Drilling the well

From pits to cable

Oil seeps, shallow pits, mine shafts, strip mines
spring poles and cable tool drilling rigs have
all been used at some point in time, when
exploring for oil in the historical past (Figure
131a and b). Each new technology was
supplanted by the next, although by the late
19th century the cable-tool drilling rig
represented the state of the art. Developed in
Europe for the drilling of water wells, it was
readily adapted for petroleum exploration by
North America drillers (Brantly, 1971). Both
the spring pole and the cable-tool drilling rig
were essentially percussive techniques, with
the motive power provided by either muscle
(human or animal) or an engine (e.g., steam).
The rate of progress was slow, measurable in
meters per day, not meters per minute! Limited
by their technology, drillers could not drill
131. A Fifteenth century Chinese drilling tool (a), and Patent drawings for
very deep wells. Because cable-tool drilling Figure
an early Ross drilling rig and equipment of 1891 (b) (Brantly, 1971; with
was also an 'open hole' technique the ability to permission of Gulf Publishing Co.).
combat a 'kick' was very limited, hence, the
common occurrence of 'gushers'. Drillers
needed a better drilling technology (Figure 131b).

Rotary drilling
Introduction
Rotary drilling (Figure 132) superseded cable-tool drilling
because it was possible to drill wells with greater rates of
penetration, and with an enhanced degree of safety. Some
aspects of rotary drilling have not changed since the early
1900s. However, many notable developments occurred during
the middle of the twentieth century that enabled deeper wells
to be drilled in areas unthinkable in 1900. Such as, the
development of the tri-cone bit, non-rotating polycrystalline
diamond bits, electric drawworks, the development of downhole motors, the development of hydraulic blow-outpreventers, the development of polymer drilling fluids, the
development of the riser and the initial invention and
subsequent refinement of petrophysical-logging tools.
More recently, the industry has seen the development of
flexible drillpipe, top-drive motive units, the widespread
application of horizontal drilling, the widespread use of mud
telemetry and measurement whilst drilling (MWD) tools, the
ubiquitous use of computers and the remote monitoring of
operations.
Figure 132. Conventional on-shore
rig schematic (courtesy of California
Department of Conservation).

100

Drilling Terminology and Equipment

Land Rigs
There are numerous types of land-rig, ranging in size from the large 'conventional'
triple, through light weight helli-rigs, to the small portable coiled-tubing rig.
Variations in size reflect differences in function and the load-bearing limit of the
drawworks, derrick and traveling block (Figure 132). Large land rigs must be broken
down into transportable units. Where roads or bridges pose weight limits, the hellirig can be flown into a remote location piece-by-piece and assembled at the drillsite.
Full size conventional rigs are typically large triples (Figure 133), equipped with
substantial masts that are capable of handling the heavy drill-strings required when
drilling a deep (vertical) well, unlike the lightweight mobile rigs designed for
horizontal wells (small doubles, mobile rig), which typically can not handle heavy
strings of drill pipe.

Off-shore rigs
Barges: These are essentially land rigs built upon a shallow hull designed for
water depths of 3 to 7 m. The rig is towed to the drillsite and the hull is flooded so
that the broad bottom of the barge sits on the seabed or lakebed.
Islands: Seasonal ice and a very short drilling season typify the Arctic. The solution
is to build an island upon which a winterized land rig can be placed. The island
permits year-round drilling on the continental shelf, instead of being limited to icefree months during the summer. The island prevents ice from crushing the
rig, which is a hazard for floating rigs.
Jack-ups: This type of offshore rig is designed to work in shallow water
within the confines of the continental shelf and in water depths of
approximately 50 to 80 m. This type of rig has a hull and three or more
legs that provide support for the rig. The jack-up rig is towed or carried to
the drill site by boat with the legs fully raised. Once at the drilling
location, the support legs are lowered and the rig platform jacked-up so
the legs are in contact with the seabed and the platform clear of maximum
peak wave height (Figure 134). The derrick is typically skidded over the
rear during drilling. Because the jackup rig is fixed to the seabed, the hull
of the rig and drill floor do not experience vertical motion due to tides or
wave action. Therefore, the riser is fixed and a motion-compensation
system is not required on this type of rig. Some jack-up rigs are often
equipped with blowout preventers under the drill floor.
Semi-submersibles: This is a floating type of drilling rig,
designed for medium and deep water (Figures 135 and
136). The semi-submersible rig, known as a semi-sub,
has either large pads or pontoons at the base of each leg
which provide buoyancy while traveling to the drill site,
but are subsequently partially flooded during drilling to
give the rig the required drilling draft. The pontoons are
ideally below wavebase to reduce the motion of the rig,
but they also add a degree of stability when handling
large amounts of drill pipe during drilling by lowering the
semi-subs center of gravity. At the drill site, semi-subs
are either anchored in place or use dynamic positioning,
comprised of thrusters fore and aft that help maintain the
rigs position over the wellhead. Because semi-subs are
floating rigs, they are subject to the influence of tides and
wave motion. They are therefore equipped with a motion
compensating system which is attached to the riser and
the drillstring traveling system. The riser (Figure 137a
and b) is a large diameter telescopic tube that connects
the drill floor to the borehole via the blowout preventers.

Figure 133. Nabors #9 on location

in western Canada.

Figure 134. A jack-up rig.

Figure 135. A modern dynamically positioned twin-hulled semisubmersible rig.

101

The riser is an extension of the borehole through the water

column, that enables the return of drilling fluid within the
annulus from the borehole to the rig. The lower part of the riser
(Figure 137a [#2] and Figure 137b [#4]) is attached to the
blowout preventers on the seabed, which in turn is attached to the
casing that lines and protects the borehole. The upper sleeve
(Figure 137b [#5]) is attached to the floating rig. As the rig
moves vertically, in response to tidal and wave motion, the upper
sleeve moves up and down inside the lower sleeve through the
slip joint. Note that steel cables (Figure 136b) support both the
upper and lower sleeves. The cables are a key element of the
motion compensation system and are constantly tensioned
(Figure 137c [#8]) by lengthening and shortening the wire
suspension system in synchrony with the vertical rise and fall of
the rig. The motion compensator system is also linked to the
traveling block (Figure 137c [#9]) ensuring that the drillstring is
also in synchrony with the vertical rise and fall of the rig.

Figure 136. A semi-submersible rig in Galveston.

Figure 137. Images showing various aspects of the motion compensating system on a semi-submersible drilling rig. (a) A scale model of a
semi-sub showing (1) sea level (drilling draft), (2) the riser and (3) the location of the blowout preventers as a subsea stack; (b) a view of the riser
showing (4) the lower sleeve of the riser that is physically attached to the blowout preventers (BOP), (5) the slip joint that permits vertical
movement by the drilling rig due to tides and waves, (6) wire suspension system, (7) BOP hydraulic control line; (c) (8) pneumatic tensioners, (9)
the traveling block system.

The opening and closing of any ram within the blowout preventer system is controlled from the rig via hydraulic lines
(Figure 136b [#7]). Think of the riser as a mechanical extension of the borehole, with the drillstring in the center of the
riser/borehole and drill cuttings etc., returning up the annulus. Without the motion compensation system, it would be
impossible to drill in deep water. The development of the motion compensating system ensures that the bit maintains
constant torque and does not bounce up and down in the
borehole as the rig moves up and down in response to tidal
or wave motion. Both the riser and the blowout preventer
system permit the safe exploration of very deep water plays,
with depths of 3,200 m (10,011 ft) and storm wave height
of 30 m within range of the largest and newest rigs.
Drill ships: Designed for medium and deep water, these
mobile, self contained and self-powered rigs are
unmistakably floaters (Video 13, Figures 138 and 139).
Unlike the semi-sub, these rigs do not need anchors to
maintain their position over the well head; using computer
controlled dynamic positioning and thruster system these
rigs can position themselves over the wellhead in the
102

Video 13. Deepwater drillships. Courtesy of the American

Petroleum Institute, copyright API 2007.

deepest of water. The derrick is located centrally, over a moon pool, a purpose built opening through which the riser
is run. Like the semi-submersible, drillships also utilize motion compensation apparatus, however, unlike 'semi-subs',
drill ships often have the ability to store supplies, drill pipe, casing, etc., in the hull of the ship to lower the center of
gravity and increase stability.

Figure 138. A dynamically positioned drill ship

Figure 139. The derrick of

the Discoverer II.

Platforms: These are fixed structures that are typically anchored to the sea floor via a steel or concrete support structure
(Figure 140). The super-structure contains the drilling rig, living quarters, and production equipment and is purpose built
to serve a given oil field for several decades. The production platform signifies an important part in the life cycle of an
offshore oil field, because it moves the oilfield from the exploration and appraisal stage to the production phase.
Offshore production is very rarely conducted through an exploration well.
The optimal recovery of petroleum from a reservoir or several reservoirs off-shore requires the drilling of numerous
wells, some of which are used to produce oil/gas, whereas others are used to enhance the recovery as injector wells, via
water or miscible fluid flood. Because a platform services a number of wells (Figure 141), the derrick can be
repositioned over a given wellhead on skid beams. Some of the largest offshore structures ever built are platforms.
Structures built on steel legs are called 'platforms', if the structure utilizes a concrete support it is known as a 'caisson'.

Figure 140. The Piper field production platform

(Maher et. al., 1992).

Figure 141. Subsurface perspective view of the production wells drilled in the
Piper field, North Sea, from a single production platform (Maher et. al., 1992).

103

Drilling techniques, problems and solutions

Conventional drilling
The Drill String
The rotating system consists of the drill string, swivel, kelly, kelly-saver
sub and the rotary table. The drill string is comprised of drill pipe, drill
collars, subs/joints, stabilizers and drill bit. Rotary power is transferred
from the rotary table, through the rotary bushing (Figure 142) to the kelly,
which in turn is connected to the drill string. The drill string is divisible
into 'drill pipe' and the 'bottom hole assembly' (BHA). In a conventional
system the drill string transfers torque and rotary power to the bit,
provides a conduit for the circulation of drilling fluid and provides both
support and compressive weight to the drill bit via the BHA.

Drill pipe

Figure 142. Rotary table and kelly

bushing (Image copyright
Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with
permission).

Drill pipe is not complicated. Drill pipe is made in 31 ft (9.4 m) lengths, known as a single with a nominal
tube outside diameter (OD) of either 4.5 or 5.0 ins. (114 or 127 mm) and tool joint tube OD diameter of either
6.25 or 6.5 ins. (159 or 165 mm), respectively (Smith International, 1992). The nominal inside diameter (ID)
dimensions for the two types of pipe are 2.75 and 3 ins. (70 or 76 mm) respectively. Typical weight for a
single length of drill pipe is 16.6 lbs ft (24.6 kg m). The drill pipe runs from the kelly saver sub, extending
down into the borehole, to the top of the BHA. As the depth of the borehole increases more drill pipe is added.

The BHA
The composition of the BHA (Figure 143) has great bearing on the drilling behavior and characteristics of a
given drill string. Unlike drill pipe, the BHA can be complex. After the bit, perhaps the two most important
components of the BHA are the drill collars and stabilizers. Drill collars are thick-walled, heavy lengths of
pipe finished with either a smooth surface or helical ribs (Figure 144). The maximum permissible outside
diameter of drill collar is determined by the cutting diameter of the drill bit. For example, 11 inch (279.4 mm)
OD drill collar could be used in conjunction with a 12 inch (311 mm) or larger bit, whereas smaller diameter
drill collars would be used with a smaller bit. Engineers want to run the largest diameter drill collar possible
because drill collar stiffness increases by the fourth power of the diameter (e.g., 9 inch drill collars are 4
stiffer than 7 inch, but only 2 stiffer than 8 inch drill collars). Another reason for selecting maximum
diameter drill collar is weight. A 31 ft. (9.4 m) length of 11 inch (279.4 mm) drill collar weighs approximately
9,498 lbs (4286 kg), thats about 306 lb per ft (Smith International, 1992). The BHA provides weight onto the
bit and maintains tension within the drill (i.e., to avoid buckling). To control pipe flexure and buckling, the
BHA typically contains stabilizers. Stabilizers are used to control drill angle, prevent dog-legs, key seats and
reduce the potential for 'differential sticking' (discussed below). There
are three types of stabilizer; rotating blade, non-rotating sleeve and the
roller cutter reamer. Stabilizers are designed to make contact with the
wall of the hole. The type and number of stabilizer used will impact upon
the geologists' work by adding caved material to the drill cuttings.
Rotating blade stabilizers (Figure 145) have a 'spiral appearance', they
turn with the drill string and will, therefore, dislodge geologic material
from the wall of the borehole. Non-rotating stabilizers (Figure 143a)
behave like a 'rudder' as the drill string rotates within the sleeve of the
stabilizer. Stabilizers act as 'pressure points' and as a means of keeping
the drill string in the center of the borehole. Figure 143 perhaps shows
two extremes. The upper BHA (Figure 143a) is a packed BHA, because
there is a high proportion of stabilizer [i.e., 1 and 3] relative to drill
collars [2] or other components, such as jars, subs or shock-subs [4].
What the packed BHA achieves is a straighter borehole trajectory
because pressure (i.e. weight-on-bit: WOB) is distributed evenly across
the cutting-surface of the bit. This is not the case when stabilizers are
omitted from the BHA (Figure 143b), where increased WOB causes the
pipe to buckle producing an unequal distribution of pressure across the
Figure 144. The rig floor of the
cutting-surface of the bit. This latter configuration can initiate a deviated
Discover II during a trip.
borehole.

104

Figure 143.
BHA (Smith
International,
1992; used with
permission).

Making a 'connection' and 'trips'

The entire drill string is supported by the traveling block and
swivel (Figure 132). Rotary power is traditionally transferred from
the kelly bushing to the drill string via the kelly, which has a
hexagonal cross-sectional shape. The kelly can move freely up and
down through the kelly bushing. As the depth increases the kelly
passes through the kelly bushing. Once the kelly reaches it's lowest
point, the kelly is raised through the kelly bushing, unscrewed from
the drill string and a new length of drill pipe added. The kelly is
then reattached, drilling re-continues until the kelly has been
worked through the rotary bushing, the kelly is then once again
unscrewed, new pipe added and so on. The business of adding new
lengths of drill pipe is called 'making a connection' and is often a Figure 145. The rig floor of the Discover II during a trip.
manual operation (Figure 146). Changing the drill bit requires the Note the stabilizer.
complete removal of the drill string in 27 m (90 ft) lengths, known
as stands. Changing the bit is known as tripping the bit or simply tripping (Figures
144, 145 and 146). Short trips or wiper trips are periodically run to ensure the drill
string does not get stuck. In this case the bit and BHA are not retrieved and broken
down into 27 m lengths, but worked like a (slow) piston to condition the borehole.

Drill bits
The role of the drill bit
The drill bit does the work of cutting, chipping, grinding or gouging the formation
and deepens the borehole. The actual cutting characteristics of a given bit are
matched to the lithological characteristics (e.g., hardness, abrasiveness) of the
formation to be drilled and specific drilling objectives. Tri-cone roller-bits (Figure
147) fitted with carbide insert teeth or milled-steel teeth are the most common
varieties currently in use in land-based drilling operations. However,
unconventional bits that have non-moving parts (e.g., PDC, see below) are
becoming increasingly common on deep or technical wells, especially off-shore.
One reason is cost. The other is the relative cost of a given drill bit compared to the
daily cost of drilling a well. When daily costs are high, the PDC drill bits with very
high cutting efficiencies and longer wear rates are desirable irrespective of their cost.

Figure 146. Adding pipe.

Roller bits
Modern roller bits are typically comprised of three
rotating cones (Figure 147). The length of the teeth, the
degree of cone offset, type of bearings and tooth
construction (e.g., milled steel or tungsten carbide insert)
govern the allowable weight and rotational speed limits
of a drill bit. Specific types of drill bit are constructed to
match specific types of formation, such as ultra soft (e.g.,
unconsolidated sands), medium (e.g., shale) to very hard
(e.g. abrasive and well cemented sandstones). Soft
Figure 147. The side view of a
formations are optimally drilled by 'gouging' the
tri-cone roller bit (a); and the
formation with long teeth, rather than chipping or
bit face (b), illustrating cone
'offset'; click on each image to
fracturing as in the case of the short button bit, which is
activate the QuickTime VR
designed for highly indurated and abrasive formations.
(courtesy of OneEarth Virtuals),
'Gouging' is achieved by increasing the degree of cone
'offset'. The yellow lines in Figure 147b show that the
apices of the three cones do not come to a single point in the center of the bit face, each apex is 'offset' from the true
center. The greater the 'offset', the more the teeth twist and gouge the formation. Hard formation drill bits have no
offset, whereas tri-cone bits, optimized for ultra soft formations, have the greatest offset! Geologists who regularly
have to examine and describe drill cuttings (e.g., wellsite geologist) would be well advised to acquaint themselves with
the characteristics of the specific drill bit used and BHA configuration because of the impact these tools have on drill
cutting characteristics and the possible presence of caved material. Long tooth bits gouge, medium tooth bits cut,
whereas short insert teeth chip and fracture the formation during drilling. In this way the shape and size of drill cuttings
is largely determined by the type of bit used. Cavings are often derived from stabilizers or centralizers as drill collars or
drill pipe contact the wall of the borehole.
105

Fixed cutter bits

Fixed cutter bits (Figure 148) have no moving parts. The cutting surfaces, which are
typically made out of polycrystalline diamond (PDC), are aligned as blades. Fixed cutter
bits are designed to handle high RPM's (e.g., 160 rpm) and are specifically designed to work
with down hole motors or top drive units. A downhole motor is typically a hydraulic motive
unit that is part of the BHA behind the bit. Bit rotation is provided by the downhole motor
and not via the rotary table-kelly-drillstring system. Topdrive units permit the use of longer
lengths of drillstring, however, the drillstring does rotate.
Figure 148. PDC bit (Image
Halliburton Company,
used by permission).

Drilling fluid
Function

Drilling fluid, commonly referred to as 'mud', has several functions (Videos 14 to 16). It cools the bit, keeps the cutting
face of the drill bit clear of cuttings, exerts hydraulic impact on the formation, provides a telemetry medium, prevents
the ingress of formation fluids during drilling or tripping, lines the borehole with a mudcake (Video 16) and last but
not least it transports cuttings and formation gas to the surface for analysis. There are a variety of drilling fluids,
includeing water-based, oil-based and non-fluid drilling fluids; the selection of which depends upon cost and the need
to avoid engineering and/or geological problems.

Water-based systems
This includes salt water-based and fresh water-calcium-based systems that
typically incorporate bentonite or barite as the basic solid material. Fresh water
weighs 1.000028 kg per liter or 8.3 lb per gallon, seawater has a weight of 1.02198
kg per liter or approximately 8.8 lb per gallon. Formation pressure increases with
increasing depth, therefore, to counter the ingress of formation fluid the density
(i.e., weight) of the drilling fluid must increase as depth increases. This is typically
achieved by adding solids; either in the form of bentonite, barite or potassiumchloride (KCl) polymers. KCl fluid systems should not really be called mud since
they do not incorporate bentonite. The choice of freshwater or seawater is often
decided by geography, the character of formation water and the general type of
formation to be drilled.

Video 14. Drilling fluid, from The

Making of Oil (Copyright
Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with
permission).

Oil-based fluid systems

Originally designed to prevent the dissolution of salts or anhydrite formations or
the swelling of hydrophillic shales (e.g., smectite) if present. From the geologists
perspective oil-based fluid systems can be difficult to work with, but for the
engineer, they prevent the differential sticking of the drillstring, reduce the
tendency of hydroscopic shales to slough, possess a high degree of thermal
stability and resist chemical contamination. But oil-based fluid systems require
high maintenance, are expensive, have a high environmental cost and mask or
prevent certain formation evaluation techniques from being utilized.

Non-fluid systems
Some wells have been drilled using the circulation of
compressed air or nitrogen foam to cool the bit and lift
cuttings to the surface. This type of system is possible
only on very shallow wells because non-fluid systems
cannot counter the ingress of formation fluids.

Video 15. Drilling fluid properties, from

The Making of Oil (Copyright
Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with
permission).

Cleaning drilling fluid

Fluid based systems are cleaned of drill cuttings using
a de-sander, de-silter and 'shale shakers'. Shale shakers
are large vibrating screens that remove drill cuttings
from the drilling fluid. The 'mud' passes through the
screens, the cuttings fall off the front edge of the
screen and are collected for examination by the
geologist.

Video 16. Mudcake in the borehole, from The Making of Oil

(Copyright Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with permission).

Hydrophyllic: a material (e.g., clay) whose surface has an attraction for water. Oleophillic: attraction for oil.

106

Wellsite appraisal
The Wellsite Geologist (Figure 149) is responsible for acquiring a
complete and accurate evaluation of geological data, including the
description of lithologies and the initial evaluation of pay (i.e., oil
or gas). The wellsite geologist should also keep other drilling
personnel appraised with the necessary information to ensure a safe
and efficient drilling operation. Depending upon the scale of the
drilling program, the wellsite geologist may have additional
responsibilities, for example, the monitoring and supervision of mud
logging operations, monitoring and supervision of coring operation,
the identification of core-point, core description, or the monitoring
and supervision of the petrophysical logging operation.
Figure 149. The wellsite geologist .

Petrophysical logging
Petrophysical logs are an important data source. They are used to
evaluate the economic potential of a well, interpret lithologies,
elucidate bedding and geological structure, correlate between wells
and even help directional drillers track target lithologies. There is a
successive chapter that deals with petrophysical logging in great
detail. However, there are aspects to introduce at this point.
The type of logging tools to be run (as a suite of tools) and the
depths to be run is an integral part of the drilling prognosis. If a
well is an exploration or an appraisal well the log suite to be run
will typically be comprehensive and the logging budget may
constitute approximately 5% (or more) of the total exploration
budget. If the well is developmental, the number of logs to be run
maybe reduced. Typically log suites are run prior to setting casing Figure 150. Exterior rear view of a logging truck, with
in the open hole section and can take typically one or two days to sonic sonde (S) (courtesy of OneEarth Virtuals, 2000).
complete. The datum for all recorded data is the kelly bushing
elevation. The elevation of the kelly bushing above sea floor is
recorded on each log header. Corrections for true vertical depth and
formation thickness are also given. Once drilling has ceased, the
well is conditioned by circulating drilling fluid for a number of
hours, followed by removing the drill string from the well (trip).
The logging sondes (Figure 150 'S') are lowered into the well
suspended by an insulated cable attached to a winch unit (Figure
151). Once the logging depth is reached the sonde is turned on and
spooled upward at 600m per hour. Depending upon the type of tool
run, the signal may be transmitted via the cable or collected by a Figure 151. The rear of a logging truck, showing the
surface detector and recorded in the logging unit at the surface winch unit (courtesy of OneEarth Virtuals, 2000).
(Figures 150 to 152). There are some essential parameters that must
be determined for a successful logging run.
The first one is an accurate determination of
mud filtrate and mud filter cake resistivity.
The time since mud circulation ceased must
also be recorded. If the drilling prognosis
calls for an extensive suite of logs to be run,
the on site engineer may wish to run the drill
string back into the borehole, to recondition
the borehole. The mud filtrate and mud cake
resistivity should be checked for subtle
changes that may affect final results. There is
a wide array of logging sondes available, Figure 152. Logging truck interior, 'W' winch control, 'C' computer workstation,
which are discussed in detail in a later chapter 'R' data and record unit (courtesy of OneEarth Virtuals, 2000).
devoted to petrophysical logging.

107

Deviations, dog-legs and key seats

Deviated borehole
Wells are drilled to reach specific targets (i.e., a prospective reservoir), but
must be drilled within the specified lease and according to an approved
drilling prognosis. Therefore, the trajectory of the borehole must be
controlled. Subsurface geology is rarely homogenous or arranged like flatlying layers. Dipping strata, alternations of soft and indurated lithologies
and inclined fault planes can cause a borehole to deviate from a prognosed
trajectory. There are also many instances when it is necessary to drill a
controlled deviated borehole. Designer wells are highly deviated wells
that have a high degree of curvature and/or horizontal component to them.
A straight wellbore is one that is often regarded as having a total
deviation of no more than 5o from vertical. However, as can be shown in
Figure 153 problems can still arise due to the rate of change in borehole
angle. Changes in borehole angle of 1 degree or more per 100m will
generate a dog-leg; which is undesirable because it can lead to drilling
problems, such as the creation of key seats and possibly stuck pipe.

Figure 153. Although this borehole is within

the 5o target window, it has a total deviation of
6o and a dog-leg.

Dog-leg and key seat

A dog-leg is a sudden change in borehole angle, often caused by a change in
lithology or structure, or due to changes in BHA configuration. If the drillstring is
rotated by the rotary table, then the rotating pipe can initiate a notch where the drill
pipe makes contact with the borehole, i.e., in the shoulder of the dog-leg (Figure
154). This notch is often the size of the drill pipe and is called a key seat. Wider
diameter drill collars cannot be pulled through a key seat which can lead to stuck
pipe and eventually pipe fatigue through jarring. Key seats are undesirable.

Whipstocks and controlling angle

Borehole angle can be controlled or corrected, with some modicum of control, by
careful configuration of the BHA. The strategic location of stabilizers combined with
a judicious choice of WOB (weight-on-bit) and the effects of gravity, will allow the
BHA to either build angle (via a fulcrum effect) or decrease angle (via a pendulum
effect). When the stabilizer is located behind the bit and the WOB increased, the
stabilizer acts as a fulcrum driving the bit into the side of the borehole. Conversely,
if a stabilizer is positioned at some distance from the bit and the WOB is decreased, Figure 154. The formation of a key
seat (Copyright Schlumberger, Ltd.
then gravity pulls the bit towards the vertical. Greater control of borehole angle can Used with permission).
be achieved by using a steering tool or a whipstock. Devised in the 1930s, this
effective device (Figure 155, Video 17)
remains one of the simplest ways of
initiating a deviated borehole or creating a
kicking-off point for either sidetracks, reentry wells, or initiating a horizontal
borehole with a high degree of precision.
The whipstock is run into the borehole to the
desired depth and set in place. Once rotation
of the milling assembly is begun the WOB is
backed-off until the carbide blades of the
mill contact the casing or borehole wall. A
window is then milled through the casing
that initiates the kick-off point (Video 17),
followed by cleaning and reaming to ensure
that subsequent BHA will not get stuck on
the window. Well deviations drilled in the Figure 155. Some of the steps involved in cutting a window and kicking-off a
Prudhoe Bay of Alaska, using whipstocks, sidetrack well (Image copyright Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with permission).
between 1991 and 1993 ranged from 2 to Video 17. The whipstock and cutting a window, from The Making of Oil
(Copyright Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with permission).
67, with an average of 35.2.

108

Casing
Overview
Casing is large-diameter threaded pipe that is run into open hole and
cemented into position to provide support and protection to the
borehole. Casing isolates and protects sensitive, economic or
potentially dangerous zones, such as fresh-water bearing formations,
pay (i.e., reservoir) or formations with different pressure gradients. The
lower most component of the casing string is the casing shoe, which is
typically set within a formation of relatively low porosity and/or high
tensile strength (i.e., high fracture pressure). Casing is always run from
the BOP to the casing shoe depth. Successive, smaller diameter strings
of casing are run inside previous (wider) casing strings, ensuring that
the formations most susceptible to damage (i.e., upper part of the well)
are protected (Figure 156).

Why run casing?

At the most simplest level, casing provides added protection against
the sudden and uncontrolled ingress of formation fluids into the
wellbore. Casing protects the borehole from damage (invasion),
caving and uncontrolled fracturing. Formation pressure increases with
increasing depth. However, that increase is never linear because of the
existence of pressure gradients; that is the marked increase in pressure
across discontinuities such as seals, unconformities, faults and
lithology breaks. Typically, an increase in formation pressure gradient
(Figure 157) can be matched by the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid within the wellbore. The hydraulic head of pressure thus created
is the most effective blowout preventer during drilling. As you will
recall, if the formation pressure, at any depth, becomes greater than the
hydostatic pressure of the drilling fluid, formation fluid will flow into
the wellbore (a kick). Figure 157 illustrates the need for casing.
Increasing the mud weight density to combat problems at depth can
cause additional problems higher up the borehole, such as fracturing
the formation and lost circulation. Both are additional hazards and
should be avoided if possible. Therefore, casing provides an effective
permanent means of dealing with increases in formation pressure.
Typically the engineer needs to know an estimate of formation tensile
strength (i.e., formation fracture pressure), depths of expected
unconformities or faults, the presence of unusual formations (e.g.,
overpressured or underpressured formations) and the depth of a
suitable formation for the casing shoe.
Figure 157. A hypothetical pressure gradient for an offshore Gulf Coast well
illustrating the need for casing. The diagram shows a generalized pressure gradient
(red line) and mud weight density (blue line), the formation tensile strength is also
given as a generalized line. Note that the upper 2,000 m is drilled with no change in
mud weight density. However, where the formation pressure gradient exceeds the mud
weight density a kick may occur. If the mud weight density is increased to over 1.25 gm
cc (10.6 lb gal) and the borehole was not previously cased, the tensile strength of the
rock will be exceeded and fractures will form in weaker formations at relatively shallow
depth, with the possible loss of drilling fluid to the formation.
Note also the significant and sudden increase in formation pressure below depth X. If
casing is not set close to and above this point, the high mud weight density required
below this depth to prevent a kick, would most certainly cause problems higher in the
borehole. Problems such as the loss of drilling fluid to a formation of lower tensile
strength and/or the fracturing of a weaker formation.

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Figure 156. Generalized casing arrangement for a

producing well (Image copyright Schlumberger,
Ltd. Used with permission).

Directional drilling
An overview
Directional drilling and many re-entry wells have become an essential component in
many exploration strategies in areas that require a cost-effective means of enhancing
production, the drilling of multiple targets from a single rig/platform, drilling around
obstacles or the revitalization of marginally to sub-economic fields (Videos 18 to 20).
Horizontal and extended reach wells perhaps represent the ultimate examples of
deviated well drilling. Over the last ten years the lateral reach (known as horizontal
displacement) of such wells has increased substantially.
An extended reach well drilled from the Wytch Farm development (England) attained
a horizontal displacement of 10,114 m (33,182 ft), horizontal displacements of 8,060 m
(26,446 ft) and 7,852 m (25,764 ft) have been achieved in the South China Sea and
North Sea respectively (Allen et al., 1997). Other example extended reach wells,
drilled from land, include those off the south coast of Argentina, the north coast of
Germany and the east coast of Sakhalin Island, Russia.

Video 19. Extending the reach and increasing production, from The
Making of Oil (Copyright Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with permission)

Video 18. Extending the life of a

reservoir, from The Making of
Oil (Copyright Schlumberger,
Ltd. Used with permission)

Video 20. Directional and horizontal drilling.

Courtesy of the American Petroleum
Institute, copyright API 2007.

Horizontal wells are typically drilled using a significantly different drilling procedure from that of the vertical
(conventional) and require specialized equipment, such as a flexible drill string, a steering tool and some form of realtime downhole monitoring device (e.g., measurements-whilst-drilling device or MWD).
The majority of horizontal wells are kicked-off from a vertical well, often using a whipstock (discussed above) or
from an existing leg of a deviated well as a re-entry well (Video 19). Once the initial window is cut through the
casing the drill string is typically completely reconfigured with a downhole motor, bent-sub, a MWD tool, flexible
joint(s), flexible pipe (or coiled tubing) an orientation tool steering tool or directional tool (Figures 158 and 159).

Figure 158. Generalized BHA used in drilling deviated wells; (a) short radius,
(b) medium radius, and (c) long radius (Image Halliburton Company, used by
permission).

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Figure 159. Orientation (steering) tools and down

hole motor. (a) Down hole motor (lower) and angle
selection joint. The yellow line is a non-perpendicular
rotational surface. Rotating one end of the tool along
that plane and to the desired angles bends the tool.

Because highly deviated wells, of which horizontal wells are but an example,
have complex trajectories it is necessary to know where the drill bit is. This is
achieved using a measurements-whilst-drilling device (MWD).
MWD tools can be configured in a number of ways, with available modules that
can provide geological, engineering and direction information. A magnetometer
unit enables the directional driller to determine the location of the unit within the
subsurface; which is important information if several targets are to be intersected
with the same well (i.e., drilling designer wells). The configuration of the drill
string is determined by the desired build angle or radius of curvature (Figure
158). Generally wells can be drilled in a long, medium or short radius (Figure
158, Video 21). Long radius wells often involve build angles of 2 to 6 per 30 m
(100) with horizontal legs of 1,250 m+, or 2 to 4 per 30 m (100) in the North
Sea, with horizontal legs of 400 m+. Medium radius in the continental USA
involve build angles of 16 to 23 per 30 m (100) with horizontal legs of 160 m,
or 11 to 14 per 30 m (100) in the Middle East (offshore) with horizontal legs of
350 m. Short radius wells, for example, have build angles of 1 to 3 per 30 cm (1
foot) in the Middle East (on-shore) with horizontal legs of 160 m.

Video 21. Short v Medium radius, drilling

from The Making of Oil (Copyright
Schlumberger, Ltd. Used with permission)

Figure 160 shows, in plan view, the well courses for production wells of the Piper field, North Sea. Each well is drilled
directionally from the platform, which supported two derricks (Maher, et al., 1992). A perspective view of this field
and the wells is given in Figure 141.

Why run highly deviated and horizontal wells?

There are a number of reasons for running horizontal wells and re-entry wells, which includes:

Increased contact with the reservoir.

Linear drainage of the reservoir along the borehole.

Reduced pressure gradient at the well.

Reduced number of wells required to maximize drainage.

Penetration of natural fractures or permeability conduits.

More effective drainage of laterally continuous thin reservoirs.

Cost effectiveness.
However, not all formations are good candidates for horizontal or
reentry wells. Costs can increase rapidly, especially if there are
potential technical and engineering problems that could lead to the
loss of the well.
However, it is in the area of off-shore production that the drilling of
deviated wells has been perfected. The ability to tap into the reservoir
from a single production platform enhances the viability of many
fields and makes effective use of expensive centralized infrastructure.

Figure 160. A plan view of the Piper Field well

courses (Maher et. al., 1992).

References
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Review, Schlumberger, Sugarland, Texas, p.p. 32-47
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Geologists, Tulsa, p.p.361-363.

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Dickey, P. A., 1992, Pressure detection, in: Development Geology Reference Manual (Morton-Thompson, M and A.M.
Woods, Eds.), AAPG Methods in Exploration Series, No. 10, American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
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Selley, R. C., 1985, Elements of Petroleum Geology, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 449p.
Smith International, (1992), Drilco drilling assembly handbook, Smith International, Houston, Texas, 159p.
Tinkler, J. C., 1992, Part1. Land and Leasing, in: Development Geology Reference Manual (Morton-Thompson, M and
A.M. Woods, Eds.), AAPG Methods in Exploration Series, No. 10, American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, p.p.1-20
Whitaker, A., 1985, Filed geologists training guide: an introduction to oilfield geology, mud-logging and formation
evaluation, Englewood Cliffs NJ, Prentice Hall, 291p.

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