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STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF

MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
AND RADAR
APPLICATIONS
[Type the document subtitle]

Shivendra Singh
[Pick the date]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Apart from the efforts from me, the successful completion of any
project depends largely on encouragement and guidelines from
many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to
the people who have been instrumental in the successful and
timely completion of this project.
I would like to show my greatest appreciation to Mr. B. S.
Matheru (Scientist F) for allowing me to pursue my training in
his department.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mrs. Kirti Bansal
(Scientist C) without whose guidance and encouragement this
project would not have been materialized. The training was
extremely productive and fruitful and was an endowing
experience in both technical and practical aspect.

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that SHIVENDRA SINGH, student of 3rd year in
Electrical and Electronics Department of Krishna Institute
of Engineering and Technology has successfully undergone
training in the Microwave Division, Solid State Physics
Laboratory, DRDO, Delhi from 9/7/2013 to 2/8/2013 on the
topic titled:
STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
AND RADAR APPLICATIONS
The project is an original work of the candidate completed
successfully on time.
The candidate had a good code of conduct and sincerity towards
his tasks during the course of training.
I wish him success in all his future endeavors.

Dated:
Matheru

Mr. B. S.
Scientist F
SSPL, DRDO

Mrs. Kirti Bansal

Scientist C
SSPL, DRDO

DISCLAIMER

This project/training work entitled STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF

MICROWAVE

SYSTEMS

AND

RADAR

APPLICATIONS

submitted to the Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering, Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology, is a
result of work carried out by me under the guidance of Mr. B.S.
Matheru (Scientist F) and Mrs. Kirti Bansal (Scientist E), SSPL,
DRDO.
None of the information about DRDO or SSPL included in the
report is classified and is obtained from their websites.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO DRDO

INTRODUCTION TO SSPL

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVES

RADAR

13

PHASED ARRAY RADAR

18

PHASE SHIFTERS

21

BIBLIOGRAPHY

28

D.R.D.O.

The Defense Research and Development Organization

(DRDO) works under the Ministry of Defense, Government of
India. DRDO is an agency of the Republic of India, responsible for
the development of technology for use by the military,
headquartered in New Delhi, India. It was formed in 1958 by the
merger of the Technical Development Establishment and the
Directorate of Technical Development and Production with the
Defense Science Organization.
DRDO has a network of 52 laboratories which are engaged in
developing defense technologies covering various fields, like
aeronautics, armaments, electronic and computer sciences,
human resource development, life sciences, materials, missiles,
combat vehicles development and naval research and
development. The organization includes more than 5,000
scientists and about 25,000 other scientific, technical and
supporting personnel.

S.S.P.L.
Solid State Physics Laboratory (SSPL), one of the
establishments under the Defense R&D Organization (DRDO),
Ministry of Defense, was established in 1962 with the broad
objective of developing an R&D base in the field of Solid State
Materials, Devices and Sub-systems. The Laboratory has a vision
to be the centre of excellence in the development of Solid State
Materials, Devices and has a Mission to develop and characterize
high purity materials and solid state devices and to enhance
infrastructure, technology for meeting the futuristic challenges.
The major activities at SSPL include development of semiconductor materials, solid state devices, electronic
components/sub-systems and investigation of solid state
materials/devices. Over the years, the Laboratory has developed
core competence in the following areas:Design & Development of
GaAs based Microwave devices and circuits
IR devices
Ferrite components
SAW devices & sensors
MEMs components
Materials Development & Characterization
Products

Space quality silicon solar cells.

Solar Cells

 Poly crystalline Garnets & Microwave Substrates

Dual Mode Phase Shifter
Remotely Activated Acoustic Warning system(RAAWS)
Intruder Alarm System
MMIC
Strain Gauges
MEMS

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVES

The field of radio frequency (RF) and microwave engineering

generally covers the behavior of alternating current signals with
frequencies in the range of 100 MHz (1 MHz = 106 Hz) to 1000
GHz (1 GHz = 109 Hz). RF frequencies range from very high
frequency (VHF) (30300 MHz) to ultra high frequency (UHF)
(3003000 MHz), while the term microwave is typically used for
frequencies between 3 and 300 GHz, with a corresponding
electrical wavelength between = c/ f = 10 cm and = 1 mm,
respectively. On the surface, the definition of a microwave would
appear to be simple because, in electronics, the prefix "micro"
normally means a millionth part of a unit. Micro also means small,
which is a relative term, and it is used in that sense in this
module. Microwave is a term loosely applied to identify
electromagnetic waves above 1000 megahertz in frequency
because of the short physical wavelengths of these frequencies.
Short wavelength energy offers distinct advantages in many
applications. For instance, excellent directivity can be obtained
using relatively small antennas and low-power transmitters. These
features are ideal for use in both military and civilian radar and
communication applications. Small antennas and other small
components are made possible by microwave frequency
applications. Microwave frequency usage is especially important
in the design of radars because it makes possible the detection of
smaller targets.

The above figure shows the electromagnetic spectrum.

The above figure shows the frequency and wavelengths of

various bands in the radio frequency region.

APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

1. Antenna gain is proportional to the electrical size of the
antenna. At higher frequencies, more antenna gain can be
obtained for a given physical antenna size, and this has important
consequences when implementing microwave systems.
2. More bandwidth (directly related to data rate) can be realized
at higher frequencies. A 1% bandwidth at 600 MHz is 6 MHz,
which (with binary phase shift keying modulation) can provide a
data rate of about 6 Mbps (megabits per second), while at 60 GHz
a 1% bandwidth is 600 MHz, allowing a 600 Mbps data rate.
3. Microwave signals travel by line of sight and are not bent by
the ionosphere as are lower frequency signals. Satellite and
terrestrial communication links with very high capacities are
therefore possible, with frequency reuse at minimally distant
locations.
4. The effective reflection area (radar cross section) of a radar
target is usually proportional to the targets electrical size. This
fact, coupled with the frequency characteristics of antenna gain,
generally makes microwave frequencies preferred for radar
systems.
5. Various molecular, atomic, and nuclear resonances occur at
microwave frequencies, creating a variety of unique applications
in the areas of basic science, remote sensing, medical diagnostics
and treatment, and heating methods.
The majority of todays applications of RF and microwave
technology are to wireless networking and communications
systems, wireless security systems, radar systems, environmental
remote sensing, and medical systems.

RADARS
Radar, or radio detection and ranging, is the oldest application of
microwave technology, dating back to World War II. In its basic
operation, a transmitter sends out a signal, which is partly
reflected by a distant target, and then detected by a sensitive
receiver. If a narrow beam antenna is used, the targets direction
can be accurately given by the angular position of the antenna.
The distance to the target is determined by the time required for
a pulsed signal to travel to the target and back, and the radial
velocity of the target is related to the Doppler shift of the return
signal. Below are listed some of the typical applications of radar
systems.
Civilian applications
1. Airport surveillance
2. Marine navigation
3. Weather radar
4. Altimetry
5. Aircraft landing
6. Security alarms
7. Speed measurement (police radar)
8. Geographic mapping
Military applications
1. Air and marine navigation
2. Detection and tracking of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft
3. Missile guidance
4. Fire control for missiles and artillery

5. Weapon fuses
6. Reconnaissance
Scientific applications
1. Astronomy
2. Mapping and imaging
3. Precision distance measurement
4. Remote sensing of the environment
Early radar work in the United States and Britain began in the
1930s using very high frequency (VHF) sources. A major
breakthrough occurred in the early 1940s with the British
invention of the magnetron tube as a reliable source of highpower microwaves.
Higher frequencies allowed the use of reasonably sized antennas
with high gain, allowing mechanical tracking of targets with good
angular resolution. Radar was quickly developed in Great Britain
and the United States, and played an important role in World War
II.

Principle:
A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called
radar signals in predetermined directions. When these come into
contact with an object they are usually reflected or scattered in
many directions. Radar signals are reflected especially well by
materials of considerable electrical conductivityespecially by
most metals, by seawater and by wet lands. Some of these make
the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar signals that are
reflected back towards the transmitter are the desirable ones that
make radar work. If the object is moving either toward or away

from the transmitter, there is a slight equivalent change in the

frequency of the radio waves, caused by the Doppler Effect.
Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location
as the transmitter. Although the reflected radar signals captured
by the receiving antenna are usually very weak, they can be
strengthened by electronic amplifiers. More sophisticated
methods of signal processing are also used in order to recover
useful radar signals.
The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through
which it passes is what enables radar sets to detect objects at
relatively long rangesranges at which other electromagnetic
wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet
light, are too strongly attenuated. Such weather phenomena as
fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet that block visible light are
usually transparent to radio waves. Certain radio frequencies that
are absorbed or scattered by water vapor, raindrops, or
atmospheric gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in designing
radars, except when their detection is intended.
Radar relies on its own transmissions rather than light from the
Sun or the Moon, or from electromagnetic waves emitted by the
objects themselves, such as infrared wavelengths (heat). This
process of directing artificial radio waves towards objects is called
illumination, although radio waves are invisible to the human eye
or optical cameras.

Radar Equation:

The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the

equation:

where
Pt = transmitter power
Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna
= radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the
target
F = pattern propagation factor
Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target
Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.
In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at
the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt Rr can be replaced by
R4, where R is the range. This yields:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power
of the range, which means that the received power from distant
targets is relatively very small.
Additional filtering and pulse integration modifies the radar
equation slightly for pulse-Doppler radar performance, which can
be used to increase detection range and reduce transmit power.

The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for transmission

in a vacuum without interference. The propagation factor
accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends
on the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, path
loss effects should also be considered.

Radar Range Measurement:

where

c = speed of light
= round trip time

PHASED ARRAY RADARS

In antenna theory, a phased array is an array of antennas in
which the relative phases of the respective signals feeding the
antennas are varied in such a way that the effective radiation
pattern of the array is reinforced in a desired direction and
suppressed in undesired directions.
An antenna array is a group of multiple active antennas coupled
to a common source or load to produce a directive radiation
pattern. Usually, the spatial relationship of the individual
antennas also contributes to the directivity of the antenna array.
Use of the term "active antennas" is intended to describe
elements whose energy output is modified due to the presence of
a source of energy in the element (other than the mere signal
energy which passes through the circuit) or an element in which
the energy output from a source of energy is controlled by the
signal input.
A phased array antenna is composed of lots of radiating elements
each with a phase shifter. Beams are formed by shifting the phase
of the signal emitted from each radiating element, to provide
constructive/destructive interference so as to steer the beams in
the desired direction.
The main beam always points in the direction of the increasing
phase shift. Well, if the signal to be radiated is delivered through
an electronic phase shifter giving a continuous phase shift then
the beam direction will be electronically adjustable. However, this
cannot be extended unlimitedly. The highest value, which can be
achieved for the Field of View (FOV) of a planar phased array
antenna is 120 (60 left and 60 right). With the sine theorem
the necessary phase moving can be calculated.

Conventional radar tracks targets by physically turning its main

beam 360 degrees and then measuring how reflective items
blipshave moved since previous sweeps.
But phased-array radars work differently; they steer the main
beam by manipulating the pattern emanating from an array of
hundreds or thousands of radiating elements, nearly
instantaneously moving the location of the overlapping waves
instead of an actual dish.

Thus, each element emits a radio wave with crests and troughs
that are slightly out of sync with the crests and troughs of the
radio waves emitted by its neighbors. For example, a wave being
radiated from element A may start at a crest, while the wave
emanating from element B begins life as a trough.
The effect is that the beam swings from the center to the right or
left (see diagram, opposite). With the new elements added, the
beam can be pointed up or down as well. The direction of the
beam can be changed in 20 microseconds or less.
The main advantage to this approach is that the radar can keep a
constant eye on a targetit can shoot and watch for radio
reflections thousands of times per second instead of going blind
until the next rotation sweeps the main beam past the target
again.
Since the main beam can be pointed almost instantaneously, it
can jump from object to object as they come into range.
Phased-array radars are not without disadvantages. Most are
functional through a cone of just 120 degrees, because the width
of the main beam diminishes the farther it gets from broadside.
As an example, think of how narrow your wide-screen television
looks when youre in an adjacent room.
For this reason, at least four radars are needed to cover a
hemisphere. To compensate for the narrow field of view, the SBXs
main array rotates and tilts; its one of the few phased arrays to
do that.
Although the initial cost is 100,000 times more expensive than
conventional radar with the same beam width, a phased-array
device may be cheaper long-term because the system will still
function as needed even if many of its smallest components fail.

PHASE SHIFTERS

Phase shifters are used to change the transmission phase angle

(phase of S21) of a network. Ideal phase shifters provide low
insertion loss, and equal amplitude (or loss) in all phase states.
While the loss of a phase shifter is often overcome using an
amplifier stage, the less loss, the less power that is needed to
overcome it. Most phase shifters are reciprocal networks, meaning
that they work effectively on signals passing in either direction.
Phase shifters can be controlled electrically, magnetically or
mechanically. Most of the phase shifters described on this web
site is passive reciprocal networks; we will concentrate mainly on
those that are electrically-controlled.
While the applications of microwave phase shifters are numerous,
perhaps the most important application is within a phased array
antenna system (a.k.a. electrically steerable array, or ESA), in
which the phase of a large number of radiating elements are
controlled to force the electro-magnetic wave to add up at a
particular angle to the array. For this very purpose, phase shifters
are often embedded in TR modules. The total phase variation of a
phase shifter need only be 360 degrees to control an ESA of
moderate bandwidth. Networks that stretch phase more than 360
degrees are often called time delay bits or true time delays (part
of a TDU), and are constructed similar to the switched line phase
shifters that are described below.
Analog versus digital phase shifters
Phase shifters can be analog or digital. Analog phase shifters
provide a continuously variable phase, perhaps controlled by a
voltage. Electrically controlled analog phase shifters can be

realized with varactor diodes that change capacitance with

voltage, or nonlinear dielectrics such as barium strontium
titanate, or Ferro-electric materials such as yttrium iron garnet. A
mechanically-controlled analog phase shifter is really just a
mechanically lengthened transmission line, often called a
trombone line. Analog phase shifters are a mere side-show and
will not be covered here in depth at this time. If you are interested
in more information on any of these analog phase shifter topics,
let us know and we will try to accommodate you.
Most phase shifters are of the digital variety, as they are more
immune to noise on their voltage control lines. Digital phase
shifters provide a discrete set of phase states that are controlled
by two-state "phase bits." The highest order bit is 180 degrees,
the next highest is 90 degrees, then 45 degrees, etc., as 360
degrees is divided into smaller and smaller binary steps. A three
bit phase shifter would have a 45 degree least significant bit
(LSB), while a six bit phase shifter would have a 5.6 degree least
significant bit. Technically the latter case would have a 5.625
degree LSB, but in the microwave world it is best to ignore
precision that you cannot obtain. If you can't comprehend this
point, you might want to consider a different career such as
accounting.
The convention followed for phase shifters is that the shortest
phase length is the reference or "off" state, and the longest path
or phase length is the "on" state. Thus a 90 degree phase shifter
actually provides minus ninety degrees of phase shift in its "on"
state.
Types of phase shifters
Switched line (delay line) phase shifters
Switched filter phase shifters
High-pass/low-pass phase shifters

Loaded-line phase shifters

Ferroelectric phase shifters
Reflection phase shifters
180 degree hybrid phase shifters
Quadrature hybrid phase shifters
Varactor phase shifters
Schiffman phase shifters
MEMS phase shifters

FERRITES:
A FERRITE is a device that is composed of material that causes it
to have useful magnetic properties and, at the same time, high
resistance to current flow. The primary material used in the
construction of ferrites is normally a compound of iron oxide with
impurities of other oxides added. The compound of iron oxide
retains the properties of the ferromagnetic atoms, and the
impurities of the other oxides increase the resistance to current
flow. This combination of properties is not found in conventional
magnetic materials. Iron, for example, has good magnetic
properties but a relatively low resistance to current flow. The low
resistance causes eddy currents and significant power losses at
high frequencies. Ferrites, on the other hand, have sufficient
resistance to be classified as semiconductors. The compounds
used in the composition of ferrites can be compared to the more
familiar compounds used in transistors. As in the construction of
transistors, a wide range of magnetic and electrical properties can
be produced by the proper choice of atoms in the right
proportions.

Ferrites have long been used at conventional frequencies in

computers, television, and magnetic recording systems. The use
of ferrites at microwave frequencies is a relatively new
development and has had considerable influence on the design of
microwave systems. In the past, the microwave equipment was
made to conform to the frequency of the system and the design
possibilities were limited. The unique properties of ferrites provide
a variable reactance by which microwave energy can be
manipulated to conform to the microwave system. At present,
ferrites are used as LOAD ISOLATORS, PHASE SHIFTERS, VARIABLE
ATTENUATORS, MODULATORS, and SWITCHES in microwave
systems.

The magnetic property of any material is a result of electron

movement within the atoms of the material. Electrons have two
basic types of motion. The most familiar is the ORBITAL
movement of the electron about the nucleus of the atom. Less
familiar, but even more important, is the movement of the
electron about its own axis, called ELECTRON SPIN. You will recall
that magnetic fields are generated by current flow. Since current
is the movement of electrons, the movement of the electrons
within an atom create magnetic fields. The magnetic fields caused
by the movement of the electrons about the nucleus have little
effect on the magnetic properties of a material. The magnetic
fields caused by electron spin combine to give material magnetic
properties. In most materials the spin axes of the electrons are so
randomly arranged that the magnetic fields largely cancel out and
the material displays no significant magnetic properties. The
electron spin axes within some materials, such as iron and nickel,
can be caused to align by applying an external magnetic field.
The alignment of the electrons within a material causes the

magnetic fields to add, and the material then has magnetic

properties.

In the absence of an external force, the axis of any spinning

object tends to remain pointed in one direction. Spinning
electrons behave the same way. Therefore, once the electrons are
aligned, they tend to remain aligned even when the external field
is removed. Electron alignment in a ferrite is caused by the orbital
motion of the electrons about the nucleus and the force that holds
the atom together. When a static magnetic field is applied, the
electrons try to align their spin axes with the new force. The
attempt of the electrons to balance between the interaction of the
new force and the binding force causes the electrons to wobble on
their axes. The wobble of the electrons has a natural resonant
WOBBLE FREQUENCY that varies with the strength of the applied
field. Ferrite action is based on this behavior of the electrons
under the influence of an external field and the resulting wobble
frequency.
FERRITE PHASE SHIFTER:
When microwave energy is passed through a piece of ferrite in a
magnetic field, another effect occurs. If the frequency of the
microwave energy is much greater than the electron wobble
frequency, the plane of polarization of the wave front is rotated.
This is known as the FARADAY ROTATION EFFECT and is illustrated
in figure 1-76. A ferrite rod is placed along the axis of the
waveguide, and a magnetic field is set up along the axis by a coil.
As a wave front enters the section containing the ferrite, it sets up
a limited motion in the electrons. The magnetic fields of the wave
front and the wobbling electrons interact, and the polarization of
the wave front is rotated. The amount of rotation depends upon
the length of the ferrite rod. The direction of rotation depends
upon the direction of the external magnetic field and can be

reversed by reversing the field. The direction of rotation will

remain constant, no matter what direction the energy in the
waveguide travels, as long as the external field is not changed.

Ferroelectric materials have the potential to overcome all the

limitations of MEMS, ferrite and MMIC phase shifters. Several
groups have investigated the possibility of implementing phase
shifter circuits using barium strontium titanate (BST), which has
an electric field tunable dielectric constant. In these circuits the
ferroelectric material (BST) either forms the entire microwave
substrate on which the conductors are deposited (thick film/bulk

crystal) or a fraction of the substrate with thin BST film

sandwiched between the substrate and the conductors, as seen in
Figure 4. These circuits rely on the principle that because part or
all of the microwave fields pass through the ferroelectric layer,
the phase velocity of waves propagating on these structures can
be altered by changing the permittivity of the ferroelectric layer.
However, this approach has several limitations:
The amount of capacitive loading due to the ferroelectric film
cannot be easily varied to optimize phase performance;
Conductor losses are high in this structure due to the high
dielectric constant of the ferroelectric film on which the
transmission lines are fabricated;
The tunability of the film is not efficiently utilized; and
The control voltages required for this approach tend to be
very high (more than 100 Volts).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The content of this project has been gathered from various

sources which are as follows:
1. Microwave engineering,4th edition by David M. Pozar
2. Module 11: Microwave Principles, Navy Electricity and
Electronics Training Series
3. Hollmann, Martin, "Radar Family Tree"
4. Penley, Bill, and Jonathan Penley, "Early Radar History
5. Phased Array Antennas, 2nd Ed., by R. C. Hansen, John Wiley
and
Sons, 1998
6. "Ferroelectric Phase Shifters". Microwaves 101.