HISTORY OF PROJECTILE MOTION

It was Galileo who first accurately described projectile motion. He showed that it could be understood
by analyzing the horizontal and vertical components separately. No one had done this prior to Galileo.
This illustration reflects the general opinion before Galileo which followed largely Aristotelian
lines but incorporating a later theory of "impetus" -- which maintained that an object shot from a
cannon, for example, followed a straight line until it "lost its impetus," at which point it fell abruptly to
the ground.
Later, simply by more careful observation, as this illustration from a work by Niccolo Tartaglia
shows, it was realized that projectiles actually follow a curved path. Yet no one knew what that path
was, until Galileo. There was yet another brilliant insight that led Galileo to his most astounding
conclusion about projectile motion. First of all, he reasoned that a projectile is not only influenced by
one motion, but by two. The motion that acts vertically is the force of gravity, and this pulls an object
towards the earth at 9.8 meters per second. But while gravity is pulling the object down, the projectile
is also moving forward, horizontally at the same time. And this horizontal motion is uniform and
constant according to Galileo's principle of inertia. He was indeed able to show that a projectile is
controlled by two independent motions, and these work together to create a precise mathematical
curve. He actually found that the curve has an exact mathematical shape. A shape that the Greeks
had already studied and called the parabola. The conclusion that Galileo reached was that the path of
any projectile is a parabola.
http://library.thinkquest.org/2779/History.html
RELATED TOPICS IN PROJECTILE MOTION
What is Projectile Motion?
By: Brett A., 2012
1.) Projectile Motion Itself:
Projectile motion is the study of how objects fly through the air at different angles and how they will
land. Many variables act along with projectile motion. Three of the most important variables include
gravity, the horizontal force of the object, and air resistance. These three variables are very important
to the flight of an object. They determine the length, speed, bounce, and several more parts of flying
through the air. We will cover those later in the next chapter, but for now you should hear the basics.
An angle of motion is made up of two different things, gravity and the horizontal motion. You may not
realize it but every time you throw something it has a degree of angle, correct? If you thought more
clearly you would see that everything moving in the air has an angle of movement. This does not
include birds and planes and such because they have a way of staying up there. However, if they fell
out of the sky they too would be following an angle. The higher the angle or the lower the angle
makes it change its path of flight. Studies show that a 45 degree angle makes an object travel further
than other angles. Angles other than 45 degrees would go too high or too low and 45 degrees still can
go further when bounce is involved. The lower the ball is thrown or hit the more it will skip and the
higher it is hit the less it will bounce. So now that you know the basics, lets go into the variables.

2.)The Complications and Variables of Projectile Motion:

Several things contribute to projectile motions concept. Air resistance, gravity, and the horizontal
power of the object in the air all have a large amount of effect on the objects flight. While in the air,
the horizontal motion of the object pushes it forward while the force of gravity pulls it down and the
wind pulls the object whichever way it is blowing. Wind will always be changing and you cannot count
on it to stay the same and the speed and direction of the wind will vary forever. How heavy an object
is will also affect the flight. The object will be affected more or less by the wind depending on the
weight and the heavier the object the less affected it would be. Gravity pulls objects down at the same
rate all the time on Earth so you do not have to worry about that changing. However, with horizontal
motion, the force used to launch an item will significantly change the distance it will travel. A person
must have a vague idea of how much power to put on the object, depending on the objects weight, in
order to control where they want to let it fall.
3.) The History of Projectile Motion:
In the days of Galileo, (A great Italian astronomer known for other things as well, who lived from
1564-1642.) people believed a theory called impetus that was their theory of items flung into the air.
They thought that an objects flight depended on the power behind the object, or force. When they
threw or shot something they thought the projectile would keep moving until it had no power left, or
lost its impetus, as they thought. It would then fall straight down as shown in the diagram. A man
named Niccolo Tartaglia noticed that this was not correct and by just observing more carefully he
noticed that objects actually followed a curved path
instead of going in just a straight line and then stopping. He also noticed how it had a gradual slope to
the ground different from the abrupt plummeting of action they had believed in past years. Galileo
extended on Tartaglias idea and he discovered that the path of a projectile happened to curve
because of two forces that joined together rather than one. The two forces he noticed, ironically, were
gravity and horizontal motion. After that Galileo called any angle of flight a parabola and every object
had a parabola when it went through the air.
Projectile motion is the study of the flight of objects and the flight of objects, as I hope this writing
summarized that. It also showed that several different variables changed the flight of an object. In the
last chapter it talked about the history of how projectile motion was found out and what it was before.
So, hopefully you learned something!
http://researchthetopic.wikispaces.com/What+is+projectile+motion%3F+-+R.html

TECHNOLOGIES IN PROJECTILE MOTION

Use the Vernier Projectile Launcher to investigate important concepts in two-dimensional

kinematics. Launch steel balls at angles between 0 and 70 degrees and over distances up to 2.5 m.
The solid, heavy base is provides an easy-to-use and reliable setup. A unique pneumatic launching
system provides excellent repeatability and allows you to set the launch speed.
Built-in photogates and angle markings provide easy and accurate measurement of the balls launch
velocity, allowing for precise quantitative analysis of projectile motion. Simply plug the device into a
compatible data-collection interface.
Uses:

Investigate the independence of the horizontal and vertical motion

Use the photogates to measure launch velocity
Knowing the launch velocity, predict the landing point when a ball is launched horizontally from
a table top
Knowing the launch velocity and launch angle, predict the landing point when a ball is
launched at an angle on a lab table
Knowing the launch velocity and launch angle, launch a ball through a horizontal or vertical
hoop
Investigate projectile range as a function of launch angle
Determine which launch angles give the same range
Determine which launch angle gives the maximum range
Investigate the repeatability of the launcher
Use the launcher, a video camera and the video features of Logger Pro to observe the launch
path
Given a specific launch distance, calculate the launch velocity needed to hit the target. Use the
photogates to set the device to that launch velocity and test your prediction.
http://www.vernier.com/products/sensors/vpl/.html
Students are introduced to the concept of projectile motion, of which they are often familiar from life
experiences,such as playing sports such as basketball or baseball, even though they may not
understand the physics involved. Students use tabletop-sized robots to build projectile throwers and
measure motion using sensors.They compute distances and velocities using simple kinematic
equations and confirm their results through measurements by hand. To apply the concept, students

calculate the necessary speed of an object to reach a certain distance in a hypothetical scenaro: A
group of hikers stranded at the bottom of a cliff need food, but rescuers cannot deliver it themselves,
so they must devise a way to get the food to the hikers.
Engineering Connection
Relating science and/or math concept(s) to engineering
Understanding projectile motion is important to many engineering designs. Any engineered design
that includes a projectile, an object in motion close to the Earth's surface subject to gravitational
acceleration, requires an understanding of the physics involved in projectile motion. This includes
machines such as motorcross bikes made for launching off jumps to weapons such as missels,
turrets and high-powered cannons. NASA engineers apply projectile motion concepts as they predict
meteorite paths that may enter the Earth's atmosphere or disrupt satellite transmissions. The
combination of a physical understanding of projectile motion and the mathematical ability to solve
equations enables engineers (as well as young students) to predict the projectile trajectories.
http://www.teachengineering.org/view_activity.php?
url=collection/nyu_/activities/nyu_projectile/nyu_projectile_activity1.xml.html
CAREER IN PROJECTILE MOTION
Summary
Students watch video clips from October Sky and Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone to learn
about projectile motion. They explore the relationships between displacement, velocity and
acceleration and calculate simple projectile motion. The objective of this activity is to articulate
concepts related to force and motion through direct immersive interaction based on the theme, The
Science Behind Harry Potter. Students' interest is piqued by the use of popular culture in the
classroom.
Engineering Connection
Relating science and/or math concept(s) to engineering
Engineers from many different disciplines use the concepts of force and motion. Mechanical
engineers design all sorts of engines that transport goods and people, machines and tools such as
vacuum cleaners and factory assembly equipment that make our ways of life possible, as well as
many other types of devices. Structural engineers design houses, bridges and skyscrapers that can
withstand everyday forces as well as extraordinary forces, such as earthquakes, monsoons and
hurricanes to keep us safe. Aerospace engineers design aircraft, rockets and spacecraft, which
includes predicting projectile motion.
Aerospace engineering is largely about artifacts that fly airplanes, rockets, satellites, missiles, etc.
It is also about how fluids flow (think about how air flows around a car), about control systems, and
about how strong things are (and how to make them strong). Aerospace engineering also deals with
how to design things so that they can be reliably built and maintained.

Aerospace engineers design, develop, and test aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles, and supervise their
manufacture. Those who work with aircraft are called aeronautical engineers, and those working
specifically with spacecraft are called astronautical engineers.
Aerospace engineers develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense systems, and space
exploration, often specializing in areas such as structures, propulsion systems, vehicle movement
and control, communications, and overall vehicle design.
They also may specialize in a particular type of aerospace product, such as commercial aircraft,
military fighter jets, helicopters, spacecraft, or missiles and rockets, and may become experts in
aerodynamics, thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, or guidance and control
systems.
Aerospace Engineer Job Description
Aerospace engineers design components of spacecraft, aircraft, satellites, missiles, and other types
of aerospace products.
Each type of aerospace product has very different requirements, so engineers normally focus on
building one type of product. For example, some specialize in designing military aircraft, while others
choose to focus on designing rockets.
Every component and system within an aircraft is different, and requires a specialized set of
knowledge to effectively design. For this reason, most aerospace engineers choose to specialize in
designing a particular component or system.
There are many different specializations that an aerospace engineer may choose to focus on. Flight
mechanics, propulsion, control systems, thermodynamics, navigation, control systems, and structural
design are just a few specialties.
Aerospace engineers are divided into two main types: astronautical engineering, and aeronautical
engineer.
Astronautical engineers focus on designing spacecraft. They study the behavior of spacecraft both
inside and outside of our atmosphere, and design systems that will support a spacecraft's mission.
Aeronautical engineers design aircraft that flies only within our atmosphere.
Work Environment and Schedule
Aerospace engineers spend most of their time working in an office environment. They do most of their
work using advanced computer software that helps them design aircraft systems and components
and simulate how they would perform in a real world situation.
Most aerospace engineers work full time, and are often able to enjoy a regular working schedule
during normal business hours. However, this can be a deadline driven occupation, and overtime is
often required when deadlines are approaching.
Engineers who manage projects and supervise other employees may need to regularly work long
hours to get all of their work done and ensure that the project is built to design standards and on
schedule.

How to Become an Aerospace Engineer

To get an entry level job as an aerospace engineer, you will need to get a bachelor's degree in
aerospace engineering or another related field.
Some schools offer five year aerospace engineering programs. Graduates of these programs receive
both a bachelor's and a master's degree.
Work experience is extremely valuable in this occupation, even for entry level jobs. If you have the
opportunity to get an internship while in college, you should take advantage of it. Getting an internship
in this field greatly improves your chances of employment after graduation. If you're interested in
finding an internship, stop by your college or university's career center.

For most positions in this field, a bachelor's degree is all the formal education that you will need.
However, if you want to work in research and development or teach at the college level, a graduate
degree is required.
Before you enroll in an aerospace engineering program, you should make sure that it's accredited by
ABET. If it isn't accredited, your employment opportunities may be limited.
If you're still in high school and you're considering a job in this occupation, taking advanced math and
science classes will help prepare you for the job. Trigonometry, calculus, computer science, physics,
and chemistry all have applications in aerospace engineering.
Employment Outlook
There are currently 81,000 aerospace engineers in the United States, with 2,180 new aerospace
engineer job openings created each year.
Aerospace Engineer jobs are not expected to see much growth beyond their current levels in the next
decade.
http://www.livebinders.com/play/play?id=896783.html

GOTTFRIED WILHELM VON LEIBNIZ

Leibniz, Gottfried (1646-1716)

German philosopher, physicist, and mathematician whose mechanical studies included forces and
weights. He believed in a deterministic universe which followed a "pre-established harmony." He
extended the work of his mentor Huygens from kinematics to include dynamics. He was self-taught in
mathematics, but nonetheless developed calculus independently of Newton. Although he published
his results slightly after Newton, his notation was by far superior (including the integral sign and
derivative notation), and is still in use today. It is unfortunate that continental and English
mathematicians remained embroiled for decades in a heated and pointless priority dispute over the
discovery of calculus. Leibniz made many contributions to the study of differential equations,
discovering the method of separation of variables, reduction of homogeneous equations to separable
ones, and the procedure for solving first order linear equations. He used the idea of the determinant
50 years before Cramer, and did work on the multinomial theorem.
Leibniz combined the Scala Naturae with his plenum (continuous) view of nature, and called the
result the Law of Continuity. He believed that it was not possible to put organisms into discrete
categories, stating "Natura non facit saltus" (Nature does nothing in leaps).
Leibniz was a strong believer in the importance of the product of mass times velocity World of
Physics squared which had been originally investigated by Huygens and which Leibniz called vis viva,
the living force. He believed the vis viva to be the real measure of force, as opposed to Descartes's
force of motion (equivalent to mass times velocity, Or momentum .It is not entirely clear why Leibniz
should have chosen mv2 as this quantity rather than Descartes' mv, but he was apparently led to the
conclusion that his quantity was the more fundamental by mechanical arguments. Leibniz's
contention that vis visa, not Descartes's quantity, was the most fundamental conserved quantity
comes extremely close to an early statement of the Law of Conservation of Energy in mechanics.
Since, however, the conservation of quantity of motion had become one of the pillars of Cartesian
natural philosophy, Leibniz's suggestion that the fundamental quantity of motion was different from
the one Descartes had proposed was rejected out of hand by all good Cartesians. A great controversy
ensued between the German school of physical thought, which naturally supported Leibniz, and the
French and English schools, whose Cartesians and Newtonians opposed him. In identifying vis viva
as the fundamental quantity of motion, Leibniz was searching for some active principle that was
conserved and kept the universe from "running down."

Leibniz believed that his vis viva, which described the "force" of a body in motion, would fit the bill. He
further realized that this quantity could never increase, since this would produce perpetual motion, a
notion which he summarily dismissed as "absurd." On the other hand, Leibniz also maintained that vis
viva could never decrease, since this would contradict his belief that it was equivalent to the eternity
of God's creation. In fact, Leibniz vigorously clung to his concept of universal conservation of living
force, which had nothing but his metaphysical beliefs to support it, even though it appeared to be
violated for inelastic collision and was bitterly opposed by a large segment of the scientific community.
Thus, Leibniz serves as the first example of a scientist who vehemently argued the existence of a
fundamental conservation quantity based not on experimental evidence, but rather from a belief in the
order and continuity of the universe. Leibniz's dispute with the Cartesians eventually died down and
was forgotten. However, nearly one and a half centuries passed before conservation laws and energy
would once again dominate the realm of scientific inquiry and philosophical speculation.
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Leibniz.html