference /experience to
interpret things and are selective about what has
meaning to them and what doesnt.
iii. Variations in Trustworthiness & Credibility
1. Without trust, both of you will be concentrating on
defensive tactics, not the meaning of the message
being exchanged
iv. Oversized Egos
1. Egos influence how we treat each other as well as how
receptive we are to being influenced by others, can
create political/power battles.
v. Faulty Listening Skills
vi. Tendency to Judge Others' Messages
1. Natural tendency to judge peoples messages based on
our own views.
vii. Inability to Listen with Understanding
1. see the expressed idea from the other person's point of
view, to achieve his frame of reference in regard to
what he is talking about
viii. Stereotypes & Prejudices
1. stereotype consists of oversimplified beliefs about a
group of people
ix. Nonverbal Communication
1. Gestures or facial expressions sometimes contradict
words.

All it takes is one blocked step in the communication process for communication
to fail.

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication consists of messages sent outside of the written or
spoken word.
1. Eye Contact
a. Eye contact serves four functions in communication:
It signals the beginning and end of a conversation; there
is a tendency to look away from others when beginning to
speak and to look at them when done.
It expresses emotion; for instance, most people tend to
avoid eye contact when conveying bad news or negative
feedback.
Gazing monitors feedback because it reflects interest and
attention.
Depending on the culture, gazing also expresses the type
of relationship between the people communicating.
o Westerners are taught at an early age to look at their
parents when spoken to.
o Asians are taught to avoid eye contact with a parent or
superior in order to show obedience and subservience.
2. Facial Expressions
a. Smiling represents warmth, happiness, or friendship whereas
b. Frowning represents dissatisfaction or anger
3. Body Movements & Gestures
a. Interpretations of body language are subjective, hence easily
misinterpreted, and highly dependent on the context and crosscultural differences.
Usually an subconscious indication of a persons thoughts.
4. Touch
a. Norms for touching vary significantly around the world, vary based
on cultures.
In the Middle East it is normal for two males who are friends
to walk together holding hands, not commonplace behavior in
the United States
5. Setting
a. The location of an office, its size, and the choice of furniture often
expresses the accessibility of the person in it.
6. Time

a. As a manager yourself, you should always give the people who work
for you adequate time.
b. You should also talk with them frequently during your meetings with
them so they will understand your interest.

Gender-Related Communication Differences

Learning "Soft Skills" - to communicate, build teams, and develop flexibility

Avoid the use of masculine wording for jobs or roles that are occupied by
both genders,
o Using police officer instead of policeman; supervisor rather than
foreman.

Women as Executive Coaches

Females always want another female as a coach.

When a man is asked to coach another, they have a tendency to compete.

Formal Communication Channels: Up, Down, Sideways,

& Outward
Formal communication channels follow the chain of command and are
recognized as official.
Formal communication is of three types:
(1) Vertical - meaning upward and downward,
(2) Horizontal - meaning laterally (sideways), and
(3) External - meaning outside the organization.

Vertical: Up & Down the Chain of Command

Vertical communication is the flow of messages up and down the

hierarchy within the organization: bosses communicating with
subordinates, subordinates communicating with bosses.
a. The more management levels through which a message passes, the
more it is prone to some distortion.
b. Downward communication - from top to bottom.
i. Downward communication flows from a higher level to a
lower level (or levels).
1. In small organizations, top-down communication may
be delivered face-to-face.
2. In larger organizations, it's delivered via meetings, email, official memos, and company publications.
c. Upward communication - from bottom to top.
i. Upward communication flows from a lower level to a higher
level(s).
1. Often this type of communication is from a subordinate
to his or her immediate manager, who in turn will relay
it up to the next level, if necessary.
2. Effective upward communication depends on an
atmosphere of trust.
a. No subordinate is going to want to be the bearer
of bad news to a manager who is always
negative and bad-tempered.

Horizontal Communication: Within & Between Work Units

Horizontal communication flows within and between work units; its

main purpose is coordination, consulting with colleagues and co-workers
at the same level as you within the organization.
a. Horizontal communication is encouraged through the use of
committees, task forces, and matrix structures.
b. Horizontal communication can be impeded in three ways:
i. by specialization that makes people focus just on their jobs
alone;
ii. by rivalry between workers or work units, which prevents
sharing of information; and
iii. by lack of encouragement from management

External Communication: Outside the Organization

External communication flows between people inside and outside the

organization.
a. These are other stakeholders: customers, suppliers, shareholders
or other owners, and so on.
b. Companies have given this kind of communication heightened
importance, especially with customers or clients, who are the
lifeblood of any company.

Informal Communication Channels

Informal communication channels develop outside the formal structure and do
not follow the chain of command - they skip management levels and cut across
lines of authority.
Two types of informal channels are
(1) The Grapevine and
(2) Management by Wandering Around.

The Grapevine

The grapevine is the

a. Unofficial communication system of the informal organization, a
network of gossip and rumor of what is called "employee
language."
i. Gossip can be notoriously misleading and a great reducer of
morale in a dysfunctional company.

Management by wandering around (MBWA)

Management by wandering around (MBWA)

a. is the term used to describe a manager's literally wandering
around his or her organization and talking with people across all
lines of authority.
i. Helps to reduce the problems of distortion
1. that inevitably occur with formal communication
flowing up a hierarchy.
ii. Allows managers to
1. listen to employees and learn about their problems as
well as to
2. express to employees what values and goals are
important

Multicommunicating represents "the use of technology to participate in

several interactions at the same time
University of Toronto professor Don Tapscott and his fellow researchers have
identified eight norms for this Internet Generation.
The Always On generation is accustomed to spending 8 hours a day or more
looking at various screens

on cell phones,
on computers,
on TVs-constantly busy with text messaging,
e-mail, and
the Internet.

8 Norms of the Millennial or Internet Generation

Digital Communication & the New Workplace:

Videoconferencing, Telecommuting, & Teleworking
Videoconferencing

videoconferencing, also known as teleconferencing,

o using video and audio links along with computers to
see, hear, and talk with one another
Does not beat face-to-face meetings for opening a
relationship with a prospective client or closing a decision
Many organizations set up special videoconferencing rooms or booths with
specially equipped television cameras.
o Some of the more sophisticated equipment is known as telepresence
technology,
high-definition videoconference systems that simulate face-toface meetings between users
telepresence systems require a specially designed room with
multiple cameras and high-definition video screens, simulating
"the sensation of two groups of people at identical tables facing
each other through windows,"

Telecommuting

Telecommuting involves
o doing work that is
generally performed in the office
away from the office,
using a variety of information technologies.
Employees typically receive and send work from home via
phone and fax or by using a modem to link a home
computer to an office computer.
Among the benefits are
(1) reduction of capital costs, because employees work at home;
(2) increased flexibility and autonomy for workers;
(3) competitive edge in recruiting hard-to-get employees;
(4) increased job satisfaction and lower turnover;
(5) increased productivity; and
(6) ability to tap nontraditional labor pools

Teleworking

The term teleworking has been adopted to replace the term

"telecommuting" because it encompasses not just working from home but
working from anywhere.
o With cell phones, broadband at home, Wi-Fi, virtual private networks,
and instant messaging becoming ubiquitous, telework has become
easier.
Employees in different locations and time zones can work simultaneously
o (called synchronous communication)
Team members can work on the same project at different times

(asynchronous communication)

The Downside of the Digital Age

Security: Guarding Against Cyberthreats

o Security is defined as a system of safeguards for protecting
information technology against disasters, system failures, and
unauthorized access that result in damage or loss.
Pick strong passwords & Use different passwords
Don't reveal sensitive information
Don't share files / Avoid file-sharing services
Keep data in hard drives or storage devices
Apply the latest security updates
Privacy: Keeping Things to Yourself
o Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about
themselves.
o A particularly aggravating violation of privacy is identity theft, in
which thieves hijack your name and identity and use your good
credit rating to get cash or buy things.
E-Mail: Productivity Enhancer or Time Waster?
o We love that we can send and receive e-mail 24/7 from practically
anywhere.
o But we hate the fact that the average worker receives 200 e-mails a
day
Some other disadvantages of e-mail are that
(1) there has been a decrease in all other forms of
communication among co-workers, including greetings
and informal conversations;
(2) emotions often are poorly communicated or
miscommunicated via e-mail messages; and
(3) the greater the use of e-mail, the less connected coworkers reportedly feel
o Practical tips for handling e-mail:
Treat all e-mail as confidential.
Be careful with jokes and informality
Avoid sloppiness, but avoid criticizing others' sloppiness.
When replying, quote only the relevant portion.
Not every topic belongs on e-mail.
Cell Phones: Use & Abuse
o Cellphones can text, access e-mail and Web pages, view TV
programs, almost all are smartphones, becoming an indispensable
part of our lives.
o 5 Rules of using the Cell Phone:
1. Keep the volume of your voice down while on the phone;
no need to SHOUT.
2. Don't force defenseless others on buses, in restaurants,
and so on to have to listen to your phone conversations.

3. Shut off your ringer during meetings and public

performances; set the phone on "vibrate," and return calls
at a discreet distance.
4. Don't text during meetings or other conversations.
5. Don't dial/text while driving.

Being an Effective Listener

Concentrate on the Content of the Message

Judge content, not delivery.

o Don't tune out someone because of his or her accent, clothing,
mannerisms, personality, or speaking style.
Ask questions, summarize remarks.
o Good listening is hard work. Ask questions to make sure you
understand. Recap what the speaker said.
Listen for ideas.
o Don't get diverted by the details; try to concentrate on the main ideas.
Resist distractions, show interest.
o Don't get distracted by things other people are doing, paperwork on
your desk, things happening outside the window, television or radio,
and the like.
o Show the speaker you're listening, periodically restating in your own
words what you've heard.
Give a fair hearing.
o Don't shut out unfavorable information just because you hear a term
that suggests ideas you're not comfortable with.
o Try to correct for your biases.

Being an Effective Reader

Concentrate on the content of the message, judge the content
and not the delivery, and concentrate on the main ideas.

Realize That Speed Reading Doesn't Work

o Speed reading or skimming may work well with easy or familiar
reading material, but it can lead to problems with dense or unfamiliar
material
Learn to Streamline Reading
o Be savvy about periodicals and books
Review magazine subscriptions and eliminate as many as
possible.
Subscribe to just a few industry publications
Read summaries and reviews that condense business books and
articles.
o Transfer your reading load.

Ask your employees

to scan it first, then post a note on items that need
additional reading
to read important books and summarize them in four or
five pages.
Make internal memos and e-mail more efficient.
Ask others to
specify in their e-mails, memos, and reports what they
want you to do.
include a one-page executive summary of a long report.
When you communicate with them, give them specific questions
you want answered.

Do Top-Down Reading - SQ3R

o You'll get more out of what you read if you literally produce meaningful
connections between what you already know and what you're reading.
o This leads to what she calls a "top-down" strategy for reading, a
variant on the SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review)
method
Rate reasons to read
Will reading it contribute to my goals?
Question and predict answers.
Formulate specific questions you want the reading to
answer.
This will give you reasons for reading-to get answers to
your questions.
Survey the big picture.
Survey the material to be read so you can get a sense of
the whole.
Take a few minutes to get an overview so that you'll be
better able to read with purpose.
Skim for main ideas.
Skimming the material is similar to surveying, except it's
on a smaller scale.
You look for the essence of each subsection or paragraph.
Summarize.
Summarize as you skim.
Verbally restate or write notes of the main points, using
your own words.
Visualize or sketch the main points.
Answer your initial questions as you skim the material.

Being an Effective Writer

Writing is an essential management skill, all the more so
because
e-mail and texting has replaced the telephone in so much of
business communication.

Don't Show Your Ignorance

o E-mail correspondence and texting have made people more relaxed
about spelling and grammar rules.
o But as a manager you'll need to create a more favorable impression in
your writing, hence the need for spelling and grammar checks, as well
as proofreading.
Understand Your Strategy before You Write
o Most important to least important.
o Least controversial to most controversial.
o Negative to positive.
Start with Your Purpose
o start your writing by telling your purpose and what you expect of the
reader
Write Simply, Concisely, & Directly
o Keep your words simple and use short words, sentences, and phrases.
o Be direct instead of vague, and use the active voice rather than the
passive
Telegraph Your Writing with a Powerful Layout
o Make your writing as easy to read as possible, using the tools of
highlighting and white space.
Highlighting
Highlighting consists of using boldface and italics to
emphasize key concepts and introduce new concepts, and
bullets to emphasize list items.
White space
White space, which consists of wide margins and a break
between paragraphs, produces a page that is clean and
attractive.

Being an Effective Speaker

The biggest problem most people have with public speaking
is controlling their nerves

Tell Them What You're Going to Say

o The introduction should take 5%-15% of your speaking time, and it
should prepare the audience for the rest of the speech.
o Because everything in your speech should be relevant, try to go right

to the point.
Say It
o The main body of the speech takes up 75%-90% of your time.
o The most important thing to realize is that your audience won't
remember more than a few points anyway.
o Thus, you need to decide which three or four points must be
remembered
Tell Them What You Said
o The end might take 5%-10% of your time.
o Many professional speakers consider the conclusion to be as important
as the introduction, so don't drop the ball here.
o You need a solid, strong, persuasive wrap-up.