KRISTAQ FILIPI ALGJEBRA DHE GJEOMETRIA (PER BACHELOR NE INXHINIERI) Ribotim TIRANE, 200771 fe ywowuny ‘gsuoSeyey “ympow | 1e 1s asenseyufBued gus eles 23 eidoouoy 2 aie ploansed @ vopuzen aup loinsed 2 2b ‘Tes 21 wfBroue numnye alu 9 uazeq saiqafBye 1 waunpnsit 84 “24O% ‘aawaunfys 922} | waysiseplal + yuawnasut af 219q 0 aynp ‘aynfer lol 2 yeouayys AUP amy ‘axmueyaut pu aype iod ‘pyfjeworews aU wgien of ouysuEPUINYS a 2 e2—I5 2) auIHeR? falB aveau] eigaQipe ‘eyunja|e aneielz 2 2uuoe oyp angyaloxd aussawoat® sad awiysigop 2 aq N aneinpmas 2 eos :eyHO22 92 yesBoreIsist " “gemauioalB a) anaSap guys | ‘sausnj af gsuoal | waussepuaz aq n anadnuB 2 eto; Tuysey “Tes a3 anouunyice 2 uaureS 1anader a5 1 anapt autres 2 uazeq igus ausOpow sasqelBye | RUIAPN axeoul iaulrbsed aneouret rod "201 ‘au snypy| @ aup sen aur aueb a gun qiup aft eu 2 eigatije ab rjos ofy “eunsopareys 2 aust ‘Bnwnu opsowop Uys) HU yarepeNs any sesysende 1a au nysayoured ab reuiazoay 2s a1 na f) “erempje a eWwoIsye UIbeUAY # Z2YOHIDA aup uayozgreied auudan oy uafD 2 au ‘ajar ,2jeuonian arsed 9) ewuaurep Is gurus ous uayorfen 2} punu ieiovjen ab ioSen reat zeny a quopian 2p yuzgwanys 2 2up angionyan as sefupalquy 92 anauiudan “nuyse od] Sa¥er} @% 60 saz0uN a} OW SOWOPIS “eienyeD a ewOIsYe ode greg af, ubeuzy ab auysoparey 2 saqyseg alu ebu onetuawiaye at euyposd 3 eumys au aype sod ‘gayeiduioy ode 2jeat“ayeuoroei anauunu 2 anaunypord oy ayp aneumnys 2 unulundsed aux walan alg a1 BX xn gdje 2 aed 2 yougg ajox te aN “aalsayyseg @ aoa OUP axneuIALeUs eyo] wu axoueHe ap exenundied ane joiaus 2up 219P! aU Tenzeg “IwizneWoInie aup wBeRsqe ypats alu Bu Uayoauapferey ab 0124 EpO‘W ‘QPET-OZ6T Wedaheialep ‘uiepow iagafSle sainyfenbmyse @ #3 aneporaus | yneweysis swuopiad @ py ded elewuaypa "XX auInHOUS 2] seul Bied yed eueb er exec garew vy ofpuew Shy enzugatie 2 aypeuayew, gufend 2 walaip a au ounos 2 uaypeueeu! tes bo ‘orerqeq? #1 #up ‘aypoal js sayemayew 2 Bap ey a Bu asqeSie pnepoyw! 2) eyp anapl 9 weUselpu a wnredep afl ey euOT I=NP ONT SINJHLVavd £°88-9£°L2666°8L6 NASI ne at Wnjys au uate] ed guLtO} ode jal op5 aw fumysyauunys reyolet yNNy “exenaiezes ay aul exfexp 21 eu] 21 @ WELK, a8noq erdasys @ L002 ‘IA twnog .WALXa, 280M709 eIdazys alQad, 282n}09 BIdaIyS © uIQAd, 258n70q e1days G sep siaaup 311g] 2 asam0q eIdaIyS © aeysranU WIQIT 2 asanjoq eIdaiys @ ysoug erepy :eumadoy rep bersiay “ey IW Pp Ig “ean{dusoy au oung BuLo|og WaSy NOMEpAY spypeUUO;Uy aup sexreuiareyy 2 unuourentedag au sauqaBIy 3 sluoisiag | salBalbied “squent] al ylunjatog uneysiantun au BoSepag beisuy aq yo1d ON eynautoaly ayp erqafBIyés sé sotme g@ diktoiné bashk@kohor t2 studentéve té nevojén inhinierise té tyre Teksti qé ha & shérben étij qéllimi, Ai &shté njé ‘Aigiebra dhe Gjecmettia’, botuar n ripunim i ploté di ai bén pérpjekjen e paré dhe aq autori pér studentét e gleofiikés, jonte program né até kohe ps ja 12 zlgjebrés né nivel universitar pér studenté t8 inxhinierisé, Tekst “Algjebra dhe ja pér inchinieriné’ @ht® hartuar né pépul programin @ rité uni a deget inshi je me inés “Algjebra dhe Gjeometria” qé mouion 8 né t€ cilin éshté forcuar enteve 18 12ja, sidomos #8 njohurive per nga bot 1988, teksti ii funksionet ¢ pasqyrimet 2 mbi kété bazé ik bi njé bashkést te cfarédeshme dhe lichur me % strukturat algjebrike t2 gna ménjané edhe kupt veprime. Me fialé 1é Pjesa e dyte gieometrika, metodan e kor 2 merfizmave né strukturat me njé dhe me dy sometria analitike’ perfshin njohuri nga inatave dhe nohuri nga gieometria analitike ne plan dhe né hapésité, a2 ‘bi bazén e kuptimeve t2 pjeses sé pare. IN@ pjesen e trete "Algjebra lineare", mbasi agjerohet pareprakisht fusha e numrave realé né fushen e numrave Kompleksé dhe jepen aio njohuri per polinomet me njé némshore gé jané w nevojshme per mé { vektoriale me pérmasa té fundme eukldiane che format katrore, #8 cllat paragiten me ané t8 aparatt matricor, a8 gB e bén m8 2 lehté pérvetésimin e tyre Né kate ményré, né tekst béhen pémpjekje g@ studenti | inhinierisé t& metodave té algjebrés sé sotme, népérmietsistemimit té materialit tradicional té disiplings "Algjebra dhe Gjeometria’ né struktura mé universale dhe kombinim me informacion té ri, duke mbajtur parasysh edhe faktin gi elementar tashmé jane prezent pre} disa vjetésh né programet e rinovuara #8 shkoliés toné 18 mesme. Me kété, tekst synon edhe zbutjen e shképutjes q@ eshte krjuar nga ky rinovim midis het n@ shkolién e mesme dhe asaj q@ zhuilohet né ke. Ver Kasai, : tekstit jep mundesi studentit & lexoie lehtesisl ike bashkekchore dhe i hap ruge plotésimit té métejshers te kulturés materafike me informacion sir bashkékohor, pir ata qe jane #2 interesuy. resuar per njohuri nga bashhes ineare dhe ato ndjeluur leksionet e 2 1983-1984; té glithéve ai u shpreh falenderimet dhe mi thelle, Autori falenderon peraprakisht giithashtu 18 giithé ata qé do ti drejtorin vareftie dhe sugjerime t8 dobishme pér pérmirésimin e métejshém t8 tekst AUTORI PARATHENIE E BOTIMIT TE TRETE Krahas korrigiimeve t8 gabimeve te shtypit gé jané véné re né dy botimet e méparéshme, ne ket botim t2 tekstit éshté béré njé faqosje ¢ re me kompjuter, duke e mitur ndjeshém pérdorimin ¢ @ simboleve matematike t8 pranishme né tekst si dhe né ndértimin e figurave.Veg késai, 1 dhe sygjerimet e lexuesve, autori ka vénd doré pjesshém né paragrafet e méposhtme: Vgu any afc eBu ausyshupu at anewa at zenutjep 2s salsopuant > ince ajabye awyeg? gulelS my ‘,21umSuOH rat a) guaBowuoy axeauy ap(ouereyp aeauoperse 2 2th away aluopu 28 saliry 2 aypa sod ‘iedis aus 1s anatssysapu 2 wisi oF fe amupye quay ab ennejas auyscapu sensed aurey 930K 2 ierany aupe Tayse Od "seyneoyew at asojeuiauy auigdy, fhe) axed 9 unas] au aupyquied waysiedous 21 ytsg0q 2 axed 9 yo10n4 12104 “of auysesepiny as sofbay soquu ay 18 IODUaHUS poveus twundiad afu seqyy ve 8 psofd wo au alepu taiyse 4m Up Late yp abu areny aie) uequuued psya) Tue “Ha ony wulzueDso Tale 9 uluinog ou zeneeyesy “uunog Sy auuedisem 2 yous si asad wr0q Is wabesed 1 jayseg 12d euiaw02‘ aup eqeBly., sepua] a seluojog 2 > reureiBoud dlomaw ai aD uruuuss au rerqzey ayyse "erwa] aiop att ey aD OAL ALSAd AL LIWILOd 3 SINSHLVUVd THOLny goog H0puaN ai Jed wiysouoifesp eu a3 op ab exe aun ah ysnyesdered renuay aynp “seboid aia Woulyipy 2b weysigop a wiuolBns ayp abferan 3 yaiay aup 1s wisescairas ‘fepueiq “wnpyzen eu seSord alu aiuse 1 ruisquuuiad aufeqiays | es pwlopueu ouuadispur 9 s2WIYSsAipN! jequspris tBu fp 9 urutopiad 2u apoutoy au yp ‘eu anaunzjusn 2 oup yuos euotous 2 yyes afu au axfuoueY ehbeTeG pols '9S CVEv sp Ty TES SUIT japesBexed prafyp 2 unary aN ‘eI TI ‘vor ‘eor ot'e9 Z9'9'S ——_ayerBered uate a unesy aN Stor 'TOt's yayeiSzzed 212) 2 unesy @NT 'yg'Tg — wyesbered aryse @ unary an 18P yayeaBosed aisod 2 unany 2N, fes vyexBexed aie 2 unary any ‘auel aBered 9 aseld alu ab 12) =], 1ystseig} ode 1yspiasafd zenundied euet ‘auf 2 ualypiee us id einauioalD ayp e: ‘wauserupuab | psvan ‘asensed jaya au enjogu n yuOa 1g. guueTuIUXU sad geuyawoal ayp saiqalBly a oWHIYSN, anawIMysn a SH a L657 luna gu unupog aw enuaboys n Og6T UNA au HEHE, fm—y{ | axed 1 Og LHSLVM aL LIWILOd 3 SINSHLVaVd neon 002 soeUg 9°S"b'Z. japeiBered au aiafup 2 uneasy aN “eee 21 yeaBiered au ayuau a unany aN 2101 eT y2yesBered au ajai 2 unany aN ‘iy ugesemed au aise 2 unas aN { uyesBezed au iad 9 unany aN gg wayesBered au vatey @ unary an T]uyesBered au ayaa a unas aN, Spe 'T sajeabered gu aif a unani ant 6:2 wejeiBered au ated a unany aNesiné e ti né njé radhitje mé adeguate @ shkencore, né ményré Koncie dhe né 1 njeiten sueshém lehvesist nge studentet. Ky ncinyshim échtd pacquraar te disa kreréve, t& cilet n€ botimin e ri kané emértime 1 tietérsuara. Ket proces! { eshte nénshtruar mé pak ose pathuajse aspak vetérn eeu i treté "Nui Wve kané pesuar hequr apo duke 4 tekstit dhe n e th, por ae Jan@ jashté progres shkolla e mesme Vieine per ate pjese te studer si dhe ceshtje t reja teresa pér niohurit8 tila do te ndeshet shpesh me referenca né fate tramtuara mé pare, E sqarojmé até se eferenca ne formulén [.6,1.(47} do té thote se eshté formula (47) e paragraiit apo pikes 6,1[né teks perdoren te dyja termat me té njejtin kuptim) 12 kreut é pare. Né ndiyshimet e mésipérme autori ka mbajtur parasysh edhe vérejtiet e sugierimet ¢ lexuesve dhe kolegéve t8 Departamentit t Matematikés e formatikés, g@ e kané pércorur tekstin, ge par te cilen ai i falenderon singerisht, ai falenderon paraprakisht edhe té githé ata gé do ti drejtonin vérejie dhe sugierime te tjera té dobishme. Shtator, 2005 AUTORI er ié shmangur cdo ngaterresé a¥ perdorimin e shkronjave greke, 1 ALFABETI GREK pérdorura ne matematike, pra edhe né ket tekst, po e rikujtojme me poste ec alfaber PenexduynomzZZe A ORNME IS soe BENS CAAT HOMKE MAW Oa OX ipsilon fi hi psi omegasa ze ter Iz ott st on su + el at on LAWONTIO4 ‘01 SIS, S¥FIENOW LNNAN 3 TTNIONBNOSSAS VIN, 6 2 IWAN JaSNE TNO FIO § SN4TEINO LIMINAN 3S SHINIUY F WEAIALAN “L LRIAWAIN 4 VTAWHOT “SMH'TdINON LIMINAN 4 TOMS SN WILTEON 9 SHFTEWON LIUINAN J SNRALAWONOOTAL VIVAL S SHaTNOY LENIN [YRLSINOSLD IALLAEEUAINI F 7 © YVADAINON I SHS TAINOY THNAN € “ST TEINON LMNAN 3 TMVAAOT WLVAL'Z ASHATAWON SAVNINAN 3 VHS 'T JSWONTI0d “SSNITANON LVAINAN HT TS ounsusy, ANTMOLIGA 1 NSIZUAA | INIZAINAKS OF uIUUSh) peuoryen aaysya Y matupond '€°6 yeongan MZaumnUs 91 NAS eeonyon HuzaUINYS HEZTAAM T'S ‘TWTSOLNIA INIZAI sues agronyan 21 OUINE YUTZRLINYS #2 2A TR gaquonyes 21 $USUINU YRUIZARNYS T ENZUNIA “T'S AFBOLNIA T UASINONIAW VHS BNIZEINAHS 8 ‘Uys. 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q eshte aje im, ge kur p ashe i véretd, eche vértetésia e kushtit p mja lexuesi do imi perfandimtar [(p=>q) » (q=>1)]=>(p=>). Nga dy pohime w cfarédoshme p e q, krahus imy formolet edhe implikimi q=p. Ky i fundit gun anasjellé i mplikizit pq TABELAS plas [pl e=r lipsq)atg=n] par | Viv[w Vv fv Vivi Vichy viciG Givi GWG Gav IGG jidh pgushis Proj kénde) del &@ pSe. Pra. pag di anasjella t€ ajdt mundéshme té pohimeve TABELA9 g | p=q | a= vv jeri vértetésie, Ndévkag lexue: p=q dheg => p, né do rast, kané 18 verte, 5. Shpesh ndén zbatuar mbi 10 dhe mbi re: shgyrichet ne ményré 1& ve shpesh, i eili quhec Ajévlerési logitke e pi (99) a(q=p). en pohime t reja nga dy pohime 18 dana pe q, duke (et q8 dain veprimet e péreaktuaca mé lant. Néér to konjunksioni (p=q) » (q=>p), gé haset mé ise jar dhe njé koloné, gé mbushet si per aje lexuesi do te binder gé vetim né ato raste kur p € q jand njtherésh V konjus ose njtherésh G. Sipas k#saj vetie, tabela e vlerave té nj ep shkas per dhénien © ke Pohiniet p, q, pér 1 cilat dshté ¢ vértet’ njévlerésia pexg, quhen 1 njévlershme. Por kate arsye, kur nije njevlershém me q esis p © q mesr pamjen sia pag eshte e verteté, ajo lexohet “p i TABELA (0 Vérejtje. Dy pohime t# njevlershame adonjehene thisren [pla ipaq Ke08 rast ato lidhen me Vivi V L1G) GT acsbare meg" Per GIN] G1) jane ajenerésh te a GIG) V | ajeviersnme, prandsj shkruaime (pag)=(qap). Po ashes mund té shkruajime (pvq) = (@vP), até cilat vegojme: skalinnare. Sido gé ¢ jené vlerat e pohimeve p, q, r éhté giithmond i vérte® implikimé [@ MAtqe I] = (pear). f Pér vertettsiné e késaj vetie, lexuesi binder lebté pasi ka ndéctuar tabeléa pérkatése t vErtotisise né ngjashméei me tabeléa 8.ayn. ospupggd asvssaypf atzuatod 21 aysatenian auyspum Db iad upnysofupd 2 ps9 2 2y{80} Dymuol e83S pro Soy (8x soi asaiaquad avs asauany% ‘ops iad arauien 2 anys 9 ayo) pmusoz ayyfSo] 19 {81 “ET bvd unumyod ou bad mumyod (1 of bs voyosan ma asisereuen avbe=de[aedy ve adie [ad vd] 1 saummyod auryssoysafit 923 asmaqied yseroys uiowsts op} zed alauga @ guise sunysodaus as wuofan al asisaiauns a seg a ae AL syod prouen taigsa sb axotstgod a wHeI5$ 24 (Z ‘aunyod fpaad°S yod sad wows 2) puns “aaups 1 ase d 24 “uzunged 1 aigse b a8 axob gu “da syob gud sad raorp 21 pum ‘arenas 1 gyse bad fuorsxunisrp ab 1b urstyod 32 ‘2: purus. ‘aiausa « guyse d ayp xenged 1 eryse bye juorspqunfuoy ab oul “F Ap quel s 9 3 ny “asispeuas ‘oeagsopaaay$ at sangod po anesops a7 ounysodgs 9 upjaqer 1wosmiig *E sept 'b “d eugyp a are sip fata SusOpaTED wr Sauryed at antiaya 21 sunysodgu 9 wafer! TosMwIg Tvigave ag ou mx “TT BTSQED BBY [ap Of @ soaps au 20 2B opas id= )e9 bed) asguapagfu govigs 9 puowaynts pyse bd aaounyod fsodeusvoy) se[sopuansgpuiny 2 PUA ZEsti © gare q né qotié se 1 eshte njé tausotogii dhe © eshte je kontradiksion, atéheré € =¢ Tautologit jané shprehjet dhe formula (2) g@ njihet me emsin Po ndalemi mé posht® edhe né disa ligie Ligiet e Morganit”” Pér cdo. sistem vlerash 1é gfartdoshme p dhe q, jané gjithmoné paqsipva) pyq= ipaq) Per sa mi sipér ae ——— lexuesi binder lehté, duke pad | pva | paq=(pva)| plotesuar tabeléa 12 dhe nje (jeter t& ngjashme me t&. 1 pari ndér ligiet (3). esbie mohim iv njé konjunksioni, che (\') q& ajiken me erin ligjet kalimtare, si dervendosjes. ra i réndesishme logiike. indshme véreetésie t pohimeve 1 érteta njévlerdite: istem vlerash té mundshme vértetésie t& pohimit 12 sfarédoshém p, jané t@ vérteta formulat: PvP) PAP, aie pir binder lehtd, duke adértuar tabelat pérkatése t& vértetésise Disjunksioni i paré shoreh até pérgjithésim t pérvojés, se glithmon’ ésht# i vertet® pohimi ose mohim yt? shpreh até g# nuk mund 18 jené te vérteta rjgherésh pohimi dhe mohimi i tj. Formutat (4) njihen s€ bashku me emarin ligt i pera: é sé tretés, NE qofte se shenojmé me t njé tautologii dhe me ¢ njé kKontradiksion, ateheré forrulave (4) 9 japim tajten: pest (paprerc Formulat ¢ mesipérme, duke qené ligje logjike, jané njévleresi ré vérteta, prandaj né secilén prej tyre sheaja e> mund t# 2évendésohet me sheniéa =. Dake pérdorur tabeldn ¢ vértetésisé ose tautologii tashme t& njohura, mund tregohet se tautologii jané eche shumé shprehje t& tera logiike. Veeohen pre} si themelore zautologjté e radhiturané tabelén e méposhtme 13, Koncepte t@ Algjebrés dhe revizionai logiikén tradicionale 8 TABELA 13 (TAUTOLOGITE THEMELORE) 5 NR TAUTOLOGIIA, EM Light Kalmar Tkandérvendosjes Morgenit Ligii i mohimit € mohimit Light i aderrimit Ligii | shoqérimit Light perdasise Tdempovenca Ligiit ident E caso | B Tapoal =P | Light i bashkimit Lig fshirjes fe pérdoren n€ logiike, gofté pér_ ver jera, qofte edhe pér shndérrimin € nj hésisht WE ngarkuara me veprime, né shprehje mé w chjeshta (ge pérmbajni mé pak veprime logiike) né ngjashméri me pérdorimin e shndézrimeve ‘identike ndaj shprehjeve algjebrike né algjebrén elementare. Shembull. Te vértetohet formula: (20) 9 @=0 =lipva)=*) turé ky Hig njiher me termi 918) goad 9 eusyp #1 E3N, tango *d ur punfourys oy yy (Boy sense vy 9 a queypfBoy zonspus vy 9 tarwapras P8U IID eugA a Alyse 3m 30d aupa renspus ey 9 an | zensgut vy @ 25 OD 9u gb sIsHaA 2 aIse IND I 3p | apa zensgut ey 9 alougre ‘ued 1 zonsaar wy 9s ayob au -afoup 2 vilsyfBied sow n ‘uay {So} ensgau ty 9 aruapmis an edu yr9 95 uafladd 29d “¢ IMGWOYS 2x gu ragoRan Sts axn/Boy sweiqord svasnfenbmagse 210 uolypyz au ase 2xtBor 242 202 aINZ vered 2 0 ab aansazad ¢ 91 pian au psajad z wrquuied eyED 9 “9 upanBiy gu xomsezea pr arysef fi ur afl 2m yosaplianaz #1 PUNK ¢ UBIASY aU aUaYP @ BUOYS ‘efoypalL 4s (bad) = [(ovd)a(bv d}ad)] unpunaad 1g (bad) = (bad) = [(ovdad pad] = [Cbvd}atbv dyad} (ord e nsw 2199 au oYUSeN G)nd) apd i gue ae wyardys qunep 2 wwERS ~g sindiy 2 mays ayonusetn aL "z nnauouS run 9 00718 2 upmays aus royosapuanar 91 pum ¢ uamnal pu mmerin a oaoys ‘sfoypat apg (aabyvd duu wapystoaat 1 asa wyod 44 “(G) at ates aN eva atbva) a sunyod ifSynad 1 auaup 95 SwaxS ste dgmy au anybored ‘9 buoys iayonsetia aL “T HNqWaYS -esajed aed aur vequun ab of asain a pus yeuiout es a1 oways

reporour ous joyorpms 31 purus unyod sf ate mse o> 9 ‘eutttoy op auiugar aay 90 59 “wadey yssiayatu oup wayycqus ysezeyatu 2b pxXuaur au gufound es9j08 Sp any FSM n aide aioupie ‘serpafseue ayp ° Aqui ere of wale 3b ayn 3 ausuam gu gufound wsajas Xp as ay0b ay (Cu) asqueyad axouryod 1 worsyunfuoy a aukie asiny “(1 3y), ssainpad za isqun(syp ro{SifGzad top jared = gd ‘u anupry at anesaia5 ‘2lduau fesay sods See ‘ssarespiad rauulyod awfougus ab eiuonyus o1e vu od aur auufouays 1,3 op wesgjaS auuoys aN ndey 1 id usa 159195 1ny songns 5 my atawga | augse yo Tubyod eft sup ops snysod aur ts resopuaa aagunycd 9s sax ‘yp vseyo5 our eavutoys supa efypry (oojey Yau ewe) mndey ai ofpuat® au up (uopey Paxks) rnp qu aa peat aa ‘afpualS Ap au uoypopu 2 purus 191 a wsaiad "yrUrp ‘opeUOIDIZOdAp esayed WAIDA ab rmunde aluops m ayneusays uafitbeand atufoxd 1 aur ‘osgpa5 stu mays rerafeabmayse a auufousbys ao “vosaiauy eu yu ofe aufo jad sod ‘omyspu ai axafoyy 2 staf ay punu eaeuiays al/ ‘ayunyope BAculays 9 URLNYSeLIN up UZCUE Jad uayouEGe yt] “| ‘rusafip 2 aeunegz Ap au ruayeps od aA 9 fay aaag tunys a aamnege suey yo] YER] ayH{Soy aaafSy a9 eIysalyy ay aUIIIEgZ “pT aursapuas qua apr af x [avbjed] = (Ged) v (bed) ab aumyse(du gn ancuaw au aforoues a asisepsad mg au mands a =[ueb) v Gerd) aysod au 1s ausfouepuys 2 92fRo] awrzeaeg 92 srfew 2 uoue gu extlBo} uatyardys) de i njeviershém me By ay ps Pee jedhoje edhe ky i fandi 1, ge tregon se logjikén e ka mésuar student 1) @29=IAg) 29 ett dhe nuke kane mesuar dy student e ere. i kthimit né absurd) (modus tollens} USHTRIME 9. Me ane 1 tabelés st sist @ gjenden vlerat e ve vlerave w pohimeve pérberése: @agap: sé s# formulés ne v@arler peg=psa i etdsse tregoni se jan tautologji formulas gi fshicjes) ipas)y glaipy NUADI AAPA 11, Duke pérdorur ligiet logike, t tegohet se formula e méposhime eshte : gag eee uM shtohet skema e parag PAG YP QI=PAG b) né figurén 8: ©) né figurén 9; PYAR =a (silogjizms veques) ) nt figurén ne figuren 12: 1h) n@ figurén i) ne figaren (modus ponens) i) né figurén 16; mpné figurén 17; )né figuren 13. Dip qa (p=) =[P= Qa}: Slpv(pA@lapl=pi_ Peg=lPrgvipagh 3gnu yy Bau wpa oun w UIOY usd musay “oumod pu gb asoyscapu esip aso afu aufeat yl ey 20d “2304s 4ap JauiiiBied tim ap exmubys 2 WUT youopyzodord $*T Th atibvdjvbv(b vant vofayfSzed 1 ab eunsys wyouapuaL “ST _) Ba peaey & 5 7 8 Ww ro Ltt rt ry b b 2 b a 4{oHé Tea Heh N Lie Ls ® ar Bia Tt ory of ie 2 a a a N Lae ® we tein say Li a dJementeve x nga X, pér fésisé s® propozicionit p(x) dhe lexohet “T aslud bashkésia T= {xe X| pow sand veting p 1, Per propozicionin mbi N “n éshté numér gift” bashikésia © vértetésisé eshte T=12, 4, 6...) re nga veprimet sgjike té mobimit, Konjunksionis, cisjunksioni mit dhe njevierésist ¢& pérkufizohen si veprime me t€ njgjtin emér mbi pohimet pérkatése g¥ merren nga zevendésimi né to i xit me njé vleré t caktuar & gfarédostme nga X. Sipas tyre del gé bashisité © vecetésst of rezultateve té veprimeve me propozicionet do t& ent si mé posheé: logiike =OxT () © am 8 Treo TTD UCTS) @ Lee jee i per & githa vierat e x-it aga X, me fjalé t8 tjera implikira ‘quhet teoremé, kurse X quhet bashkesi e shay leré t& x-it nga X éshté i vesteté edhe implikimi 8) mbi X, Ne kate rast per ato vlera te cit q@ &hts i verte pi shid i vertete edhe q(x), Per keté arsye, né teoremén p(x) = qx) mbi X, pix) quer kusht i mjafiueshem pet q(x), kurse q(x) quhet kushe i nevojshim pet p(x) E zeme se bashkesive ¢ vertetésist s# propozicioneve pix), x€ X dhe ASX perputhen: ToT, Ne ket rast ede T; = 7. Prandaj nga (9) Toma (Tp T) UTS NT) = TUT = THU CaTp= X. Kjo do t thott se pér cdo xeX asbté © vérteté njévlerésia p(x) «> g(x). Perfioime kesh kere TEOREME 1. Né gofté se pérputhen bashkisité ¢ vértetésist sé Propozicioneve p(x) ¢ glx) mbi X, atéheré pér gdo eX éshtd e virtet® Pisjergts). 16 ‘Trogohet Iehté se éshté e vérteté dhe teorema e ana TEOREME 2, Né goftd se njévlerésia p(x)exg(x) éshié e vérteté pér edo x€X, atéherd bashkésite e vértetésist st propozicioneve: p(x) € q(x) mbi X pérputhen. Le #8 jeté p(x)esq(x) ¢ vérteté pér gda xEX. Nié pohim i tll# pérmban dy teorema 18 anasjella t@ njera Getres, mbasi né kets rast jané najeherésh 18 vertera met pixiseat per gdo xEX: i pari tegon se p(x) eshte nnevojshém per jaftueshim per 1 pr go x nga X, aithere 1X, NE kee rast shkruajmé ionet p(x) dhe I x) ne X. USHTRIME 16. Mbi bashkesiné ¢ numnrave reate R eshte dhené propozicioni 3) Formoni mohimin e tj pO) ) Gjeni hashkesite e veretésise se tyre T, che T; dhe i paragitni grafikishe ato ©) Cila nga pohimet e méposhtme jan V: 1,0 Ee@.T,1 T, =, Tz #Caly? s# sé propozicio bat-3e42<0, xe R ". bashkésing ev 3x+2=0, xe N. 1 vi-x? 18, Jane dhene propozicionet mbi Z: p(x): x gsheésréné e ekuacionit x G(s): x ésheé numer tek 2) Formoni Koajunksionin p(x)ng 8) Formoni c 19. Konjunis acb) dhe A(x) shore ac {xeE | Afxal=T dhe (xe E 8b) Te zgjidhet inekuacioni -1 t-xeog>— oe : or=vEs ee * z- xe aIse-0> (Z-N&F9e0> Me o) ABN MIL> 9) ¥ (E>) | BBX) @ Mise -usqiayaph sous a gue as salen st pura 2 981803 2N ( 1 oup 4] ausisereysed souoroizodoid ovayp auey as asseeuge 2 anauorsizodoid m wysisareyiad asismiangs 9 aseagseg y ayp 0 ‘d ual a1 27 NDEOCEHT grocr= tf @1=((0 | F3x} oup “L={O)E mas astsozuian 9 TIaIDG Ne ETD ‘p auv! yeuotstzodoxd amy Iqur ysouOQSeraUT mda, au ‘ysouotnyzodoud wi yeynb oup 7 2x"@)] sods uaafen au oype 1oyoupys 73x ‘(x)bv(x}¢ tworsyunfuoy, { 75x) 2s ayob aa oasis a 280 ysouoIoenya masts ardku p(x) eshe @ vértet#sisé s8 propozicioni barazimi (c) shkruhet bi X. Megentse CxT eshte bashkesia né vecanti pér été propozicion yxeX, po (@) Po ashtu tregohet se pohimi 3xeX, p(x) &shts i njévlershém me pohimin Te, duenath, bts i vereté edhe baraziea’ Logik (xe = (Teg) agfithashtw &sht® nje propozicion i gfarédoshém mbi X, prandaj prej tj né marrim (xx, (xT #2). | bejmé pohimit Ux X, pla) shndérrimet e méposhtme: Wrekpw = sipas (@2) Formula (10) tregon se pohimi WxEX, p(x) éshte i gabuar vetém atzheré kur gjendet te pakién njé element @ aga X, pér té cilin p(a) eshté i gabuar Elementi ai bashkesisé X, per c# cilin propozicioni p(x) auk eshte i verteté, quhet kuundérshembull pér vértetésiné e pobimit ¥xeX, ptx). ‘Shembull 1. Té mohohet pohimi Vxe X, p(xl>q Nga formula (10) marrim =[3x€ X, p(X} v q(x) ] = [Bx€X, pix) q(x) }. i Ne pikén ¢ mésipérme implikimin p(x)=g(x) o@ eshee { verter pér cdo vleré @ ndryshorit x nga Xe quajtém teoremé.Neryshe mund WeeX, pls (eundérshembs " Shembull 2. 7 j=(Bxe R*, 2x-150)] 20-120, 8 éshté pohim i 2. LIDHJET (RELACIONET) 2uL-Lidhjet dyshe matematikés, q’ mbeshtetet_né kupt Kartezian t& bashke 1. Gift i rad! te them se cifti i radbieur, i pérbéré prej clementeve te njé bashkésie A. perttohet duke i lidhur numain | ndonjé elementi 4, w A-sé dhe namrin 2 ndonjé element as té saj, Narkag ay mund té i radhitur shenohet jodhet né vendin e paré né giftin € radhitur, quhet j, kurse elementi ap koordinaé e dyte we gohe ‘se a) =) dhe az= bs. mente te bashkesisé A, athert ¢ 11 objekteve ose shkurstreshe ¢ radi TN peng, n8 got sea, ni njéfacd ményre éshee dhené key nga shkalla © mesme veretésia @ pohimit derivueshem né pikin Xo, attheré ai esbet |ADK iuowo}2 2p uprunys 21 uoseboys YSe muauinga opS ab (D4 2x) vlypy ym ng Nleup BR 1 vorspung. srurzigmaind lise sedis “afofypyy sueSon 1 for) afu is guifousbys 1 op spxpewarem = aipusisepues g2 aumys IaouEy aI {ora {sca U9" Z)} = 0 90 aUsfaI® v9 eu ‘97 UaNBy av arate Suafiued #3 "7 safypr a axoatBiys warwesBeIp waugie {4x | AxX3t6} = 9 up 19 9 )\ [\ I= A19'S ch=X wy 7 ualgpyasdas f ob au “ynquays ied “saerelBiys 9 ewe ysE re < | Su aureseip aa iysryyts® reyosebepsed re z pyyTs _1ayosabeps UY 7) ) yen eloupats seq °K asp a fest sup x amd w rosopuan seiafBiqs 1 8 gb rongon 31 ad (ow upto 9°75 wayougpe Dae +s) ‘v8u aur uayohoa ispayseg a ¢ ba vezereg nagseia® aaues 1199", 93068) S O34 75,4 2a “Tofapa an suse ,- Safypy @ epefseue 9 as pats we at austen’ 2 aup , "1 au arufouags a puns at sexy “afypu a9 (,9 “X 1A) iyson fepuead “xxA uefeaumy yuMypoid 2 yseTUSEGURU aIYsR ,~ 26 auE o FMS yD auufouays 2 D314 x) ab vIn a XXL A) aasytS © aUISENUSTE “KK SCE A) fepucad ‘ared a any} at ancreuspi0oy wepuas senugpa ap royouad 9 (x 'X) upd aufoudbys (C °x) IS SURRY “AXX'S(K "X) asauaTe “AXXDO 95 auab ayn “es a1 9 1yes8 + uigysopaneys Fyid ae (42x) anal at a7] canysod 90s 18 anrefseue 2 efupm earifenbmiuse 2 rayowepu (1A) = 7 afypy ops sag Ape upifen gu aypa soyouRYs nye} OL ayp 4. BX UNUaLUaT= x 3x sNUAWIS|a HoLAbOYS “Felgpy 98 ump aisuay ‘9.900535 os sob a fos 1 anvaars a visexysng raynb oD {ORC XBXELA SADE ‘isaqyseg asim "7 sefuprt 2 mayoouad a vispyysog wound 7 2 242)8 ape roy 8 touMp | ual a1 uotstzya 28 ayob aN (61 34)7 UBOpRILIS C uoMOTE all X 9 9 2yp (puny ase) safiusague a tsanysog X (OLAX) = 7 aeuusopamys a ual supa 2 relaosyys aw auafoupys 1,3 op 19fapry Axx woraney suupoud 2 iseyysuquau amyse 0 vatta 24 au (D4 °X) sntnypos 9 olysou 1oynd A aiaseyysng au x astsaqysog 2 (401g uornja4) ask alypry -wrefmueg Ae) eaennypes 3 yseand ssexgseq aftr 5 oup ruayp a) Iseyyseg AP A up x ouef a aT" “Ve, atalousys afysasqumer apy "g[tau excmuny m2 owyspunul 2141S BML a PSU oyaqued 9s-y f werzowey wosey mayspy “y 1 ueIzauey One Je4nb eV *,¥ LayouayS ‘W Sur eiegereg 91 aarsgqyse (Czu) U | UozauEy MEIyposd “nueSan aN GD (aS Ts Lad yay |r tea) = oe xcyxly rsauseg toy yx xy xy reyougys 2b ‘and t werZaUEY wrypoud aszyare (€zu) 8y Ey Sy 909 sURuP auel a8 ayob ax asayuseg Ap 2s ada pw ied seyospigulSied axsaqgonq 1 eerzauy nutypoig fy Bev Ty Sx [ExIK) J =tyacty “tag “Wy Sx aup ty 3X. ny (Ex hy) eomyper arayld mud ai auet sao 28 2 remawisja « yxy rayouays ab “eSpKUSTG TOUT Ap auel ty ayp ty) *y auispyyseg au 'y asisayyseg Gt) TeaRterv~-veqeteye (gate) a [a qq) = CRE se YY, risarojsate sreURA 2 e1ys@ 95 tayoSaN g puns Syeworew MOIsNpUL ai MULTE sedig wBYOURYS 9UD ,earyalgo wr mypos 3 wuriers round (Ce EME Ete AFunksionet i shénojmé me shkronjat f gb .. etj. Pér té paragitur fanksionin f me fillim X dhe mbarim Y pécdorim shénimet: EXSY ose E:xy.xeX ye, dhe £ x9, xEX, né qoité se XeY. Nga pérkufizimi del gé funksioni f pér ¢do fytyré dum.th. pée gdo xe D(f) ka vetém je shembéllim ye Ei), gé shénohet f(x). Pra, y= fix) > (xy)eG Per zbatime jané shumé (é réndsishme ato funksione né te cilatt& pakten bashkésis ¢ nisjes X shté bashkési numerike. Né kété rest funksioni guhet numerit. Kur ai éshté edhe me vlera numerike, si f(x) mund té merret vlera A(x) € njé shprehjeje algjebrike t€ ndryshorit x. Njé funksion i lle shprebetné trajten f XY, i pereaktuar nga fix)=A(w), Yre DOD. (20) e cila gute! trajta analitike tj. Shpesh shkruber: f: KY, | pércaktuar nga f[x)=A(x).duke mos e dhénd Dif). Ne kee rast me marréveshje st Dif) merret ajo nénbashkisi e X, gé pérbithes nga vlerat tit ku ka kuptim shorehja A(x) Per funksionin (20) grafi i tij G mund te paragitet edhe sieometrikishe af njé plan koordinativ Keaddreite Oxy si bashkési pikash M(x; y) t€ tj, Koordinatat ¢ « cilave jan Koordinatat gifteve (x; y) t G-st, Ne Ket rast, beshkesia ves {Mix: ye Oxy | y=flo)} « Fig21 —quhet grofik i funksionit £ Ne figurén 21 éshté ndértuar grafiku i funksionit f R'OR, i pércaktuar nga f(x)=x?, xe’ Ndétkag, né gofté se Konstantja b bén pjesé néY,atsheré funksioni fi X+Y i pércaktuar nga f(x) = b, VxeX, quhet funksion konstant né X, kurse funksioni Ta XOX, {tile ge M(x) = x, YxEX, quhet funksion ideatik né X. Funksionet Klasifikohen: ato adahen né katér klasa, sipas pérkufizimeve t& rméposhtme: Funksioni f quhet injakriy né gofte se cdo dy fytyra xx. xo te ndzyshme té ti) kane shernbellime f(x.) fa) te ndryshme d.m.th. Xu# => fla) # fox) 22) Exhie e qante q@ ky implikim eshte i njevlershem (sipas ligt kundervendosjes) ime implikimin fox) =f) > x= w Funksioni f = (X; Y; G) guhet syrjektiy né gofte se gdo element y i Y-ut hus shembellim i te paktén njé xi nga X, dam th: né gofke se (ey. eo) Funksioni f = (X; YG) guhet pasgyrim” i X-it né ¥ né gofté se gdo element i X-it eshte fytyt8, dim.th, né qofe se Di=x (24) “Na fiteraturt, me vend @ termit pasaorim pércarer shpesh termi aplikim. Pr Funksioni f = (X: Y: G) quiet bijelsiv ose bijetsion n& qofte se ai eshcé pasqyrim injektiv e syrjektiv njéheresh, i qofté se lidhja f=(X:¥:G) eshte funksion, lidhja e anasjellé f' unde: cf mos téjeté funksion. Por, ne qofté se f'=(¥:X.G") eshte funksion, aigher’ até € quajmé funision 1@ anasfelié 2 funksionit f £. Provohet TEOREME 1. Kusht i nevojshém dhe i mjaftweshém q@ funksioni fo¥:G) w keld funksion t& anasjellé thie g2 ai 2 jt? injektiv. Le jet tani f=(X:Yi G) pasgytim i X né Y, N8 qofté se ai eshté pasqyrim injektiv. ateheré nga teorema 1 ai ka funksion w anasjelé f rmund té jeté ose jo pasgyrim i Y-ut né X. N8 qofte se njektiv eshte pasqyrim, ataheré até e quajme pasay uf Peovohet giithashtu jo TEOREME 2. Kusht i nevojshém dhe i mjaftueshém g® pasgsrimi qyrim (@ anasjellé Eh ge ai t&jetébijeksion. Pranojmé gé F'=(V: X; G") eshte pasqysim i anasjellé i funksionit & Ateheré, sipas teoremés 1. & wv. Nga lana Uetér, megentse f esbxe pasqyrim, sipas formulés (24) kemi DT J=Y_ Pee jedhojé, sipas formulés (17), warrim E()=Y. g2 nga formula (23), eegon se f shes pasaycim Syrjektiv. Sipas péskuftzimit pérkatés, me kete eshte vertewar ge Pranojmé ge f= (X; Y; G) eshte bijeksion. dhe syrjektv njeherésh, Duke gené teoremés 1, ekziston funks syrjaktiviten 156 del E ) = DIP), prandaj DP) = ¥ te formules (24) pértundojme qe f eshte pasqyrim, Ne kee ményré pasqytimn Tite lenuesit & vérretojé vet KEE RRIEDHIM. NE qofié ze funksioni f shit injektiv (bijeksion), attheré edhe f" ésheeinjektiv (bijeksio & Y¥: Ge $= (T; Z; D). Shenojmé me K kartezian XxZ pér té cilén ekeiston te paktén nj element y ne pregen YT, tlle qe (x: YEG dhe (y, 2)=D (Hig22) Ke{ix: De XxZVE VOT, (X}eGaCyi28 DP Megendse K © XXZ. weshia P = (X: Z: K) Eshté lidhje e X-it me Z Lidhja P guhet idle © perbere e lidhieve Le S, shenoliet SL dhe Jexohet “ rreth L", Veprimi me ene te w clit pérftohet lidhja e pérbéré quhet kompocim ose superpozim. Duke gent se pérgjithésisht XeT, attheré SeLeLS, dmc, Kompozimi i lidhjeve nuk e ka vetine © ndérimit. Ndérkag, vértetohet se ai ka Vetin€ e shogérimit, d.m.th. shed i verteté barazimi (S=L) ¢V=So (L?). Né gofié se f = (X; Y; G) dhe g = (T; Z: D) jane funksione (mache injektive), atéheré provohet ge lidhja e perbére go f eshte funksion (madje injextiv) Kalojme tani né kuptimin e f perbérd. Le «8 jen chine nénbashkesin® € citsqoeysuoy aye eau AUEE GET ct wee ft Pe A qexre(xly vEU emypord 1a OM sauten 1 wnstbsed ep5 raymb wy au tozwafasp ucdseg “pe [fia amieue vifem anyse THD com! 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Si quben ato? b) A ka ndonje pasgyrim drejtvizor g& shemb shembéllimi 1c jeté 2? ) Percaktoni pasayrimin drejtvigor f, w silé g& £1955, £(2)67. Neertoni gafikune ti 4) A ke ndonje pasqyrin dreevizor fg =a)? imi i zeros te Jeté 1 dhe EAE flan) = fix) BY AER, 7 xER, fix) = ifta) 36, Te tregohet se cilat nga funksione! e méposhime jané injektive, sytjektive cilat pasgyrime dhe cilat bijeksione 1 f R—> Ri parcaktuarnga f(x) = 3x42, @ x= R 2): R + Ri percaiwuar nga gind= ok, ¥ xe RY, 3) b: R~ Ri pétcaktuar nga k(x) = SRV KER, SVR R® > Ri percaktuar nga kiwi =", yx e RS, ku R= (XER |x 20} dhe R= (xeR | x40). 37. Jan chen pasqyrimet 1) fy ZZ i percakwar nga f(x) =x, V xe Z, 2) fe Z > Zi pereaktuar aga file) x, # x= Z, 3) fi Z + Zi pereakuar nga f(x) = 2x42, ¥ x Z, 2) fc ZZ i peroaktuse nga ta) = x43, ¥ xe Z. Te tregohet se cilat nga ato jant injektive, cilatjant syrjektive dhe cilet kane asqyrim i anasjelé. 38. Te vératoieta¥ per cdo pasqytim dretvizor & R— Ri percaktuar ngo fix)=aneb, 7 xER, 41 240, b jané numa real, Keri 3) ¥ (i. ERE H)) =f) = Xy = 6) EQ=R. A és bij mn pesqyrimi £? Tregoni ge FR Ri pércaktuar nga f(x) =} aoa 39, Te véretoher g& per pesqyrimin FAR R i péreaktuar nga fla) =e, Y¥ xe R, keri >) A ka pasgyrim t@ anasjellé pasqysimi fe: R 4 R* i pércektuar nga ivlee’. # xER? 40. Té gjendet lich e perbéce S=L ne qatte se a) L=i(X: ¥:G), ka X= (25; 13:4, Y= (23:9), G={(xiyJ€ Xx¥/x=y/3} dhe S=(T; V;D), ka T= {1:3:46:91 V= {39:16:81}, D= ((tvie TxV [t= Vy }. aX= {1369}, Y= {1239}, G=L(xiyleXxY | xey} D), ku V={1;3:9;81}, D= {ix} XxV | x= vv}. Cila prej tyre éshte funksion? 41° Te vererohe se per edo tr éshiet verter bacazimi egyoP=Le (ely, 42, Te verrewher gn gofté se fhe g janéfunksionc,steheré ¥ xeD(g°9, (gos) = gift) 43. Jané dhéné funksionet: 1) & R— Ri pétcakwarnga f(x) = 28-1, ¥ xR, 2): RY > Ri percal P2(X: YG), A= (TZ: DL ESP Gs) ar nga gtx) = Vx, ¥ xER’. the funksioni f= g. Ci prej tyre éshté pasqyrim? Te gjencetfenksioni ga Jane dhent pasgyrime 1 fs R R i percaktuar aga fils) =x, ¥ xER, 2 arnga fle) = 1, ¥ xeR® x Duke mag f= fof, 1 = fofefe késhtu me cadhé, & glenden funksione: FAAP ES fief, b2 prejtyee dshtd pasqyrim? 43, Jané dhéné furl fy Ry Ri péreaktuar nga f(x) = 2+ 1, ¥ xR, fy Rs Ri pércaktoar nga f(x) = In x, ¥ xe R*, nerreey Nar 2p PERC fe R- Ri pércaktuer nga f,(x) = aresin x, ¥ xe (-1: Te gjendea funksionet: 1) f:°f3, 2) fret, 3) fie fi. 4) ff, 3) fete, 6) feof 46, Eshté dhéne pasqyrimi ER Ri percaktuar nga fix) =at-2x 4 1,7 ER a) Te tegohet nése f éshu# injektiv ose syrjektiv b) Te gjendet &. 47, Sand dhéné pasgyrimmer: £ Q > Q* i pércaktuar nga f f: RR i pereakwar nga 0 -¥ x2Q”, i BQ" OF piraktuarnga nd = 3 v xe Q%,zou avatars x aupo aioupre °2 oui gratis aus reupty & oyp £ out gigs ou 194 Sas auch gu nex a ZA -x vad wr ops aad “any ploy wigan SITUS US 2 ip s(euapuny 91 surniaxp ow yseiafZyys a1 wy ant “esah a apely ow) arafEiys plu 2s gaunys au of aur Uy veyed Ap opS any auousta weten expnowisnae ‘use “T (9 ‘tugpuny a2 awnforp avs yseioTEys 215 aso abet waiee euloundyy uoro(Riys upuzesZeyp aU any axoupre aan axuneUtls 21989 71 (G "AEE PL IEX 2 # pd any pe04gie ursian asanuAbsed aayse 7] (0:2 ania} TauOTEUas a14seo: Sa "yy wanfplc a) ou 33 2 fes 9 puny ayp urun aspuebeus nye) fu 2 uanfon ew waldigs 7x meray any uedes 9 agp Ap coy ano guouane waien auefSiys af out & ‘un raupy x etd “aroyphs waren royorezis x PIseYsE 1 fu oy cigs sad eo 2 fes gt soxellyys weuresBeyp senadbys oynp “usispru pi pont 7 sofypy m2 auuadiseu 2 21 ‘ RSET) Aexex tx Q)v(CTH) “eX BUEX)A 28 ayob au 2p Ieee ax BEX), a8 aod at 3 XS ib at ‘aan azosofyof asizemeqsour ai afypry uaynb 0719 a YSN my {Mex efupyy 280 (iexkx ot uaynb ND 2 "WSK TY {OM au fap (€ 3X Sepgsng aft 3 sd aly] s9unb oI 2 yess au viypn (CX 98 asizeseq 9 afgpq wound mo 2 { [ox8 ow efyry (1 san oad esp wpuausigg "X 20 relyon ayn 31s “yur “afl Zr ury 2 A wipung oup x UNE ab ralypyT USodys uasey ayneweIw aN X au ySOfUpH BSI ESIC “EC gerd our et anneliq aso aasnyals avo ‘oa yofurngssaneiad gun § 16 1 gaye “eamnoliq Ap #1 280 “aanya!xXe Ap a1 980 “aamofur dp a1 aucl B23 a 528 35 pjob pu a4p Z=K BUIONE 26 ayod aX “amAaLus si4se 8 ayp anyafer wus J cauyalig aiyse Jo8 2s ayob au ‘muse og ‘anyaliXs ryse 8 axayane‘amyatids Zyse p28 as job au ‘auxotur auuse 3 proyare ‘anafur piuse $03 98 aod aN sab auorounn 21°72 — 4 18 ayp A + X 3 1ourbsed gURYD ET 209 copyafiq maf gn aaauorsyatig Xp 1 aiggiad | worsyuny ab exgusanyetus at oyp wupysfonats a usm ayedys = ab ausioa: gf wojmutio; ‘suuadisgu a yourtnysn Ap ystsesed anifequs 24Q “6E Bo 3=,.G28)4 TARA? raupre ‘uersyoig auc ZEN Fo sup 6 1B 'K SK sy uosyany as aod u ab weyoTAURA aL. 8S 32,3 U8) aruse fh yjafsour 1 dyp Uorsyaliq aayse 3° 8 an0taipated 1 munstbsred aypo areyate ‘2vorsyoliq auc! awuddsed orgy oF 208 aN (q mpafits angsa 308 axa pungpad 2s ayjob an (@ ab iayoreUpA 212 = AE Up Ae X 3p wuMENbsed auayp auc Ape8 9} ayp Nsf od sjuny wustiaytd agp ayfafseue 91 weaxbsed aiay at raniibsed 9b waysamyefur t oup wagsfonau 1 1ysny 2s 19yOIUAA 3 99S 34 Ay = Jo (0 sprouse ‘vowyaliq aruse Lex 3 2s ayob au ad ioyoiaUian aL “gg worsyatig amuse Ag playe ‘apjatseus a wusbsed 23 A — x 1s nuwdbsed a5 ausob au anrjafun uoIsyuny aise DLA © X 3 tuorsuny as ayob au (e ad seyORRURA aL “PS ‘Add ahs (S)4] wht somyposed sup XEX A =O) munsbsed anyse X] ny 23 akbsed op aad ab reqoreuas a1 “eg mnasboved raya w9n au3y ty ab NAR 2B 1X & A 28 wukdsed afu uoweye my gayle Ky rurudbsed os reyciauze ay XA 5,4 sr2yate ‘anefseur 91 uotsy EAC AST-Wwp “x jqu xpUEp) Su aomypaund 1 x SY WAP *X 1aW Y xe Are greys ieren up g2oygne auyelur mS A AX ‘wuxbsed aef a anawrcbsrd sp raugqiad 1 worsyuny 2b uipusemiyclio ai oyp wiaysfoxsu 3 aysny aysidys g 9b quaiorer af woqnauog (q “U2()g aieyae (9:2 “=F ayp (WA XS saounadbsed | gunqiad 1 wusesed suse Jo8 os aujob au ab weyoreuen a1 (© LOS “eABY AU] remyeorad yey FE SYpy ary soo =(0)/y Bu romp ra LE NADY A ve MES = (9) HBU rOMDyoONEd YT sworsyofig fo ogp ansyalxks rofur aryse sunysodgu 9 rewiacbsed eSu ipo as ouoSon ay “6b eu) CMC SY 4 “V1! = (wy VEU rOMIyRINAS TY CHW IZ (QUE EY A “Y P= (pl RU eMxROIOd FY QUI CT appyetais > 24p amyatur arysa sunysodaur > rowucdsed eBu to 96 souodIR aT “BF eB = 2} ab rayorouen ag Bojajod ab aiougn a nyse esau iayoBaa a 2yp Bos 3o8 axounscbsed 2 aymoue enfen repuats aL (© ausShembull 1. Lidhja L né X=(a; #; 1} ka si graf bashkésiné Ga{(aa); (ail) (5 (ays (51)}. vet ka ajo? Duke shayruar diagramén shigjtoret lidhjes L (fg, 24), vem re se ceo pike ka lak, prandaj ajo eshte pasqyrcse. Veg Késaj joka ‘elem lage dhe nje sift shigjetach me drejtime té kunderta, prandajlidhja L&sivé edhe simetrike Sipas pérkurizimit regohet lehté se simetiike jané githashw lichja ¢ parslelizmit dhe ajo e pingultsisé n8 bashkesiné e drejeéaave plan ose ni hepésice. Ndérkeg, lide e mosbarazise ne R nuk jané simetrike, por jané Kalimiare, magje ato w# mosbarazis jorigoroze jané edhe Fig. 26 antisimetrike (sepse nga xy che yx rjedh g@ x=) kurse lidhja e pingultesse sé drejtezave nuk eshte KKéshtu me rsché, Pra. shumé lidhje né X kané sjehertsh disa nea. pétkufizinit L. Vegojmé pre} tyre si me te rendésishme klasém ¢ radhitjes dae at ldajeve & nfeverésisé Pérkuficim 2, Lidia L ne X ques lidkje e rachitjes né X né gope se ajo éshtd njthertsh pasayruese, anisimetrite dhe k Shembull 2. Lidhja © mozbarazisé né R me graf ((xyJeR*KSy} él lidhje eradhites sepse 1) PXER, XS: 2) ¥(Ry)ERF, (SH)ALySHI=(x=) 3) ¥ORyDER?, (asyia(yez}=9(eS2). Aiéllo! eegohet se edhe lidhja Geter e masbaruzist né R me graf inBy) eshte lidhje e radhitjes Shembull 3. Lichja ¢ plowpjesetueshmérise né N eshte lidbje e radhitjes se: 1) WnEN. ni n; 2) viemin)eN%, (mi n)aln! m)s(n=m)s 3) poeN’, {ocyye Pérkuficin 3. Lidhja L n@ X quer lidhje e njevlerésise né X, né qofe se ajo éshié njtherésh pasaymuese, simetrike dhe kalinare, Shembull 4 Lichja barazise ne X eshtt ldhje enjaviedsit sepse xEX, x=xs DEX?, (x=y)=—>(y=N); 3) VUacy:ZIEX!, (xey)al yaa} =>(ne7), Shembull 5. Lichja L mbi N me graf Ge(m: a)eN*| m ka gts ve njete Be HE Ene lidhje © njavteresise, sepse tregohet lehté qi: 1) YmeN, mbm, >) Verne Ne (els) =(aLm): 3) v(mincp)eN?, (mLnja(nLp)=o(eaLp, Ket jee L n8 X lidhje e njtviewsise, Shpesh,o8 verd té snimit xLy, né K2¢ rast pérdore shinimi x=y (mod L), g@ lexohet "x &sht i ajevlersnem oe y Tencber oe dhe a ast fut shea n#Kllaa hige, duke shisuar shure wey, 8 lexobet “x dhe y jané t@ njéviershém”. pa i kushtuar réndési reach , megentse hia €shte simewrike), Ne Keto kushte, bashidsia e elementeve beX ge jane nidvlershme me elementin e dhéné a€ X sipas moduli L, est ebuivalence ¢ L che shenohet al ose [a]. Pra do dy elemente 1 s8 njejtés Klass ekuivalence t& L jane ts Benes qacte a sipes vets simesrike de aaj kalimare) njévlershme adérmjet tyr 2.4. Copétimi i njé bashkésie.Bashkésia herés Le & jeté X njeé bashkesi joboshe dhe =f} (ku I &shté njé bashkest treguesish)njé bashkssi néabashkésish joboshe w X. Pérkuflcin. [Tauhet cop ben pjese vetémn nd njerén prej nenbastkésive A, TEOREME 1. AZ oft se L ssh lide ehivalence mBl basin Joboshe X, aiiher® bashkisia ¢ Kasave w ekuivalencés {fallaeX} éhté njé copétim i X Varterim. Perdesisa L ésht® pasqyruese, ¥x¢X kemi xLx, dah, xx (mod L): pra x2 x]. gf texon se klasa e ekuivalencts [x] pérmban té paki elementin x; pee rjechojé do klasé ekuivalence e L éshtejoboshe. Supozojmé tar 4€ dy Kiasa ekuivalence t& ndryshme [a] dhe fb] kané njé element te pérbashkérc Atcheré. nga ce[s], c&{b] rjedh alc, bLe dhe, megentse L eshté simetnike bLeseLb. Le se jet tani de(bj. Awheré kemi bLd dhe, megenése L ashes alimtare, (CL }a{bLd) = (cla). Po ashtu, (aLe)a(eLd) = (ald), mith. de(s) pra (bJC [a]. Né ményré tf ngjashme do 8 tregonim gf {a]e Ib}. Pe arjedhoje {al=(b}. gé tegon se dy Klasa ekuivalence «8 ndryshme nuk priten. Si perfundim, Klasar ¢ ekuivatenees se L mbi X formojnd njé copétim t X. Ky copé:im quhet copétin: mbt X nga L dhe snénohet 1 Né gofié se L eshis lidhje ckuivalence mbi X, bushkésia © Klasave té ekaivalencés s& L quliet dashkesi herés e X né lidhje me L dhe shiénohet XL. TEOREME 2. Per edo copétim Ih {Ai er 1 njé bashkésie joboshe X, elciston vetéim njélidhje ekuivalence L mbi X, etillé @é IT jett copttim mbi X niga L. let NJ copétim § bashkésisé joboshe X. (uy)e XI3i€ Lcy}e AZ}, Veretoher lente 4 Kjo lidhje eshte pasqyruese, simetrike dhe kalietare, pra eshte ajé lidnje ekuivalence mbi X, Ts vertetojmé tani gé Klaset e ekuivalences sé L jeré bashkésitd A, Le te | njé klasé ekuivalence © L. Atehert a€X, Sipas pérkufizimit @ copésimit ne {A,}.e: ekziston vetem njé A; e tillé g@ eA, Te vértetojmé gé piktrisht (aJ=4,. Le w je bea]. Atheré kemi aLb che sipas pérkufizimit L nximet q& (eib)eA2; né vesanti DEA, Pér mjechojé, [a}= A Anasjellas, let kemi be A. Meqentse edhe a A., Kemi (a:b]E Az. Atthere, sipes fkufizimit @ L oximot ab, c.m.th. be[a]. Per mjedhoje, edhe A.C [2]. Pra [el=A,, Eshte e qarté pasta) gé L eshte e vetme. Verterim, Le we jet TMefa Shénojme L lidhjen (X: X: G), ku G:sq oysogof auuysopaneys a2 iepausng af gu xtagatSy 1 wide! = oc] “wiypoxd aso gungs mafen a 2 pei 9 nylS 0p5 aufaagboys 1 sutidas ox9yy TH Totaumys ayp eipaldl no ‘saaiueFol[ 2 reyrBou vorpms oxgaGsry anda 9 guna -ayaga (aye youadaA TE a 2gunu SMOTARTHL AMIMITALO TY LVADLM AILS € {pisiq'e} astsayyseg 2 toumnados eu 6S pa uapuals ay 1H} = TX WietKe x vuipuysodgu | anadeo 06u 1oyon;ea:ad sy gu aauszearms of vay Sy ty) efuptt anauaie ‘GeV mISpAHSEG af ayob 98 a TeyoIRURA aL sfupe) uanioas sed spouoqearro 9 sep wepUatD ay. (4 ruse (db) s@:d) 2(b'b) 1A) ‘¢utu) (eas, gay ‘ph e's) ep) gic) eZ) CD) ay Us(z sysodpus 2 19%upyl 98 ayousUips a (e 17 3a sOUA|EAMTONS apy aayse “sennjeo 1 sonttew spuimu pfs use dno ‘fu aun afiequ waifafa 22 uf} Jeu oun Z aU 7 afupyy ab zoyousues aL, rentroya afupy aayse ‘seme 1 yew gun opUsyeAInya Za 30 sf piysa d my ds(Ex) | -ZEAN)) JeXd aus 7 a7 efupel ab royorR aL ‘rauiga at ual ou 3b o1t 2p ouuga gu puef ab sruuatyrojied 2 suas zenden aynp ‘aisplajaats afypry aise rund af gu aaezon(arp ai Gl autsegseg 2U asnndurd » ele asau 124oHeD a nyayospiojd srs gb 018 aup uayoseoyd ab astsquoynatcm vestzUratAG | sags sendan oynp ‘pleuoioes anezunu aD aurseryseg gt atsazoyele aly suse DEAN 14 Os Axo ATE Ad ara O 30 7 elapyl asau wayoED aL ‘soua[eatnaj aftr asa {A uitojonnys aus wigysioyag(i | eryse x worsens x2(K°x)} Joab oun anatoroerys a2 X auispsuseg 98 7 ely a segoseRA aL “x. gu sofmupes 9 afypy aiysa ofe ab royorenes 2b (é 9s fig guinys au B{ | EXBEARX)} = ues wy 9 x osmsepURTaUINYS 9 auIs@EgseR 207 SPIT + Bu Sofinypes 2 afypy aiysa ofe 2b soyorei2A a1 “(0 y ysuAUINYS pIUSe w | NS(wM)) = ues Oe N aU 7 eUPIT Soper’ TeX pulseayseg iq spoUeTeasTEa 2 7] STAPH PLATE aL sudan 9 uuutzuronad fig a1 gu guel onemune OL “69 “9 “99 “$9 “9 (4 94 safypes o ofypn aiyse ofF ab reyorauan ay 7 ‘4 70 solraspad gei8 ow q 3u 7 alypry “‘ansaqyseq ssysea au g mal at 27 “9 uuresioip oapN, OO =ON "V'O}= XP DNED} =O AL's 1} = XO #9) (C= 919" =X 2) 049) ‘(gig e)} = 9 {p9'q 8} = Xe s1ysod 201 Is © J2s8 aw X au slupH 209Up a4 “T9 FNTALHS 260 afu spuang pray 22 uu ounipms 19d isapunw aaXusus ai2y au monliny axnp “ramrysRseTy opd 9 ezeq aIys Fy “PyNpM au sup apuA uRyaraNoT au “aLouoNRyRISEG UaIga‘3ye ay AIUNYS 31 suanege uatB saloy asisqyyseg ¢ ysuaesen ayp uconados + ramndny C8 Fe(OH Seti afew ser9¢:08-99- afew} 2 m samysodaus 9 ausaxystquan gue! we]! a {z) TH) “to] woes sn pu remmoy aise sazey visaqyseg “wrw'p “{(Z) (7) slo }=tayz wusew “Em 9s auyob au "ys'd nb quel 27) 3esery “(1a 1) (0)} = "=z cuaqeNmye 2 1esepy auth ()“{unger-am)={r-w) Caner i=f antsanyseg 20 (aa "7 sau aouateatmya afypy ala guusa Ms, eid “oreranpey aiuse s,, tBu [aod “Ms e WUD "UGEY) = 9 - esiour “gue au guE Tipu #1 HAY MypaIOUE a_Np ‘aIBURW wa =I-g ‘up uray = q~v soley at 2] Yr'urp ‘Deg ayp G's e gual 229] “DUN ag “axEEUNIS anyse .'e, “sfoupalu sad 2 Wo} )=P—q = Wyn qe Ustapiad emg ype gts © vu “Tospy 59, ‘asonacosed suyse Ms, Bid “Ung = B ~ B Usuapsad “em ‘230% WAY "7 19U sgoudteAINy? 9 afopr au Use , =, ad auloraURA, Tus =e L11 asdas "ets (1) muse od ‘¢-1 = ¢~ g asdas's = g “nquIoys Jag uy q~ 8 ab amin 1 234 alu dorstzya as ayod au ge & rauREyUS ayp ta mMpOW sodis q aur tuansBuoy aiyse » 25 wuncLL,wausopATe)S a atoyd EmLING Ap QB 2uD sensyy 120d “waysopareyS + soatven own atu w aaf a1 2] z ynquiags (31 asezailasp a1 anaumnfarp ceany!S ar 2 aursaqyseg ts ausfopuows ea punus [ya sezey auisayquseg fopuesg "wnfoup cupfetu a: ave as rournn aytn a axseyyseg afu a vezaifeug ‘p aur ajajesed anezantasp een ot 2 eiseyyseq atusa ‘p zatleup af vequuad ab ‘Tes as sqouapeamny 9 sept yp atsareyaafu ofypn af ase areitouoyo asinowootS 0 uarsadey au axczanfaup 91-q aUIseyseq iqar yuzy[apesed 2 || efypt as royoRON ANT “T HINqUIaYSalgjebrik né bashkasin? B quber cdo 2. Veprim i jasktém algiebrik né bashkésiné B quher cdo nibs D éshié nje bashkesi e ndryshme nga B. i % shermbull, mbledhja dhe shumézimi i zakonshém né R apis | zakonshém né R jan veprime ef breadshve né R, kurse shumézimi i njé vektori me nje numer real eshté veprim i tera né bashktsiné e vektoréve gjeomeviké eae eit f BXBOB, ven egfbrik ne B. Attert shembalin i (a:b)e B* do té jetéf((@,b)). Zakonishe shembéllimi i nje veprimi algjebrik she duke pérdorur simboie té veo misionalf dhe pike Simbolt "+" per mbledtjen (ab), simboli per shumeeimin (wb), simboli “7 pér nt fugi (aTb=a") etj. Per njé veprim w ofarédoshém algjebrik pérdorim simbolet T, 1°, ©, @, @.... ef) Veprime t ndtyshme né nje bashkési B mond t& gézojné veti & ndryshme, gt mé themeloretjand! a iH 1 Vetia e ndérrimit. Veptimi T qubet ndérrues (komutativ) né B, n8 gofté se .D)SB?, eTb=bTa. 28) Késheu, mbledhjz dhe shumézimi né Z jane veprime ndémuese, kurse grija né fugi né sepse p. the 329 + Vetia e shogarimit. Veprimi T quhet shogerues (associat) né B, né qotts se Viabc)eB", (aTbjTe=aT(OTe (28) Si shembuj sherbejne pérséri mbledhja dhe shumezimi n€ Z, te cilat e ken Go) 30) 8 fundi, veprimi T qunet shpémdarés né lidhje me L, né gofit se si éshee wectsh shpemndares nga e majta dhe nga e djathta nf lidkje me te Ne R shumézimi eshte shpémdarés né lidhje me mbledhjen, kurse rmbiedhja nuk gshw@ shpémdarése 8 lidhje me shumézimrin, pérderisa barecimi “ nuk eshte pergiichesisnt i verte + Elementi asujands. Element asnianés i majté i B sipas veprimit T qube ¢ element ene B (tile ge pee ere Ye B, en Tx clement asnjanes i djathte iB sipas veprimit T quhet gdo element e<¢B i YxeB, xTeesx: (32) element asnjanés i B sipas T quhet gdo element e€B gé és ertsh ‘ eat €=B ge eshtd njeheresh che element asnjanés i majté che element asnjanés i djathiéi Bsipas T. A on Per shembull, numsi O eshte element asnjanés i Z sipas veprimit + te mbledhjes st zakorshme; num 1 eshte element asnjanés i Z sipas veprimit 6 bje me veprimin 7 (shumézimi i zakonshem): ndersa pér bashkésin N ne Xian), korse jes n& fugh numei } eshté element asnjanés i diate xt elementi asnjanés j majte auk ekriston. TEOREME 1. N2 goftd se ekziston elementi asnjanés i majté eq dhe elementi asnjands i djathié es sipas veprimit T né bashkésin€ B, atther? ata janz we veidm dhe ka vend barazimi eyes Verterint. Sipas perkufizimit, duke gené st en ésht 1 B adhe per e,, Kemi ¢,Tesmes: po ashtu duke gené se e, maj, si per qdo elerer ahve clement asnjanés i djathté kemi egTe=eq - Pre) Kendej meqenese veprin eché pasqyrim dm.th. go clement i bashkesist s& nisjes BxB ka vetém 1) blir, marim e, = maite (dj ashes i vetem. Ne fakt. né qofte se e. do re ishte nj tet element asnjands i maj fi mésipér do te tregonim ge ¢ = ey prandaj c= eq. NE ményré t& ngjeshme tregohet ge edhe elementi asnjanes i djachtt esheé i verém Mbeshtecur né kuptimia © mésipérm c& clementt asnjanés, teoremés 1 rund ti japim edhe keté formuliea ido bashkesi B gé ka element asnjands t majté dhe element asnjanés t2 asnjands sipas tj njerin pre ayre dl djathté sipas veprimit T, ka element eshtd i veto # Elementi simetrik, Le 18 jate B njé bashkesi ¢ pajisur me veprin clement asnjanés ¢. Quhet element sipas T cde element BEBitlle qe aTece (aT ae), do element ZEB ge the edhe simetik i matt dhe 5 element a B sina T que elem va spas T. Kesh {numeral a sipasmbledhjes nt R eshte under i, ada | numet eal a0 spas shurezimut ne R esi anasjll i TEOREME 2. Le ti jet’ B njébashkés epajisur me veprinin shogérue 1 ha sias aj element asnjants edhe a nj lement iB. NE gofié se & y éhi dlement simetrik i majé dhe Gq éhte element simetrk | djatht? i a sipas T atéhere @_ dhe @, jané te vetim dhe @ y= 06 Megenese a dhe a jane peacsisht element smetsk i me a dhe aT ae. NE Kew Ver he element simetsik i djathté i elementit 2€B, Kemi &.,T: kushte, nga vetia shogeraese e veprimit T. Kemi nea pTera pMeTag=(aqTaTa cea, Neerkag, @shi# e gar’ se nuk mund te ekzistojé njé simetrik teter i majt a i a, sepse, po té ekzistonte, si me sipér do i kishim a'=aq, d.m.th. @ esht? vetém. Eshté gjthashta e gare se dhe A Ashié vetém Nga igo teocemé axiren lehtésshe keto medhite 37of ees sp isueNy zaomeyy weygeurrets HB iySMENTY s82q “SuRpENY a erysNG ad astyelig xewmbsed fr nda’ auspras son) wy cu® mt measge wyysuNTEIes ma ude AT AN, sauabous susp J nutidaa ule a at (L'a) yprodns® sey (ChidqustB)dnat aiusodata 1s pufomqeosad «2b yadnaS oup rpprouou: adnusiuas ausforep wudas afe au syagaGSye semainns 2RPN whidas afu aw ayagefaqe manpNAS °F “umegg 24 ysedys gut uasey ae)9 gt (7 'g) dn 2 autsdon Ap aa sasungyuns 91 yp ‘aptodruS uoynb 9b “(1 “g) dn 9) wiudan afu ou axcanoyans 2 reqususafe unuipnas au wo|2pl #1 op “sunos as spagalBye gi od stain suresBosd 30 curyspigd ab aunysaptied a au aneunbynass @ uupms zed zenpuszasd oq ago Ugcie use 9 senso fda Ats “Cj "ND Bunpynas asny yng gu wade ave afypy ax 1 spueluse rousa[a fa 2 “N) seunas @ ginajnnsuau aft atuse (y'(}) ab uel NP vy Un 8 plOy SOD at | BINDYRUS gion ayp utunsdon ona afypsy gu souefuse walle[e aay 3 g Saunpmas 2 y Bh a3 pupeps a puma BEAD una ayo pu afypy 34 (°™ me a n& barazimin ¢ lementi asnjanés i grupit G. Ne keto kushte in © pare, marin (aTb)Te=eTe = ng kete pérfundim, nga 28vendsi artim DTane, gi eg fra element simetik ia né grapin G. Nga ered ig gshté i veeem. TEOREME 2, edo Dale regula eek Yah j 1b =b;).Alb;Ta=b Ta; seTb:=> byTasbsTa axirretbi=b> a : 2) Kompozojmé ngs 2 majta me a 18 dy antt ¢ ekuacionit Tx = b. Kemi aTxeb = aT(aTx) a =a T b= eTxnaT b= x-aTb, Te irego} nje ashe e vetme. Li zgjidhje 8 ekuacios vworemés hemi oTxsraTs: = 3; hme tegohet edhe ekzistenca zgi edhe ai i néngrupit. Nengrup i grupit (G: T) quhet nénstuktura (G: T) ¢ tj, gé nea ana e vet éshte giithasht grup. Pe shembull, né qofté se shénojmé Z, bashkésiné e numrave t pl atee (Le ++) Ghee néngrup i grupit (Z; +), mbasi ajo éshté nénstrukturé e tj dhe njeherés! grup, atéheré TEOREME 3. Né qofté se (G'; T) éhe® néngrup i grupit (G: clementet asnjanése t2 tyre pérputhen.snfjage dap ayaa anoanns aa (+39) 5 geye\ FL yd + xg = OO(eA WE aeMTyTOHAD LY — BH HSE A apse 47008 + OS = (HEH) BU UMBeAT F aE ! 1p anadon royoudbys “Use ME MEXA gs sofypajqu 1 upysuowre 1 : A ie 2 (Ry BED woemyeaiad 2 <= Hy oxswnsesed 1 31 UISHINET AN “C6 AS clas de fpr ‘onpgee amoyas se (+) 2 ua a AL sn) = (S49) Pau smeaIaS 1 BH) Ce ax 2 (8 +O = KE) peared 1 EDA sudan sogousbys USCe OL WSK "GN =__ 48 safuparqus 1 waysuoyee 1 umdas r9qoU > ee a eo = {hyp eBt posmseaand my wt szomnfsp asouuibsed a aateatera aN C6 gg zis (6 “ac de 1 dnote 2 XU = (xj eBu BIENDIEON suse (o “a7q) #0 19YOHPUEA AL DSP ME WAY AXE = 09 HE ; SCP ERARa Sao 9 ssemes omens 6 rn “plowow gugsa acpiqibaus “(2 “4!@) ab ayoreAN AT insB pags yn “plouow ays2 387 7 sunsnysn a (e*uq) Hdnsd 9 punngnnsuau ase (2 ‘y7q) ab reyorsHa® 21 ee pSbr Mae Axe = (03 OSU TEMAyEONAS sawusbsed 9 BIEPAHSE| =! HOURS “06 aw < yg soumseliiad esoussbs i d Tusenyjsn 4) (2 “qh sera > dnaSua gagse (0 *c_) sb BHO AL eed se 1 YSN A= (0) PST aus sisofdiad axewuncbsed 2 259519869 « 1PUOURIS “6S eee ddna8 siysp (> °) 25124008124 = =p wispiseg 10d97 (8 an fone Dade my-DSe 4 -geww=C4y |] — OF) =O we swabs 9 neater au 24S MH EN ASAT CT emioind a a aap assured # eseyypeg TODAS i sexzquanys aus afuptt 24 «0 9 ina anysa (sq) 9 1200Ha0 at fepuew ouP CrENZaII 0 Sansonipusb 2 Baxusoaue aise @ sb oucnauas ap (Z9d] ohms! eT Lk “ umsaqe aura y Grud anasa (= ‘bemoans 2s ayoIEHE AL (8 T_T 5 a a TOT ia exper jysod aur is exonnyoozed 2) x fqus oasuowsyuns o {5 “TE TY YM} = @ UNANYSEG aURUP ayST “9B fox = for ed 3 Sg ead 1a vase ex yee ees eX ONE ERNE yyseg AURUP ANSE “$8 na a Gg) aseun'fBau pouowr arysa (-\“q) asacmifRous (¢ ay galéye vunynns 2uel (‘qh aya (Ce ib wogoraua ND = cl SANSA aUAUP AMEE te jownan a. “urunzauinys aur afupit 28 Z = ¥ PISeyusEG as tayoIaUaA aT (a 3 anise ne “prowons ia a. unrZaWNYS axz afypry aU Z 2 =} = nyseyused 2s 1ayorauas aL (e “eR aways auoy fos 2 eanngasuae aype nd ayauan | aise ase rouosan at (O 3]3y sow a1 aspieyaad wimaynans ‘ny ‘salueluse wuausaya aay a vinpjnaisuas ny TRquayS af eyOURDE AL ‘uefjage dnaB aryse (1 ‘7) eamoqnns 2b feised ayp they au seftstu at | urwradon ‘uu alypy au N @ ausysarupugd 2 tserysequau auyse {1} = [ab ieyowua aL (ETS vuetjage dad aryse ( @ °Z) ab reyoreuRs aL, C-U+URUgil ez aU) A a ayn 1@ tuudan oyorgensed 7 NTS suefoge dru arise ( °,) eimnyrusuan ab feased aup * @ aut afypn au O 9 sunysorapuab 2 ssayustouau ase {1-] = = O ab saycrenas aL (a iysp aspunn Bou “( “y) 26 [or aus 704 ‘aumysorupuab 2 wexysequan 21959 {1 20 reueqereg 9) auel O18 asoypre “satel ‘ayugelSye mimtynais ws ‘2s 2100 ayn94. Grupi (G; +), pér té grup abeljan. Té vértetohe BK 9S. she dhene grupa (G; ). Te veretohet ge wa} ne gofté se YeeG, at =e, aither? G eshte abeljan (e éshté elementi asnjanjés iG); ~ bj né qolid se element xeG eshte i tlle ge x= x, ateheré x =e: 7D 0) (G éshté abeljan) = (9 (a; b)|G?, (ab) = aby 96. Te vertetoher Q& né gofié se (G,T) eshté néngrup i grupit (G, T), attherd simettiiu né G! i t8 gfarédoshem beG' shes simetriit i b ne G. 97, Te vércatohet se njé nénstrukturé (Gl. T) e grupit (G, T) éshté néngrup i attheré dhe vettm atéheré kur simetriku né G i njé elementi #2 gfarédoshem bsG' ndochet né G’, d.mth. kur'¥ beG, b eG 98° Te verretohet gé semigrupi (S : +) dshté grup, atdheré dhe vetém ateheré kur pér edo abeS, seviti nga ekuacionet a*x=b dhe x#2=b kanje aajichje 1 vetme né $. 99° Te vertetohet qe ne qofté se bashikésis G! e nénsirukturés (G,®) te grupit (G,®) shit e fondme, atehere (G,®) ésheé néngrup i grupit(G, ®). 100. Jeper bashksia ¢ matricave latrore G = {Ae M,(R) ; D(A)#0}, kus M(R) éshit bashkésia e t& gjitha matricave katrore 18 rendit té dyté me elemente nga R, D(A) shit pércalcori | matricés A. Te véttetohe: af: 8) (G, ») éshté strukturé algjebrike, magje grup; by na shed i vérteté pohimi V(a; b)|G?, b + a= b, eshte fab) Het ,| 2Ma(R) | ad +0}, ateheré (H, -) eshte nénstrukruré ¢ (G, »), madje néngrup i tj ©) né gofté se 7 (2°) sway Leg) NADI ad-be= 1 aisheré (K, -) ésht8 nénstrukturé e (G, ), madje néngrup iti d) n8 gore se evinnitiins (a b) Leg) SOlarda been a), atdheré (D,) éshté néngrup i (G, ). A éshté grup abel ” 101. Tepet bashkésia ; oe D= (a 0 9 G={A=|0 b 0/ eM] dexa) #0, 09 0 ¢ 46 seu Mu(R) eshte bashkesis e 1 githa matcicave katroe cé rendit @ weté me clement nga R, detiA) ésbié netcaktor i matics A. Te vércetohet ge (Gi ) shee grup abeljan 3.4, Strukturat algjebrike me dy veprime Né matematike ndeshen shpech bashkisi né 8 cilat jan8 péteaktuar dy yeprime. Neér me té thjeshint dhe mé t@ réndésishmet e Ketyre strukturave jant unaaas, trupat dhe fushat 4 Ungsé guhet sin T?, strukrura (B,T) ésht& grup abeljan, 2°. veprimi i dyt# 1 éshré shogérves, 3°, veprimi shté shpémdarés né lidhje me veprimin e paré T. Né pérkufizim nuk Kérkohet qf veprimi i dyté ts jeté ndérrues. N& gofte se ai #shi@ ndérrues, attheré (B:T:L) quhe lerruese ose abeljane Megendse (B,T) eshi grup abeljan, sig eshte theksuar (Shih shénimin nf pikén 3.3), zakonisht ai shénohet n& ményré aditive né trajeén (B; +), Po ashtu ‘eprimii i dyté shemohet me shonjén - dhe né lidhje me (B; ) pérdoret terminologjia ¢ shumézimit. Keshtu, né qotte se ekziston elementi asnjants né (B;_), ai shénohet né qofte se ekziston element simerik a i anasjellé i elementit a; a> tyre et e quhet element i elementit @ né (B;-), ai shénohet a’! dite quhet element (gd S8nté péfundimi i veprimic - ndaj elementeve a dhe b quhet prodit Ne gofté se (B; ») ka element ¢¥ ojésishem, attheré unaza (B: +; -) nfésishme Le té jeté tani (B.+) njé grup me shénim aditiv. Sti tlle ¥ aeB, 3 -2=B, element i Kondét i a, né lidhje me t€ cilin Kemi a(-a}=6 dhe (-a)+0=8. on Ne veganti, sipas rrjedhimit 2 1 weoremés 2 te pikes 3.1. Kemi ‘YaeB, Prania ¢ -a pér gdo ae B iejon futjen e veprimit t& zbritjes né B sipas Ket pérkufizimi Zbritje ni bashkésiné B cé gropit (B; +) quhet veprimi ge do (2,b)eB? i lidh elementia a = (-B). Ky element qubet ndryshes# e a-sé me b-né dhe shénohet a- Pro a-beat-b) 38) Né kete ményré, né gotté se (B, +. +) éshte unazé, ateheré ne B eshee pércakzuar edhe njé veprim i tret, zbritie, Duket menjeheré qé vaeB,a- # Trup guhet unaza (K; =) qe ka vetité 1) né K ka te paktén njé element té ndryshem nga zero: 2) K*=K-{O} eshte nénbashkési gendruesime ¢ K né lidhje me shumézimin: 3) (K*;) Eshté grup. (39)(+ ry) atear oanmamma as sausny 9 ausnyuau a1ysa aqeuorses asvaunu 9 (- 14D} BysN] mMYsE Og’ + °Z) seIUN 2 auDljege afpreD ‘gevunugu aiyse («+ 97) 25 aye] 1oyoden “nurynysad Use sium ayAq -usny ‘dn wysisareyad ny supa 1ainy aBoreue A 9 oe BU aN auyse G+ te) ame saysefugn 1 ou aucuaw any “gf sazoun ay gepunuigu pufonb a ate aseypae “p20 (fa ne) 35 agob an “(2+ sep) sazoun 2 pemyansugu af (- + 2) 2090 32 2] gp pu owaen 91 ofypillz ey gee my 'q = bx 980 q = Ye TMOITENYe “UnLU!ZaUIAYs au 3 92 “uatypaigu: afupy au uerjage dniB gulouuos sorez Saaind afes 9 rowau9p9 0 feu afgpyy gu uetage dm aufowsos nles 2 rowuowtsya ripifS qa ‘sore7 22 samigsafd ina “ysatu py auysry ops “den pause oysny asquabour auracoat fesey sealg ucian a ayse algpifi2 off = vm iouoroensa eB uIoes ‘quran 2 afypill2 ary wu ‘dad puyse (3H) asauaboyy maizauonys Sy 2tge) 9 ulumpunyiad uonustepuny of -g = ge aseyer zu afypy 20 sugserupush > [sayysequey aluse .y aseuabe use fas ¢ pysny e3N “gece <= (G#q)viGH2) jucl aby au qr iawowaja aulesieys ‘wrurp ‘uauepuny 91 ausfourig (c seouays rasan a are aoutp Sig sy dna | supe waystsalu 1 wewnoy> waystsefu | puowaye ag w= 20 tay oe A ab weet guduaun sin = 2 1way (gp) eynasioy wBu “pzeun aItsa ( paae=te <= gyar = gat ayses Xp ausfolfec uawtzecnis ou gu yy ncn 1 waysisafu tiuauiaja aryse 2 ab awloreues ay z9 2a “NS 35 avab ayng “( :43) udm 1 waysiselu y nuamiaia @ ata 27 i “y a1 aucysopasofs gx encownye 3p aul q Bev ity “q=vx oyp q=xv 1ouo}oonya ¥ pu ateias on afypUe gEY (E “(gnoqd a gzoun gnyse) Sota: on samsgsold vy yt (2 “faunpsasgla a azo. giysp) eagyszsafa 93 ruauseya wy 10 (T doygnn ‘dns ays 6 = £9) a8 uf0B NC ANABOSL 0) 2 gzoun arysa as gum raynp (- 2+ {'z) waeun “ys'g “pi0jd 9 azwem raynb ofp a1syait an) (e=a)(g=e) = B= ar EDA) A a an 9 aiyse oft -yrurp ‘soraz a samasofd oy ynu (43g) bzeUn 28 2N age ab vn ae “quforstzye 2s 24402 au ‘fos a1 Gq ayp gee retuawiaye uaynd q sazeun a1 save? 21 samasaly a curztynaiad aagy unde! ‘eg souae a samigsold uaynb @ oup roo ‘mn at 21803 ax 4g = G)V(G = ©) espunlBour 'g = qe tay oF¥e gzeun ops au “usd “maugs @ auyse You Z squiouom o vypelseue 2 9b ezeuN ey (or) e=Fe=6r gees auegare ‘zzeun suse (++ 1g) 98 atfob aycoyssupu aypa anvoynunsoy e1 punta gusos081 21231 (8 = 0-8 aupa a5 1eyoSen (oyalN '@ = a2—4q= 919-9) =a@ toy (6¢) eJmuLIO ‘yp y eureuoe) w8u "g=q-q eseuaboyy -¢-g ummypord awfousbug suauan B=qV= O=9)4 O=0) 99 (9')4 “yrurp ‘0192 axyse wuauppoud aypa asaygz ‘a4a2 anysp sazoun 21 asonuawiaye kp 22 nuunypoud » ax0r40f 0Bu afi as 20b IN"z NTIOAL 29-84 = e(0-q) fwrzereg aupa rayorasen auyselBu gh axkuawl aN )+ 3+ (o-gje= + gle = (e+) + (9+ ge = ae ~ qe may od a4p (8€) "(LE) aarInuoy sedig aeLEG ‘ualiiqe ota afipn au aype ssopusadys 21ys9 24 jupguinys gaoypro ‘p204n g1yse ¢ £ {g) 25 24/0 IN| IWIYOAL ‘ruren0a orgy wouen a quel cumiden

eshte shogerues by A éshté unazé struktara (B, ©)? od. Eshie diene struktura e mépocheme (R*, ©. ¢). ku veprimet ne te jane pércaktuara si me poshte: 7 a+b? 2¥@ibeRasb=" 5 A Sshté unazé struktura (RY: Bs 2)? 105, fshte dheng struktura (R. +. =), ku + éshté mbledhja e zakonshme © nu sealé dhe veprimi © pércaktohet si mé poshteé: Ya bleRac beabrard, A Eshté unazé steuktura (Ry +: 9)? 7 406, Ne R pétcaksohet ajé shumeézima ict» i mlle ge (a: DER’, ae B= ab— 1, ka veprimet né anén e djatbtét& barazimit jané veprimet e zakonshme me umra real. A éshté unazé struktura (R: +: ), ka + éshté mbledhja € rave zakonshme e numirave reals? Se 107, NY Z péteaktoner njé shomezim isi Lille qe Y (a: b)e "a= b= Fab, kha né-anéa e djathié figueon veprim! i zakonshém i shumézimit me nurra (& plot. Te vérteoher se Z formon unazé né lidhje me mbledijen e zakonshme enamrave té plote dhe me shumézimin = . A éshté abeljane kjo unaz@? Po & _nigsishme? Po e plow? Ne Z pércaktonen njé mbiedhje ere © dhe njé shumézim irk @ te vIle ge a4 Via bleZ.a © b=ab-Idhea @ baasd-ab. tea veprimet né anen e djathté barazimeve jané veprime zakonshme te rama te pote. Te verterohet se teshja (Z, ©, ©) eshte unaz’. A eshte ‘unazé abeljane ajo? Po e njesishime? Po e ploté? 109, Ne Z pércaktohen njé mblednje e re © dhe njé shamécimiri @ walleqe | V(mmeZ.m © nemen+idhem® a=men+ mn seu vepeimet né ann e djatheé @ barazimeve jane veprime té gakonshme me sumra t plot Sy Te veretoher gf tes (Zi @i @ ) eshié unaze abeljane, njsishme,¢ plo’ b) A Sshté unazé treshja(Z; @; @ ) c) A eshte unazé treshja (Z': ; @ ku Z'=Z- [-U} 7 110, Te veretohet gE né qo se (B, +, -) &he# unazé dhe a shenohet &, ateher’ Y (a; DEB (a+ by =a? + ab + ba +bFny piesa ( '~ Sag) empqnns g oyp 2 aad xgsnd Jeg quay 21 9[2ou mnuinu Ap auel q "ETD syunyzeuur Nob eT ea swab spusny » agengugy suysa (“= UENO) ajeuoraes 22 “eur saint q'2 my goa seufen a2 gues anemunu 2 essaxyseg ( ¢YO ZNO) #8 19yoIeHIeA AL ~ gteuorees enue 4 nh saysny 2 ausnuan ase vat sana 9 wIsexystg purl g ‘emi gh q=e safe a i o(.¢ “+ WD wlusan aysny aiuse y ear erune aux aunsuoyee © reumnsdan quel mmurzeieg gi aelp 2 uaue gu iewnden 93, Lag ov inte) 4 we sbaen ro uf umzgunys pla seyonyposad y QUIERIYSEA aN TEE usrg auyse (.o "= Y) 25 294s AL gyear enanu au yummzgumys 1 ueusuowez 1 atadan euyse amet 2 Sau 28 “qog = 92 BESET) A 1 nus afu iayonyeased ¥ 2us2 3 “eas weyoIsUaA a] ‘zizuoIE! emEMG cucutzpuiays 2up uafepayqun aut afypey au ( Ze BISSAHSNG ezOuI YouNGY VY yeas anerunu 9 eispyysea ( Zs) 1990URHS “BIT syjatseue 9 sivas gb (ps2 Buenos csepunged af vy 2 nagseyarl® soyossus ay a[ee2 anpmany 2 ( “+ WD fa» gamuruga arysa (= Eh)Z) wUsan 96 TaYOIENE AL od 2) eur guet qe ny‘ ghque sypfen gr glues axemunu 9 mspyuseg (¢)6)Z 12UOURHS “LIT a ‘qafoeue a atuamaye 2ue sou ab ( zpyz at ysowuawaye isapunjed glu wy 95 muyseunls yous aL aunt qe mS zeae safe 9 9uey -aqead DADAUMU a (> YD JZ) wlyson as 1oyoeues ay ‘piopd a2 osu surf qe ny Z/ege spifen 92 p1vot anpauanu a eisayyseg ( ZA )Z 1EYOURUS “OTT ‘oue2 unuawiefe waren vy wah asin ‘mold > ayss ty y sezcun vu wiply any wipaN Mord 2 suse Y PZUA) Ce sazeun 9 auuysisala 2 azrunuau gyse [+ ‘y ezeun up anyse ayin 2 (ewysisafe 21) aueljage ezeun auof Sy aup 'y as aod aN (Z ‘zuun aus (- “+ "y) efysan a6 1ouoienga al (T ae eqn aaauiyzeeg ue jonjeatad ty x 'y = y uerzauey wUTupOd 2 ty) AyD C @ °S “IV) gual at 2TeSTT au - sizguinys 2yp + @N “awysopares5 at BzUt fes ay souez afd aunt a uepualS a1 “sord @ aiyse nu oft ab reyorauas ay. (@ seUUSisaf 2 eyp eucfjage afpom ‘azeun aiyse (- “+ “egy vlysan ab wayoiauea a) (@ Chk Ca) 8 418 Sx) = EY) + C9) ab atm at wazaunys ayp + efypajque many gucl 7 guisaausea aN “FTT Zoft moid 2 aruse ys2 (+ +“) ofysen ab reyorouas 2p p2-q"F aeudises wiaysopamy paauizamg mi anuefp a uawe au muudes fu 9 of sod “avefiag oyee 2 rawsdan 21 0g "e ayitousn wsauscpaitss @ zuelp 2 uaue au ewudan ny = (p'9)- 19%) anawyzesq aup efypajqua wyouposad ((o} AN = ¥ UU) SEOWNN 9 PISRUSCQ aD4se YOY “WHY UEIZaUeY URLTYPOXE aN “ZTE = °C w= AGB) RTCA") a ROUTE waien eyp qayyI aueljagr gus? ( “+ ‘) azeun aly 2s ieyoraUeA aL (q aQ+ ORL +P = G+) ea RLG 2) A AMY OUR wigien ayp auayme eucljage muse ( * + “g) aznun pfu es leyoIURA AL (PITT125, Te vértetohet se bashkésia K = fe, v, a, b}, ku ov an nn oe oO yO of ishé ne lidhje me veprimet e zakonshme 1 mbledhjes dhe 1 shumézimit 18 maticave. XE bashiésine © fundme me dy elemente 2, = {0: 1} fitet vepn mbledh shumézimit 0-020, Te vértetohet se: 4) (Zs, +) eshte grup abel 7.) &shté unszé abeljane; 1) &shté grup abeljan; (Zs, +,) bshte Veprimet ~ dhe - né bashkeésiné Z, = (0; néposhime: y Jan dhéné nga tabetet ¢ | a) ! 7 a oT a ols i (Zs, °} jané monoide. por jo grupe: b) (Zo +, -)_muk éshté unaae.Nje strukturé ¢ uillé algjcbrike njihet me emain igeber e Bulie 128, Eshte dhene bashkésie E = {f R > R | fixealOb-10%, ¥ xeR, ka AbER}, né té cilén shqyroher veprimi i zakonshtm i mbledhjes B i (0b) eB gaTb)=pfa) velo) kturave algjebrike mund té klasifikohen né saje té vetive ts pasqyrimeve pérkatése. Pikérisht, njé morfizém strulturash 9:B->B” quhet Mo 18 ge 3) zomorficém né gofé se pasayti Niérkag, njé morfizém o i njé strukture B né vetvete quhet kurse njé izomorfizém i izomorfizmin, Ne qofté se » eshte izomorfiztm i (B, T)né (BY *), atéheré st: (B, T) qubet izomorfe me (B'. *) dhe shnojmé (B, T) = (B+). Eshté e qarté se pée ‘kturé (B, T) Kemi (B, T) = (B, T). Yeomorfiemt né kere rast és néB odo pasqyrimt ide Shembull, Shayrtojmé struktura rim ERS OR, pércakcuar age fixjein x, 2xER. Vér (OR (shih grafikun}, Gime giithashta q@ In a = In b => a= pér edo dy numa realé pocitivé a, 5. Kjo rregon se pasayrimi f éshté injekniv e syrjektiv njeherésh d.m.th. éshté 6: Nderkag, pér gdo dy numre te tlle, dime é In(a'b) = Ina + Inb, d.m.th. flab) « f=) + f(b}. Kyo wagon se ERR Eshté izomorfizém i (RY; ) né (R; +). Ky izomorfizém lejon zévendésimin me ané té logeritmeve té shumézimit me mbledijen er té krjuar njé ide mbi vierat e izomorfizmit po vértetojmé kéto teoreme, TEOREME 1. N¥ goftd se @xB 0B" ash icomorfizém i (B, T) né (B', 1), autheré: 1) kur T éshid shogérues (ndérrues) né B, i til shed dhe #né B's 2) kur o éstité element asnjanés né (B, T), ateheré gre) eshte element asnjands né (B', 2); 7 3) hur clementi aeB ka element simevik & né (B, 1), atéheré ake elementi ofa) ka element simetrik oa) EB"; 1) GF éshué izomorfizém i (B’, ¥) né (BT). Fervetin, Let jen€ 2b’, i elemente 18 ofarédo: eshte bijeksion : B re B', attheré ¢do element i B éshté shémb 18 vetdm né B. Né vegamt kjo do 18 thot# qé:sremapgz 9 TeoUsyys au a ayHeUeNwUL ‘au emungs gr swnopigd aule[® ab auyscipy gi sianyuoy vImynas ausforsbys Bi op Toi ‘septal 9 wlgystoigas 2 omumshiys au umopiad mL op au DRL TA “renyuoy azeun joy ab fes 9 rene a get ODd vy | abjeusge azeun roynb ab fes 9 aunjsopaiosé a1 azeun aft 9 axson fepueig -asepy fese 2 rartaweye ound a uel vipa a azoupre ‘aysny ‘dna “gzaun auqse ayth at aspuaisalu asery aft | wuswaya gfe ny 95 woBen atzugdisam 9 wuscuaay “es sedis arspuayngru esepy au feyepu a pune vspreteg ob} fopueig “91 3E asiselajaatu 2 usa sudan <9 ou aneamiyons REE 23 2 guiseyyseq gu muzqrowoz 3 wap os foyodan a1 OP ALET jefseue a} aup eLsapuny 2 jezuaws|9 aype quugys od ‘sgred a at Hys@{u aup soazz 2 reUNTIAURYS UEP uot safe aup etouaz uardp a ait sada au 32a 216 SW gms S$ GVTIOAL ‘auredoa 2N. punt 6 sedis ou 0 ay (@)e 1ystsatenaR psn.) g2oun naysoyns oryse sp 2 of4 pa 240120 au afeomors nyse (i $y) (oysnf din) saunas 29f0b ‘igo mouse” 91 op “umpunyiad aie pu aatysaqan 23 cunudas af aus aaemmjnae pu sRuzyeIOWOZ 9 uIUsIpMES gu 2TT8 wB suMdaN sp au axemppuis sp 91 auzyiowoa! | naxpmas gb U9q ofS ‘seyetSmuE ayp O sTaOHSHATIG sedis od (+ 3g) 24p (w'@) wmn[nsis aur spiowior wsisEyAd ouEl (7 te) ‘2 (1 @) reanpjnuns aup azaugre 6 rworsyafiq sedes ( ey used -gnfousys (or) Tq) @) 2p CTL) ual a aT ‘uitidan junys 3 2 Xp aur reigns apd supe uayoseutBagd wrudan au au ayuqafBye aseanynns 2 eure LOHy am guowiozs auel 9b ora vyil® = oup °S gunpynns af raypopu aust loud upseM ops au ‘alspiejaptz vsepi au ¢ asispyyseq a valtep uofal guiez0%1 ofy “5 au asispuoqaati a afypy ase § 2m nuryfrouo7y 2 DlyprT “y INTIOR. puougd pciupas 2195 a 'S 20 SIRI] ER aupO aLUSE (Tas uogan ¢ waraross asamp “g pu ayuraus rayseyGS axysa (1) 2s uoBan ab 208 “'@ = (7.9) apa auayzie (7a) = (L'a) 25 fob aN saafen au aypa iayoxdys 23 punur avuigdisau 9) | spuisios2 9 p eYld “s au asonakbsed auysa (1) 9s uoBan OLY IBA 9 UOIaA stu ayLoWLIOZ] aIyse (Lig) PmI{NAS opd as zgdis aul auAyE RUE "au nuuzyowost 2 viypy quifend 2 (17 uslupry “{1 = sg ('s)} ye ou g au uofypy (NT ‘ur ayp wudar afu our axcinpmns exit a1 2 auIsayyseg g au aurfouaTs Wes roUtoRt susp "y fY=t 4 aed = (O78 vn euaroay *(«'g) au (Lg) fuse 5 uosan ofy 3G) 4 > a3, Ge(Q)Y aup 3 t=(0)"Y gy a are auitouays J (jasd) vorsyatig sed 21389 reyuny pais 2ur EB, (ae ote 2) 4 secpH nay alauary 2af m2] (oq) 9 (Tq) vapzqowo2t “q—gt (2) ‘ay ‘wack 23 apo 2) r)augaranyrass are 2fuowuory aoyse (Lg) vamnynaas aup auayaw ‘Cn Sq) ugamynus ou afiowor ays valp 2 oly ayp (F &g) upanaymaas aut afeoruo2s ayse (Lg) vaneynas a8 ayfob ex's BCTAOIL oy (2 )O=q dra a1yse (« () 95 a futuse jaya aup © au » std das gb ypafir ; sgtuatoa ai vied 21 (9) 20 (1 *) 1a Dep tosod mal m1 97 “wane vdnuS pause @ 4.9) ayp picryas0 “dna® a1yse (E °D) 217 (@ 9) 2p anysa (1p) vennynars as 24f0b 2x7 2 BWTGORL PUOWOZ! BUS GH. 0 38 S8 ACO asquadyy (r pu ayorauas aud ofy (¢ (upd out or ufo r souetuse 2yp a1ye9 1 2 nyse (a)0 98 uofan ofS = (00 = (9)O44 euoye vynuteg eB (2}Ou. arerodanoy ainlOusAdYS (upbak ab a() | GSx pfu uignan wonsizye piouany 20 WH patna (z = [((oLq)ie}o= [Gide ()o}=2+ Cane) aspusbayy (1 a2o nd 2qued Pere rosy i) epnutoy Bu uagaouton guise gmgO OI (9)0 0 9" 9 )o= 9'aa yon eae )Shenim. Zakonisht, kur kemi t€ bejmé me dy struktuca izomorfe, ato i pérputhim, d.mth, né shénimin e elementeve pérkatsse dhe e veprimeve pérkatése nuk béjmé asnjé dallim, perdorim po ato simbole. Gjaté kursit do t# ndeshemi me pérputhje cétlla ndermjet dy strukturash izomorfe. USHTRIME 130. Te vértetohet gé, n¥ gotié se siruktura (B,, Ty) &bue homomerfe me rrukturén (By: 72) dhe kjo e dyta ésht® homomorfe me steukturgn (Bs: T5), ert edhe struktura (B,: T,) eésheé homomorfe me (Bs; T:) aK ABI®NE kushtet kur h: By — By eshte homomorfizém i (By: T) a€ (By: 1) che (h)=Bz, t8 vereetohet gé né gotte se (By; T) éshte grup. attheré edhe (By: 1) ashi grup, 132, Eshte dhéne pasgyrii f: Z > (-1 numrin 1 dhe gdo numri tek nga Z i a) ({-15 1s) éshte strukcures b) f éshue homomorfizem i strukturés (Z; +) né strukturéa ((-1:1}: 9 «) stroktura ({-1; 1}: ) éshee grup, 133, Homomorfizmi i njé strukture (B: T) né njé nnstrukcuré w saj (A:T) quhet endomorfizém, Te vertetohet se pasqyrimi p: R°— {+15 1). i cili gdo numa real pozitiy i lidh numrin 1 dhe géo turns real negativ i lidh numrin «i éshee endomorfizem i (RY +) né ((-1:1}:9. 134. Te vertetohet g@ ne gofté se (Bi; Ts; 11) éslté homomorfe me (By; Ts; Ls) tb: B, > Bs dhe 1; &shté shpémdarés né lidhje me T, né (Br; Th Lo, ateheré edhe Ls eshtS shperndarés n& lidhje me T: né (Eh: Tr: 4. 338. Shenojmé N; =(Sn | neN} d.mcth. bashkésiné (5:10:15; ...Te vértetohet Ns. +) eshte strukure by hin5n, ¥ NEN, eshte izomorfizém i (Ni+) né (Nei#): ) h nuk eshte izomorfizém i (N: ) né (Ne: +} n ii gdo numei gift nga Z. th numrin -1. Te verretohet ge: 136. Shénojmé A= {| meZ}. a) Te verretohet qé (Ai#) éshté strukturé: b) Te veretohet g& hs m— >, ¥ me Z, éshté izomorfizem i (Z:+) ne (Ast) 5 ©) A eshte grap abeljan (4; +)? 137, Izomorfizmi i njé strukture algjebrike me veten e vet quhet automorfizeém, Te vertetohet o&: 1 8) pasqyrimi @: RY — RW i pércakwar nga g(x) = 1, xER* eshte x automorfizei (RO) ne ververes b) pasay Ro Ri pércaltuar nge y{x) = -, automorfizém i grupit (R; -)n8 vetvete; 138° Jepet bashleesia fab) Le Hy eMJR) |a=d= 1,0=9,b: 8 Te vertetoher ge: a) (Ay), kus» ésbté shumézi algjebrike, (Hs) éshtd izomorfe me ( ©) (Hs) eshte grup abelfan 139, Jané dhéneé pasqyrimet f, gi Z —> Z w pércaktuara pérkatés FX)R2N+2, a[AIEHL-G, FEL. a) Te vértetohet g& pasayrimt got: Z.—> Z éshté homomorfiztm i (Z, ~) né vetvete b) A jané te tilla edhe pasqyrimet fg, fog? 140*Jepen bashkesia zakonshém i matricave, éshré strul +; nga a GH{A=!0 b 0, eM(Ry/ deta) 20} \0 0 4 sipas ushtrimt 101 formon grup né lidhje me shumézimin ¢ matriceve grupi (RY) dhe pasqyrimi f: G+ R* i péreaktuar nga fA) = deta), ¥ ASG. a) Té vértetoket g& F ésht homomorfizem syrjektiv (epimorfizem) i (G, -) nt Re,» ») Jepet pérkufizimi: Ne qofté se f shee pasqyrim i strukturés (B, 1) né strukturén (B', L) gé ka clement asnjanjes e', attheré nénbashkésia e B-st me lemence x 18 tilla gé A(x) = c' quhet bérthamé e pasayrimit f dhe sheno Ker f Pra Ker f= {xeB fix) =e!) Te verteiohet qe né kushiet e ket ushtrimi (Ker f -) éshet néngrop i grupit (Gj). A4L°Te vértetohet se ne fushén (R; +: +} grupi (R*; ») nuk éshté izomorf me gtupin (R, +) 142. Le % jené dhéné srukaurat (B. 7), (BY L) dhe pasqyrimi € B > Bi. Bashkésia (A) ¢ vierave té f shenobet edhe im f Le té jeté f homomorfiaém i grupit (8:7) ne grupin (B'L) Té vértetohet se (Im f.) &shté néngrup i (BL). 143, Eshté dhéné bashictsia, b) Te véretohet se if G > Ri pércoktuar nga(se) 9790 330A soaph 93 age apy v2? atu auiogusng 1 21469 ysopaunld 22 uopoys alte} nunypoige“T auvaun spupsedoy 2 v0s92 att 4 2 ‘9=X0 ustunpunysed anew “(eg saxtd 9) ¢ uausaroar yrys) awnysalip 9s saqinaur sedis ‘aup “94x = 04% Ou [aad wegHN = KOHKT = KQED) = ET = x= GX MUG ASD fu tour areouy sensadeg t untzynssad unguized eb aunoa 2B “euaA 91 spatsadoy 9 ofoxo2 ouys9 g 28s74 ‘sour 9 Toten amuse Om (at) ‘e=x0 HE%A esol 9 atel apy spaisgdoy 9 uose? aww auingosng 1 aiyse 2ucarny Seutsadoy at x waysopesop 2 “f Saysmf 38 sous? } munyposd “} ‘ounypatss 93 ulfyp 4 uaysny ral a7eou Sastsade fmarzynyad PBN fy gut anny 92 pune ab raoh 93 ouradaa wu renyjep 1 Jad pf su swysuOyeZ aL aura auafenb | [joan ts “($+ fe) azeou uasisadey au. oyp + rauuds, (ot SA) aupe anuse nqurays e8u sagpums yf tqu areaury ausadey oigsa (. 4+ te) 98 woBam ab "Gt Tubeurafespota sag au qeou snare 32» yp + awaden ryserl suet or ab ype (4 30 pvar enuny aut» ayp + anauidas a euadisnus 9 awuyeosad eft “eset Seq AL =!A 9b auufennyys at punut fepunsg ‘Gx 7M) =D maray 2x Tx ereUrpIOOT 2m ,A3 2ozy9a op sad ab autp amsout 2 tro eu (eng hod) = x x)Y Sat BOX) AH RUA LER A HVE EE EER) “VES EE 8) A jaysod aur 1s uayonyuosad gear enunu aus si au (rusreaunys). ayp (efypaqqua)+ 2s aljob au“y tow areauy autsadey aiyse (- + fag) “€ HInquI9Ys ‘yea aavnune ‘2 waysny equi amcouy azisadey uowso3 *, as uyunypunpsad au awfin ‘puny 9 anes spvey yey [ny zemys y ajnq weyage dnd eryse Te 28 gufoden wed 2 2198 IFFY aeiny ‘uafypayqua au afypy 90 dra uous; {4 98 aufoBen exed a a194 HL prea ysv(tiey) ZAxada(D WDA & Gee DEL G4 DIE TARAS (GD "OA ok pev-Ttasva & Dairy taKars( ODA os pigege HAR G‘DIA ob ADD FASD-E ASDA of RA 3) aN, Deve gn yr? “ASDA ot (oe gyre=oH gre) AZ “g ‘2A al ‘nes viouiga si uot as enan Fayse aursaut i atiogys aN TweId a{u & aymnewoa!S anaioryan 2 guispyyseg fA att aufouRys *z IMaWeUS of8 anasoryen (aay a0 2 fh mungpras aie amd pi quey sad ar ms n arawly sansadey a TOURISIEAa as uD {BupH Ofy “ajeuoryza waispdoy rayoneuia aucauy wasedey ysedus "assre 21PY 12g , tuatea tain azzaunt ansadeu aryse ausny op5 ag “uotas iqua sxvouy ausadey uouoy J viseyseg axysny oI alk 28 auRD 9 31y5q “7 2. ware J eSu arereys aur H aa wenysel a1 uirzauinys 1s ‘y au valypalqW Guo Pau +8 fa=H WUReYR “aysny aft (+ ‘y) tal a1 27 1 ynquiays | ODER uysadys uaynb as-H 9 iaquautoyo 2sany “anepeys waynb 4 sausry 2 WEWaTy aneayeriiey) Beda YAS yey (CNTY HEARS YA ob PTT ny aK HEA of minty ata HABE HLA oZ Dfagn dnaé 2uyse (+ ‘A. 1 gunoa Dy D9 2 fo 6 3H) ayuqelSpo vanngnis saynb 4 uaysnt sa aev2%) ny musadisew 2 sarysing 2N -wufngsed Dx~Y wipIas 9 Uawa}e gfe YPM E Hx 200%) Ny Op5 ustedon A a8 gueb 2 aus “g 98u anuouiaya au H 2 's guufenb 1 op under aay 1H au Hixq voudbsed ab . unzaunys 2 wjoquus ow senuays + wanusel t unsdan af ype smny ase Hau ab auwfourag asd maqeie 2 wluon|ys ou uayouRys asa ® aiwoutaya “paBau Ig “4 unsyys aunfougys et op uals ar “ausns afu (i+ fa) muyseunls greta 37 “+ sofypaygur 2 uyoquns aw senuays 1 wagspuasg 1 nundon anny nyse val Wr ndef ta op sao a8 9 uruindny ‘aysny aso dan af qui aneauy spuisgdoy rre arysa “caafi 2 roueyys 2u eup espremetew au ysedys esey ab ‘asaqelsye ein a yseanpjnans avuodan t foyy af “q zptolt tseyyseg ax om ‘afupe au g aut srany t uigyyset r unudan afo auuse T ayp ar au wieyspuasg | uasden AUS L “aySOQO! sayUSeG af sHSe GM CT SA) saufoa at sammypeD a1 asousOA t qonudbys v8 texsour rarndny [nay 1 waysforaut 1 onsauntBiad af “#1 au auyopuasg a1 awudan quel ab ayugalé[e anawndan

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Né kété kre synohet riorga 1 metejshem 1 si bazé e pérgjithés 1 tjera vektoriale shumepermasore. I.NJOHURI PARAPRAKE saj nga pika O né ményré 08 vetme né g@ edo dy pika gé i pérkasin rye pikén O dhe cdo dy pika gi secilés nga K3t0 Esnts 2 gare ash (pa piken 0) 18 nenbashkesive (@ ndryshme @ kane pérkasin njetes nénbashkesi nuk e kas nenbashkesi me pikén O quhet 2 sithashau se njé plan, né ¢ A verme né dy nénbashkési pikash (pa pikat € A) 1 alla g& gdo dy pika ge i pérkasin nénbashktsive t& ndryshme formojné segment a@ pritet me drejtezén A dhe cdo dy pika g@ i pérkasin ajérts nénbashkési formojne segment g& nuk e pret 6 nE qoflé se shirihen né t njéjtin gjysmep ig. 2a) dhe drejilme 1 kundirta , né qofté se shtsihen caktuar nga drejteza Oy ne gjysmeplane té ndrys a A Fig. 2a ajeite kur njera asnjra nuk éshié nfnbashk né pikéa A dhe me mbarim 8, pikén B shénohet AB sine figurn 4 Shpesh vektrishenchet edhe me njé shkeonjét e sfarédoshem: » AB quajme giatesiné ©-suapuny | yonyes "eg Q=(DI4D FA BD-E salypojqe t wurzymmuad ayp Uapuny” a amoryea tT mndny ‘angionien 9s salypaiqui 2 uraides au safueluse jan ‘tig “D=Q+D supe “esenusepL BHdA TEN “P=D+Q) EASA 9s eueb 2 aiyse angionyen pamaya 2 uH}Or BY 52 A, 9F aun @ nyse ovgionan #8 sofyporgua | mwreyMHad PEN “E 222g 2p Q=a¥ 'P=V¥O MH LEy au embed 2 oumsApD vBU EP Rb su aus eromis Bish 9 teed eu}areauntoxo! sp eBu Sp gue ypa|qu 21 yumuaboys a punos yasdys 90 ‘edp a1 mouryod 2 wiseeLAA ofa Pe ‘a ‘guiniy l}2 any stuopysa plus (94g) +9 = 24940) fA 3 Degegry MSTPA T ‘snysodaw 2 anos wy aaaionyen 2 SlypargNy ge uguinys atu guioaem 1314S ) usssezed anred ayng 1 qunfouspa O ajeuoseip sedis ansopuas 1) Q vores 9b eued rxMP. sed 2p q= gO 2 P= YO 93 sSojayored 2 vpynSaus youn ab axkuau [ese yok aaguonyos Ap 2 wuITyS 9 $y) E¥O umesBojayered puysopamyd 9 upd gu unnragata dts ype veyouspy 1 punurg > 9 9x00 q+ wryoquss aw youays 24 pena Lov Ov won au wqyspucia ) wuoryas au p ryonyas 9 auonys raymb wader siex au £4 3Cq jaqumays “A pu anguonyan 2 alypejqus ayn ‘sades gus 1s senasapst {A 3(q°D) yssuopIaN urd ops amp @ sedis nude, wpaefiie uudes afr wid Ac iy untbsed afu mysey auloyea 22d U IS segpu a DY UUOKjar g 2 B oequONADA wTUPIE | (s “Bu) DY uUOrIED a sa apo putouspn O eeyd au muequ: am 9 y usd au qufougpy Y suysopargys > upd pu MND aA A, Bu wpqsopaieys at 210124 AP g >t En aU selyperg ‘qlboa eaume ou sofypoiqnt 2 unuuidon ow gue ansifed 9 symp “aze0uy, putspdey au axazoyjan 3 aursayyseg auslouny 3 FNTALAWOWS YATAOLMAA F TUVINIT VUISTAVH T 910p Q WoNYaA a1 UApUNY 1 JODIE “TEM a fa 9) wannfesp atm auxfosepisuoy 2 ‘oier au gueqeieg a1 urusew 3 fp aft wd eat JORjan ops au 3 wo ou sapionja gt anIzeseg + wHHaUTOed Ay ae -= 7a esa asp ott tonya, puny as Ett ot oe sia tomer tay a akceelaeiey Peerescee oapiay planer (dus) Go= ae cig Inpow unfefa ay aup wn fesp un fu a ues we 2s gy0b au ‘GI = EV vous 38eI gy AU oy suDgewg ar uoyd GD 2 gH IONEAi vektorit #8 ¢farédoshémn @ ke rolin ¢ elementit simetrik t€ djathté né mbledajen e vektoréve nga V Keto katér veti tregojné se struktura (Vs; +) éshté grap abeljan. NE Keto kushte, sig diet, né V5 mund 18 futet edhe veprimi i zbrites Bbrive « velcorave quhet veprimi né Vs gf ¢do (2, B)EV% i igh vektorin a+), Vekiori 2+(-5) quher ndryshese © vektorit & me veitorin b dhe shénohet 2-5. Pra, @-5=a4¢5) @ Sipes Kétij barazimi formojoné kété rregull «8 ndéstimit t€ ndryshesés sé vektorit @ me vektorin _Jokolinear me 18: me fillim n8 pikén ¢ ¢farédoshme 0 rdertojme vektoret OA=a © OB=B che pasta} paralelogramin OACB. Nes darazimer BC=a, CA=-b dhe BC-TA=BA, duket o& veltori BA ashe i barabarté me ndryshesén ab (fig. 8). 8, c so Fig. Veprioi i shume'simt me numra realé né V, fatet né kets menyré: Le #8 Jené 1. njé numér i gfarédoshém real dhe @ njé vektor i ¢farédoshém né Vs. Per koordinatat giftit w gfarédoshiim (1; a)¢Rx Vj jan8 t8 mundshine dy raste: 1) 18 pakttn njeri pre} tyre éshté | barabarté me zeron pérkavése, dmith. (<0)v( =O) 2) ge t dy ata jané te ndryshtm nga zecot pérkatése, dmith. (i#0)a( ae), NE qoite se (h=0)v( =O) i lichim cifit (a) vektorin 0, né qoté se (A=0)n(ae 0), ilidhim atij vektorin 3 w& nlle g@: 2. BAT (ai ka crests #8 ne me &) kur 250 dhe BG tke drei te Jaandén me a) lar A<0. NE Kate midnytépétftoimé njé paseyrim t& RXV n Vi, pra njé veprim te Jashtém algjebrik né V;. Veprimin sipas t# cilit gdo gifti (Aja)eRX Vs i lidhet 7 em 0 ose b simé siptr © quaime shumésim né Vs me numra reaté vyektori i shemb (isa) a8 REE veprim € quajmé prodhim 18 Ame vettorin a dhe e shénojmé me simbolin 23 Nga sam sipér, 8 veyant, ken pohimet: Dv ASR, 4020; 2)¥ aaV, 0-480; 3) YORADERXVs ha min ¢ if Nga pérkcufizimi del gé né qotteé se ekziston numni KER gé b=2-a, attheré cart. Lexuesi do te vértetonte lehté qé edhe enasjellas, né qo at 1B) cur a#G mjafton té merret =z 42!) ge a G dhe B jane & se aij, ateheré ekziston numri KER Beha. Me fale w era eshte e verett kjo TEOREME, Kush i nevojshiim dhe { mjaftueshém qe dy vektore a e Be end kolincard ehid g2 18 ekcisioj® nari 2 (madje hur G2, ai thud t vetém) ¢ tile g@ B=20. ‘Tregohet lett gi ashtu gg shuméziminé V; ka vetité by VERRY, Awa) = Cpa, vaevs, band, (ads ByeRKV,, 1448) = 2428 DERXVs, (was Larue 1 kétyre vetive i Inhet lexuesit, i cili mund t' béjé lehtésisht me ané té ndértimeve té dubura gleoms Duke i bashkuar keter vetive t8 mésipérme 18 shumézimit né V) me numa reslé dhe faktin se (Vs; +) éshté grup abelian, arrijmé né pérfindimin réndésishiém se (Vs; +; -) &sht® hapasir® lineare mbi R. Nga Kjo, né saje té formulas 13.6 (49), del e vérteté edke kjo veti e shumézimit: (-1) @=-4. ckroré né Vs. Megenése Vs tshte hapesire Le te jen Gy, a lneare shuma d= 2+ ..~ a giendet né ményré indultive nga barazimet a; = rt Gy (@)*G;)+ds, G,~ Gy Os Has (aha a,) + ay e késhma me rade Ay dogs Hy = (Gist Gy.) * Gl shih vereltien € pikes 13.6). Prandsj shuma en vektortve y+ ds~...+ Gy ndértohet ne kee ményre: Marri njé pike We glarsdoshme O dhe ndértojmé veltorét 04,-af ypen 1 aus inne styse 8s ‘24s: ARB uopus = ang sutton au = ee = yod (75 sets pn ausyeauE] axguonp: lupizs ap gsaypro aruvind 2 aupa watdef {3 punt surei02r {ese cofsopuanpuny avounyoy aunt 079 24 2491990 wlps26 up quoygie snaoa 21 rysisvanyy punt <4 Bu ouorfen &q “> INRIORL ‘anquonyan sp 93 ateauty 95159724 3 ing yandys 9 atunysadaes a puieroa) semanas ayse aSURUE ge gb arom a1 op off 8 oynoutoat$ uinardsazur oype gulag {2 puna eaqiovyas a aun] pasar op peasiain 3 *i9} vispyysng a5 ayo aN T nyod a ales aN, fo guayguo “0192 400ya4 apuny 2 ysaaonyas 18a3ys0g 214! ‘aaguoryan 2 auuieayysog 24 25 200 aN“ usrypets waL9) rape ay ied ‘osse gud a2 of hy ;

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B. vektoré t cit jané: earisht 18 varur: earisht @ pavarur. + W} té gjonde: numri i némbashiésive me 3 b) 10, Te vértetohet a8, sido qofshin se vektoré G, B, ¢ dhe tre numra o, 8 vektoret ad - Bb, yb - a6, BC «7a jane komplanare a= uv dhe d duke ditar gé W, ¥ jané vektor 11. Te péreaktohet numui k, qé vektorét @ = = Desks, w Jend linearisht t var linearishe t# pavanue 12. Te vertetoher g&.né gofitse Hy ¥ 8 vektore linearisht 1 pavarur, atgheré d+ KY per cdo KER edhe @ = + 9 che b= tk - Jinearisht té pavarur. 13, Jand dhéné voktorét @ = 3 as a)Te verterohet gé vektorét a5 ,¢ jané komplanaré byTe vertezohet oe ata jane dy nga dy linearishe té pavarar; QTE zbertnehet secili vektor sipas dy vektoreve w tere. 14, Jane chen’ vektorat & 5 21,5) dhe € = (1,2) a)Te varetohet gt vektorét 1,9,d jane komplanaré, duke dieur 8 d=a+5 +20; b)Te zberthehet vekior’ J =a +5 +22 sipas vektordve @ dhe & 4. PROJEKSIONI KENDDREJTE I VEKTORIT MBI BOSHT Japim mé pase pérkufizimet e meposhime. Cao vektor qé © ka modulia 1 quhet vektor i njésishém. Vektorin e ssh de me di ht me vl gfueoshem 2d hea a®, Eshté e gare se vaev,, asjalae © a Le t jete d njé dreitéz, Ne got se né drejézen d eshte zgjechr njér prj dy dretimeve Fig. 12 tsa, ciline quale drejtin pozity,ateheré ajo quket bosi 78 Drejtimin e zgjedhur dhe njesiné e zgjedhur per matien © gjatésive segmenteve 1 beshin do) paragesin se ant if velco! © pjésishém } i boshtit d (fig. 13). ( vektori i njésishem i bosheit d. Vleré ve cilén do ca sh¥aojmé AB, quejmé numrin © algjebrike @ vektorit AB peroaktuar si mé posh: EEE EEC kur ABT? iose AB =O, 1 odo vektor AB ésheé e verteté ajevlerésia Nga ky pérkuli om Billie AB=AB Kujtojme o@ nga sho Sido été jené tri pika A, B, C né njé bosht, AB+BC=AC Le jen’ @ che b dy vektoré jozero. 1 sein, sa me film ne pitta e psbashhat 0 fe mesme lexuesi njeh teoremén shud i verteté barazimi: @ Glia che OB =b (6a, 1). Kénd mids veeoreve “ Ze die B gé shnoket (@.°b ) quies kéndi mei 0 vagl me 18 cil duher rro pikés O njeri Fig 3 igo veliorét derisa 1é marré drejtin: 1@ njéjte me jeri. Eshté e qartt se ¥ (a. Boe VP 0sta sb GeO che boshit d quhet kéndi Kénd midis vektor Le #8 jené dhéné vekvorét jozero fitim O duke pérftuar vektoret OA = @ dhe OB = (OB ne boshtin d, duke zgjedhur si vektor 18 Salle B (Gg. 14, 15), Nge fundi Ai vektorit OA heqim pi Vekeori OA, quer projeksion kéndrejt?gleomerik | velzorit a né veltorin G, BT chvendosim ata né e ajejtin E shndérrojmd drejtézén i tj vektorin e njésishérm ingulen AA, mbi bosbtin B (ne boshtin d) dhe shenohet ai. Vierén alejebrike DA: we vektorit az auajme projeksion falaebrit velar @ ne veltorn b (ve boon d) de shénojme proj; @ . 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NE goftés 4, rreth pikés O deri fe se né treshen (@,;4,;0,) té lanaré, u ndérrojme vendet dy pre) tyre, ose nyérin pre} tyre € t ateheré ajo ndryshon orientimtn Verejtje. Eshté ¢ gare af, n8 vektoréve jokor a= OM= OM, +OM, +OM, = 0 OW, j-0W, E= (OM, ; OM, ; OM, ). Né KEtE ményré, po t8 shEnojme me x, y, z pérkatésisht koordinatéa e pare, t dyté e 18 trete t# vektorit G, kent a2) Ngo fe (fig, 19) Kemi githash Sh8nojmé me a, B dh me boshtet koordinetive Ox, Shembull 1. 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a4 8) © Yod efu aunysAxpu 2 ‘g aed 2 aunysopan uejd 31 aypd ops ¢ Tuo reid pu nuowas ops > un{ieus sad wntzopzad w op jod nys09 auton’ @ 3913397 ba( 10) wausisal a1 zavferpauishl@ at “es 4 wigysisals 1 200qea up quisd8 yod auufenb ad aed 9) amd rayorjsored uasied gi gi gue aur “puysod aux untyofu a1 op ab ‘ausjod asmweurproon, yuraisis unafenbmayse ¢ ¢ wu aystsaiojd yayoryeauad 3d suprzanrey atneups00y IMAISTS a aUe OTN FAV TOd JAF LYNICUOON I INFLSIS “2 2 expand pul a4 ‘84 0c oHp AX $1 FX 0 "2xOK rpypope Dg saftaq aL ay nusepuayen 2 eurprooy ruzyd wept on seid raaIsTS ‘By ¢ yeseu aD 9 sasapsiaz isqreiad weatd AN OE nysog 20 npuooy wapuald Ap auRup 9uRf ay unuauies 1g aU umzequs a (Z- “p SSW ath 9 9 U tuoded 1puetB aL “bE 5 aasuty| 3 yeveutpI0oy wapUOGS aL “(S ‘¢)d 2UP job gu ‘D gran 2 Da aup (e'sNga barazimet (21) kemi cos = 0) dhesin@=yl f+ y? (23) Me ané « formulave (22) dhe (23) glejmé koordinatat polare té pikés M, kur ‘johim koordinatat karteziane w sa Shembull 2. Te gjenden koordinaiat polare 1 pikés M né qofté se y= -V3. Pir 0 t& merret vlera e saj g& oordinatat karteziane (€ saj jan’ x ndodhet né [-1; nf" ) gieimé: c= yl? + (13? = 2. Nea formula (23) 2) a (sin 6 =-V3/2) @ tg 2 formal V13)0 (pika M adodhet ne kuacrantin (cos @= jané M(2; -7/3). USHTRIME 2 dhéné trekendéshi barabrinjés ABC, me brinjé 3 njési. Duke marré kaulmin A si pol dhe drejtézen AB si boshtté nj sisteri polar, 8 pércaktohen Koordinatat e kulmeve dhe té gendris sé réndesés 8 ekendeshitné lidhje me kété sistem polar 38, Eshte dhené katror’ ABCD me brinjé @. Duke maré kulmin A si pol che 18 purcaktohet koordinatat e kulmeve gendrds sé réndesés G té katrori 39. a) Te gienden koordinatat polare t& pikave M;, Ms g# jané pérkatés simetriket ¢ pikés M(3; 7/5 } né lidhje me polin O dhe neé lidtje me boshi polar. =.) B) Te giendet suprina e tekéndéshit M, Ma M. (GO! Te veretohet ge wekendeshi ABC me kulme né piket A(S; 0), BIS: 2/3) dhe (3; 20/9) eshte barabrinjés. 41, Te verterohet ge tekendest ABC me kulme né pikat A(6; 1/3), BG, 27/3) he C(7, 2nl3) ese kendarete 42. N# njé sistem polar jané dhéné piket A(2V2; 3n/4) dhe B(3: -n/6), Te ajenden koordinatat ¢ kétyre pikave né njé sistem kartezian kénddrejté djatheé me origiiné né poline sistemit polar e me bosht té abshisave boshtin polar. t polar 8 tt pikes s# gfaredoshme M i ndryshme nga AL ose (0, 2nf, atheré pér gdo pike t tlle, kendt (,2°9'B) = nuelpa(.9°B"g) rwiay g ayesBoed as soliforza edi sagpelp 2 mayseenié ayysa (9° 2° q) wfusen = px. sup angelp 2 aryse (2°q°2) elysan 96 SFR way narzynyad via ‘gliofy as ayob ax” g as ayjob aN as quod au a0 ayob au FD USTET au uegiey URL (ce) oxg-=qxe tin Xq’ anyOd ates taysg aurormuoyiUD ona, *T jaysod au wingypos tod 12 ‘pr ‘onsysisapuns a via st Nea estp ey £A au feuoDjan turzauinys ‘gmunapy oud Buse yt (x A) wamyns “C+, eamynas vst amep gu arcuAW HA AN pa gx 9 sfoupaty iad 97 qx D Hoy qi) ofp 9b*y sorysn aia ad usr sn asdov “gia rasa YnU ga q 2ONIeS Opd aype mYsT og“ g=g% fepuEM g St eouryoy aiysy 9 sorter opd a5da ‘IN 1 AIYSR YM HONDA PEAURA AI OWN, seuntuso nuouiaya worsye yu (x 4) prods guas plow at op sb "pan xp EA Bm a, 9b ATI m lonyen afase wowszye TY ‘9 a1 12yfa fRUONYoR waltzbuunys t uutzyMpad SBN —prodnsl axyse (x SA) 8% “rq a0 argatBle wayspussg ¢ wudon giyse yELORyen ferzeUnYs esqHobeW Tevsoyyas sHuanZgUINYS 29 9476 Syasgud & or pweynysod osu fe uoadas says 28 eel vzgifaup vu g say uasefae] au se0s03 96 251s? uunutypord ou guegeseg 9 a1yse g void 2c 2fuPl arty guy Sqo20} 93 anUoUOW 2 eIszypeUL “PI 4 pe tate 0 7A pu jouonyan wrunypoxd + urzumyed e3N ¥O=! mt 4g xue pf wonps seyab fn ao und ‘aun aftypry gu 30x03 fesay a2 uawour ab rayoursd puouie ‘(cz “Sy) J MO} semiegz aiyse de sf a upp au a8 ayo an iy auysa omonyen aurypoed 1 wel ranade (97-8) aneetp 2 ause( g x v: gp etysan(> ortu “CAT AX? MoT ax DI q v ‘ axe ; oe a o RD [ep lmeuMad e8y Zpunyjs => 1 TeUoeN pune : suit 298 patie apg te mel tid “A aU fy 1urmdbsed afu royousad «gx p vuorgn £4 3¢gip) any5 any 9) abamur qx p iayourys MONYeN 27 jexsones woypoud “wraynyted FUP ued aay ou jnSund “weystsafia ume a1 UEId ale auloryRaHe g'y rgionjan Au} o¥np ‘foputad “x elu oyp oer v8t meyssapu 'P 2 unser ay -exeounoyor 50 azeourloy geo Qe) mela at Hones quraunys | nmzag “16 TVIMOLNIA INIZINAHS 6 (Lg) = 9 uuoryan aur aindund HP OTD = @ ales DS p ow areusjdwoy iaion ; » uonea wepuat® ay + 7 OBOMID8 BU D iODY26 | EIOWHOaIS voxppUIDy ruorNyDfoud rapuatS ay (> 7 2E Bes 2 wuonyen ae g norjan 1 worsyatoud opualS a1 (q g SHORES BU ge~ vy => moran | woIsyotoud opaale ay(e\B ), t dy anat © barazi NE qolté se (120) v ( me. NE qofté se (#0) » (i jol|D ). ka dy mundési: 1 NE qoftt se 320, atehers Ka TT, Par Rjedhojé (a,b =(a.B inc (fig. 28). Prandaj* Gib ijsinawe = F NE qotteé se 2<0, atthers La Na. Per nijedhoje, (.a.5)=n- (4,5) =n - a. Duke patur parasysh figurén 29, iexuesi vertetoje se dhe ni ketd rast barazimi (38) ésheé i verte. Pohimi ¢ mesipérmn vektorial RRIED! IM. Pér edo (Asuna; BYER?XV? kemi (ax (ub etd a xb). Vercetimin ¢ tj lexuesi ce bojé vet’ né ngjashmeri me até rjechimit té vetise pérkatise 18 shumézimit skalar vektoréve 3. Vetia © pérdasisé né lidhje me mbledijen e veltoreveEshis i vereté pohimi: veaybs2)eV3, ax(b +2) = xb same, Nuk po ndaeri né veneimin ksa vee Duke u mbishttur né kits pohim che ni vetnd e pare, lenuesi suk do ta ket evesvicew egojese eshte: vores edhe bareiny (be tixasbxascxa Ne Ket méayre, shumézimi vektorial ésheé shpéendarés né lidhje me imbledhjen e vektoreve Nga Kéto ti veti ejedh se per te shumézuar vektorialisht dy kombinime lineare vektoresh mjafton t& shumézojme vektorialisht cdo kufizé t® kombinimit part me secilén nga Kufizat e Kombinimic dyté dhe pérfundimet ti mbledhim, duke u kujdesur vetém pér ruaitjen e xadhés sé vektoréve faktore. 4, Né rastin kur vektorét @,b jané kolinearé, pérkufizimin e pcodhienit vektorial tyre mund ta shkrusjmé né tajtén e njévierdsisé logjike W(a;b)eV},axb=0 a Nga (39) dalin drejtpsratceje keto rrjedhime: 1)¥ GeV, axa=d. 2) NE gofte se (0:i; 7:2) eshte sistem koordinativ kartezian Kénddrejté, attheré 39) lade x Jekxk <3 i 98 we ea $ eshté syprina ¢ paralelogramit té nd¥etar mbi vektorét @ e dhe & eshte injésishém Nga gjeomenria Sip ndéreuar mbi vektoret OA=a dhe OB =. tshté S = 72, syprina S e paraleiogramit OADB (fig. 26) x |ksin c. Prandaj nga formula (36) Kemi @ xb = {Ja RRIEDHIM. NE gofté se ( kinddreté, igheré a (ix Jeb atpxk dat é vénatohen edhe dy barazi 10 formojné skeanén johet: pradhimi vektorial i gdo dy vekortve we njépasnjashom éshte i barabarté me vektorin e tree pasues Fig, 30 drejtimin e shigjetés sé madhe. Ene prodhimin vekzorial w dy vektoréve mund ta shprehim che me ant (cis j sk) lew jen chen koordinatave t tyre. Né lidhje me sistemin koordinat 2) dhe B= (xs, 92, veto G dhe B me koordinata a= (x Yn 20) 6 ae Duke i zbesthyer sipas oneve i, J, Emamim @ = wieys Jaak, B= xiity2}-42:k. Duke mbajtur parasysh formulat (40) dhe (42), prodhimi vektorial xb shpreher: See axb =(xity, J 4k) x OGltyjemk = exixliXE) + xiyal XJ) + xi XRD + s+ yont J pl oyp waystsely es aumb amusg 2=g eup gTP ab al ae a wunem 7 9°g'D wmToNyen ‘eu 2 AW ox, (ox gina = 9x1qxD) * £43(95Q! 0) ops sad op T auth 9 a1osady naa BsIp au uojepu od fepuead ‘parysapu a2 aumnege gu ysodys uasey aqeuonjes estuAD 2 29uIypOIE 3° q'D anaionyer tjomonyas anysuie # uaypoud ‘ype auufenb 2 outs fead unas ta ¥8u gionyen gual (2x g)x 2 aup 2x(Qx?) aup as gamb 2 avyeq f, vBu uigusopamys a pionjan an 9° g'D 9uol st 27 Tep1033494 asysyA | FPO *€°6 (or 991" | = SET 6+ IIS = eae T Beas sae raynngys inwajgoud 9 reupup a aad ab Tp) einuLoy ie 8 88a 10g “DaqV mUerFopaesed a g squndis 2 wUssTs © v ase Jaye a ruudés as pnb 2 sg aup (StieJe gy moryes tur ausfouspN, 7 2 (pe Te 2)D eup (7:08) \(eAug)y 98 muob au ‘Dey nysepuayan 9 eaudis ps0! 2] -yquDUS (en) ab afysaxgureur ous gufoueid a op “gion 91 upuar =) woryeatad a wunsyafu 2 uaxuau ou HpUyselsU au yi L*y asmonfen al weouy wagWOY pRY UNyYS seNNYS AREoe Duke krahasuar anét e djathta t2 barazimeve (*) dhe (**), péeftojmé berezimin (44), Duke patur parasysh se @x(B x<) = axib vertetoje se ¥ (G5 .2)e e)=5 (ae)- Sea barazimin ae hiaxdxan, a a kiori dhine 220 Prej kétej, pir C=, mat ep zberhimin e njé vektori t€ gfartdoshem & #0. sipas n dhe vektorit 4 x(5 x 4) ping 3. Ident Ime i Jekobie. Mosshtetus né forme 9) leheé vertetohet pon: Y (Gb. C)8 WE (@xb xe + (Bx epee +(exa)xb #3. Ky barazim 4. Bashkésia sekzorial Jakobit pee vekoret € veltordve dshté unacé Li né lidhje me mbledhjen he Ne algjebér njé vend w vecant# 28n8 strukturat algjebrike me dy veprime 1) Gi Kane veri: ne yjen he vetiné © shprel identites t¢ Jakobit: (ab)e+(bela(cajb=0 per cdo tri elen oneal +) eshte grup abeljan, e vetine 3 & in se struktura (Vs: 4%) shee unazé Li USHTRIME 63. Mp agy=m6 a Vekworét xB ax €, @ xd jané linerishe varur wa xy? = ab! tab) 66, Tre vektor’ Gb 6 kan’ 18 pérbashkét pikén O dhe mbarime parkarésishtpikat A. B dhe C. Te vérteohet ot ) Pikat A, B, C adodhen né njécrejtéz vetém né qofte se plotésobet bara axbrbxcrexand: ektonh d =a x b+ b xe + 6 x G2 0 sine pingul me planin q& keaton nga piket 4, B.C. 67, Te verretohet ge pét gdo ve vektore jokolineare a, V, oi barazimeve Wx Ve x Ww = Ww x Wésbi€ i ojévlershém me barazimin w+ Sew =O 68, Forca F = ACG: 4; -1), Te gjendot moment © koordinatave. 2D. F = 0,2) dhe w =, 1 -D. Te i saj n& lidbje me orighs dhene vektorét 1 Te gjenden koordinatat e ingul me vektorét ae b B che qe# 2-(qx) = O [amumjduoy 9°q*D} -yrurp ‘gs 2:(qxv) ab asa arounydiaoy uo a1 9°Q*D iasonjas ab mpysomyfotu 1 ayp weystorou 1 1ysny Z (oe 12-qxm} lea 299 guoyg{uau jap 025 0f4 08N 2-(qxp) s2rziad a usyposd a1 senemoaf® rimndny uaged non ofs, AT=40S-= GOS = 2-19 va 4) synuziog 2B S03 291 9N EO" = JO = 2 “food afoupots sad rend fap ai aut 2 sup 2 ‘pt ourysdspu at aue eau re aueyare ‘aafew 2 aiysa (9! gD) 28 aod aN A= 4OS = 9-(Gxv) UH Gq) wynuuioy ou ser 914 AN “HO = JO = 2 “ford ‘pfoupatu waa “davO swessojarzed ay xed 2 au mpi» wBu senafosp quel 2 ayp 2 aioyaye anunep 9 ase (2° q" 9) as ayo® fexd = (9 28: 262) = 2) “wuey “(1p) usinazoy sisted amed nq “(pe 84) ‘a'q'vogavO unpadidaeresed m1 taut ayp 2=99 ‘g=gO “B=¥O woes RMRPL exp “O UME unfefa a au 9° q'D amuRidwoyo! relor{an wets 1 suas tatu a7 au auels 2 2uonyes aay vp qua semugpu 29 npadidojqaund » anges 21489 4 1 sqifew a ase (o'q‘e)ny *\—| (er) =2-(qxv) ‘pumelp © aiysa (o’q*euny “A gurygio ‘gapumduoyotyspsonyes oysoar 21489 (9° g'D) 05 zfob 2 “nan O1Fy woraf anauoryos | a1afzxed | nuTypoLg 31g’ D a4gioiyan 1 aorsiad 1 g sees (2°q") sayson yan a sere 2 supsaumys 950 somys-ojpuonyan wrzaunys mafenb 9 YS 9-(gxv) BRL MIYpT, 1 £4 Bu (2°q'y) afousan ond mio a sedis "yaa £4 9 urumdseg AS 2-(gxD) uumnY fase eu ysazonyjon auysopaneys 9 eysan af (2: q!) atel m2 27 FAGUOLNAA I ATIZATd I INIZZWAS “OT fen suprus ipupy royosuate aL (Z puonyaa eBurzemyeauod 19 wuryd oup anffe age (ofoud ropuat a1, (& jgtonyaa aURUP aUeT “SL Sq x p= q¥x abauns x ores ny 2 BIeUIpIOOY VapUDNB AL CCT DE *YSP OGY Wysapuayan o eundis -Zy aupelp 2 aif 2 (g° 2") afusaaL (@ sauaelp 2 aiafar (9°g*D) wlysony (© seupop ab 9 fran ounmy sp vay aweKy pérfundim bie né kundéshtim me kushtin (x5) -¢=0. RRIEDHIM, NE gofié se ndér vektorét G,3,¢ ka dy 1 barabanté, attheré (axB)-¢ =0. Let jet psb. 2=0. Kemi asc = alle >{a.5,¢ komplanaré] = (axb)-c=0. 3. Prodihimi i pércier i ure vektoréve ndryshon vetim shenjén ne qofte se undérrohen vendet dy prej tre, damuth (axb)-¢ =~ (bxa)-2 = -(xb)-a = ~(@x0)-b. Po vértetoime. p.sh, barazimin (@xb)-¢ = ~(€xb)-a. Dallojme dy raste: 1) @,5,€ jan komplanaré, 2) @,5,¢ jané jokomplanaré. Né rastin paré nga formula (47) te dy anét e atij barazimi jané zero, Né rastin e dyté, prochimet ¢ perziera qé ndodhen né barazim, kané vléra absoluce © barabarta me ¥ paralelepipedit w nderwar mbi vektorét 4.5.2, por shenja té kundérta, sepse wesher (@, 5, ¢) dhe (€, 5, @) kané orientime t& nétyshme (shih vérejtjen e pikes 5), 4. Prodkimi i pérsier i wre vektoreve nuk ndryshon né gofté seu ndirrohen vendet shenjave té shumézimeve né té, d.m.th: (4,5, 2)eV}, (@xb)-2 = a-(bxe) Nga vetia 3, kemi: (axb)-6 = -(@xb)-a = a-[-(xd)] = axe) Megenése nuk ka réndési radha e kryerjes st shumézimeve né prodhimiin & perziert8 voktoréve 25,2. atte shénojmé me simbolin ab ¢ Shprehija © prochimit t# plrzjer® te vektoréve nepérmiet t& koordinatave tyre jepet nga kjo TEOREME. Né gofté' se a=(2y yn x) B=(t5 y5 2, Cxles Yo Dh atéheré Boy abi=x, y, ge a8) Xs es (43) ker: Koy, 2 yt Ye es Ys Bat Xs Ys 2 Sipas késaj teoreme, formula (47), né kushret e mésipesme, mer pamien NOM % ¥(G,b.c1€ V>.(@.5.6 komplanars]<> x,y, 2; =0. (49) Ki Ys ts ‘Shembull 1. T# kontrollonet nése jané komplanaré vektoret 71:2), Dest: -2;-3), C=13;-45 1). Nga formula (49) che ligt logiik (pesq) = (peoq) mjedh q¥ vektorét ¢ ddhéné jané jokomplanaré Shembull 2. Te giendet lartésiae piramidés ABCD ge ulet nga kulmi D. ne gofte se A(2:0:0), B(O;3:0), C(0:0:6), Di2:318) (fig. 35) Shayrtojmé vektorst AB, AC, AD mbi te cilét ngrihet piramida, Nga te dhénat e problemit D Kemi: AB=(2:3:0), AC =(-2:0:6), AD =(0;3:8. Vellimi V i parslelepipedit té ndértuar mbi eta we vektoré nga formula (46). do te jete: Fig. 35 Nga ana getér, nga gjeometria efementare dims se V=S-h, ku S éshit syprina e bazés sé paralelepipedit, é.m.th. syprina e paralelogramit té ndéstwar mbi vekiorét AB e AC, che h lartésia e tij mbi ket# daze, e njejté me piramidés. Pranda), sind & nevis o sojmé nga formula (41), Sypringn $e‘pial 2 kp sedis moos ioyayuagz at wie aspu uepuol# a nseed pupsodgur is uadot 2 oup g‘9 rasomian, “sg sea ab ystwaa aue > aup g' p sad d ouead o win uapuel ay rat serowrsed afa ays ny '(1:0'0)= 9 sup @iz- d= 2 wBlOVyeA auaUD auer pg areuryduoy evel (9‘0)= 9 ayp (Et = ¢ (C421) = D rponyon repo ma sad“ d unowered 9 A vapUa!s ay “gg aft au waypopy po mou mung avaws areuscuey auef ab salu apiongon uapual ag “U : P 2) =p saLOD|as aUayP Bue TG = gy as job qu visa repuels 2 “og aA BW p/ AE UIpLERY UOULIOS ab aup (9 °Z ‘e) 1s anysg “wuyny nfafu 1 oBu uyyep ab “gueup at ipod aaobey 2 i2leuosvip rau remappe 2: 2 “oqRe = QU :0'1) = B raroryen aw weveydus0y *¢= || pl) ow p voryas sepuat® a1 “6s (9.qb) t= (b¥9\9 4 9Ng4 0 (OV Da(2 vv) aa = gop y+ yenyzeseg rayorsuaA a1 9 aup q*D “waysopareys 2 m00A 48d “06 £0 17 = D rpsonyaa aus reurpduroy ‘cA 2 9 WoRjes ropuals aL “ge aumugausey we 94-29 20-4G4°ag-VD mOmeA ae + 2 auoryes aww nSuid arysa ayp Zp guisarel® ey ogo v au meuryduioy aayse ab “2 voryon 2 gf‘ emumuran opS sad ayp 9 2.q'D au0njon an ops sad “9b wyonouan aL 88 ‘ants sedis (6-26 19) = p uonyen r8yoquAg 2 2up answAed ay wysyeauy auel joyovpoued aL ye £ = geup ye [7+ 1 = p mower gua aE “LL (0'¢‘0)= 2 =p = 9 (C111) = 2 weioryen ab r2yoreuan a1 "88 SEE EEE eee a2 ET O= 9 jac Sunahara. doch Teese oe 0°C)= D auaup auel any ‘> g v sarered rmypoud zoyosyote aL “9 ots euonyeosad ak (2 aaa aNTALHSA geup ow seusydaxoy ays Pp ~~ rreaed a2 sysueaury gue 2 oyp q'v agonzan ab roqorauas ay (1 : TTT gn azis~dsie~ $0) = ¢ (CATAL) = B pHOFeN aURUP # + pup p sagtonan spna puny ropsal8 weed a gos ae sag 2 aup 2 paqsonyea 8 urueyd au aref a 4g worn 9b PY rit pi 9)rs=4 ‘urjumew “(,) uniizereg gu einynp > yauNssepuasge 9329 2 4 ayonyeosgd ap Teor sniouremed afu asa d my * ye: [e+ id= p ap YS 10m O° yds (e+ eg’ yps L + 1g= D mronpEA aURUP AIT “ISKREU Ill NUMRAT KOMPLEKSE. POLINOMET Ne Kété kre do t# béhet métejshém We kupt juke futur kupe Bé per zajerimin & uri xj kohésh ishte ven re se shumé ekvacione algjebrike. anadje edhe @ fugisé s& ¢: shed edhe ekuaciont 1 thjeshté x4+1=0. Zgjidhja formale e tij gon te simboli Mirépo rénja kat fe njé numri negativ nuk ekziston si numér real, pra ai ekuacion s'ke rrénjé né Re numrave real ekuacionet algjebrike. ind pérshtypja se ndoshta ave edhe bashkésia © numrave Kompleksé ésht# € pamjaftueshme. Né fun ‘eet keeu behet e qarté se nf bashktsiné ¢ numrave kompleksé périshihen « gjitha rénjét © ekvacioneve algjebrike & cdo fugie qofshin me Koeficiente reale ase komplekse” Numrat Kompleksé shpesh i quajmé edhe mumra imagiinaré. Perdorimi i termi te dytt-fidhet me até qd, pér njé koht te gjaté pas shekullit XVI, asaj kohe numri kompleks in dake si digka joreale, digka vewem ei i njehsimi genies dhe mosgenies”. Né kohen toné nga kjo mis pérvee termit “numér imagjinar”. Madje ge né kohén ¢ K. Gaussit dhén€ interpreimi gjeometsix i numtit Kompleks si piké ¢ pl -maternatikanéve t& shquar t shekullit XIX O. Koshi, B. Riman dhe K. né saje t2 qumave kompleksé u ndérwa nje nga disiplinat mé interesante matematike, eoria @ funksioneve t ndryshorit kompleks, 1. FUSHA E NUMRAVE KOMPLEKSE Pérkufizim. Numér kompleks quiet ¢do gift é rradhitur nurarash real, Nge ky pérkufizim, numn i cfarédoshém kompleks z=(0,) éshté element i bashkasisé RF, t8 cilén e shénojme me shkronjen C. * Pavarésisht nga kjo, kupimi i rumvitéshiéagjeruar edhe mé te), Ekzisojné tf giejnd 2batime né isa probleme 1 de né mekanike iscsi Dy numa kompl 1, Shumé numrit Kompleks 2 me numrin korpleks z', gé shénchet z~2! quhet numnri Kompleks (c.c',BB'). Pra 3) mmrave kompleksé z dhe z' shuméa ¢ tyre z+z’ e quajmé mBledhje w nurmave kompieksé. mpleks z me nurria kompieks 2, g& shénohet 2-2, AB :a'-Be'). Pra, (eB) = 22'=(ca-BBeP=Ba). 4) ave kompleksé 2 dhe 2! prodhimin ¢ tyre 2-2! Nga kéto pérkufizime, axirmet leht# g@ mbledhja dhe shumés bashkisin€ C kan’ vetité e méposhime: eshté grup abelian; duke i sht@ naz’ abeljane, Made megojné se struknura shear késaj tr vet 12 del se struktura (C; alo eshte unazé e njes tregon se numsi kompl Ajo éshté dhe unazé e ploté, gj q@ rezulton né fund té paragrafit Si né gdo grup abeljan, edhe n& (C;+) futet veprimi é zbrities, si veprim ae quhet ndryshesé e numrit z me = 2d a2(2)= (2-088). (6) eC, Nga teorema 1 e paragrafit 134, né unazén C shumézimi éshré shpémdarés edhe nt lidhje me zbnitjen, d.mch m21 sup ajean eauunu auef g ayp 1 ny «D agen = (9:0) + (99) = (9) =2 ‘upufen au rayanyys 2 punul (21) 24p (OU) aaeinnsog ar ates au (g s)=z syerdwoy sawnu opd ‘auduaw ay aN 1 uuu asary avouyBoue rate ayn 7 eng, CD Gad=tr0O'g = Ho=1 ~p F(T =C OMT =a ass auien ‘(1 0) Siardwioy uwne ,1, aun ewoye aufouays 1 =(O°T) 24p 0 = (90) 1H94 (OT) seInunoy sedis huedon AN oy 9]e54 axnmuim as sousny 1 ustalSz axyse O asyayduioy axenni 9 vysng 28 [2p WAdNy av AN o1) = (92) USA ‘wig "puegereg 21 veLaMt (oo) oyp 9 wenuny ‘alysonpaseus ow “ unuzowoz! au renzeg 9 aR asypidtuoy earstanu 9 3 sous 2 aysnjuat aryse (9 fepuesg (CCT URE fu g wpuuasoan ynus) usty augs (9 aype sfoypata 39d \('+"D) uAUMIYANS a spuisng | wiezyiowoz! aryse @ 29 gufodan myyseg as Xp 92 ‘beyzapK( “+ “D) saUsTI > gumynansugy aayse ('+""5) “yrurp “urerzaunys aun efypyy gu sup aya anys of 26 ‘np | asiny} ‘uafupaiqu’ aut afypr au 2 2 ewysenspua 2 saqysequan arys9 1D 35 uoSan pued t ewizezeg -(0 #2D)49 179) = (9 80") agp (0 0) + (0 #90) = (0 0410} uiey y 340 “hp mmm Xp op3 sad ab aut a aysa USM 4 ‘(O'D}=(0i> vu semypasad 1 (Qed uorsyelig alu myssy reyosed “1D 310") SyaIduIOY uuumu 2 feas wana op5 aufossbous 1 “Caan | (0 °2)}='9 aurfousys ‘y ainas onemunu 2s spusny 1 wudiSe gayse asyaiduioy anezuame 2 2 rg ‘3s quufofon od azed ayy aia aie aft syaiduroy nmuunu rue usidef 1 og S¥FTAWON LIMWAN F AMALALOTV VLLVAL TZ ‘aysmy anus? (4 '9) ab puufopunpigd ougdisaus as aunoa ayp ystsored anied aynq-si0id 2 aeoun afoupafiz sad'aiun auysa ( - + 9) Btwn 95 Jap alXuaWs 9229 AN dra pays (49) 98 wysrpunysad 9 qufare “wpdisour 2 snuurypafir ype axtiey senyqyseq t ayn "(4g) aU wel anuse Te alayate “4.2 3(0°I) as quab ayn ‘fosay San :y2 9u ype sonzaboys aus? (9 84 #8) 3 au somigboys gueb ano “wrzawnys a8 UoseN ¢ FUAI0] 9 = 77 unusny au wunysiapuny eu 219 Off 9 = Oy. = (22), 12s t2('2, 12) = 249") = uu aad)s atu wanpuauuad an“. “+ 3) sezaun a aman WBN (0° uorst2y9 tanypatu vB ‘9 #2 asquabayy 19 =%2-1z 28 suaz gO = auaugee ‘9 = Ce Te) =%2 eup G = Cg Wp) =12 a5 ayob au aIeHRA @ AW cra -ujuazaunys ‘au afupny gu auysonupuph 9 90989 {9} - =x PISVUSOG ‘TC INTHORL (6) vayms0} rpuny as wrusour “(9 1) our 2 (g) uaynaney au sensppuonaz axing *,,z fn melseue 1 “Wrarp (2 1 myENoWs puNs9 Fe “yvturp “wizeseg sax UOIeLIAA ab y LruIMY UoIsteyo 9¢ uosON | BIN=0eY (O'T)=U,z WILE “Gq 98 (Q “T)=2 geulosgpuosgz os gyob gu ‘giouy a op © anne guna 9y 1 Sp0)=,2 98 fob 21 ‘ofpou ‘2 a1 mpafooun 1 uosseye fe 2 sxoyduoy s9wnu OPS 424 WIKIA 4 Jap eurai001 iN Zz =F Hlidmsz] v (gaez] we the? z ng-d0 z “nag ausfouags 9 ayp 2 a 2 2) nunpsold 2 savay gufenb a ‘uricbsed aay gu (2 .z) yr 1 wnfaquiays suse 2b *y uEunU ata, “asyaidwioy anenunu a runasald auifenb 9 urpo a "I-Ox4 wutbsed alu rogomiad “y syojduoy uyuine (2 +z) mpd anypy 1 ayag ‘emaLs94 N WULBIONI, It? of ty? AP Ht P 9+ 22 |p gi nD lg- >| sp 9 sua 93 alps afe oy outs we fopuead 24 OF otto oon se Y ‘mys? twarsis May | UOLeorad (.) BIMUAIO] BBN be (g'0) = +40 A gacn) @ ze qe gahkoery yak g-<7 94 (4) a4 (1) wraneg vy (Gro}=2 94p (gf0)=2 ‘x)ey sal m a| “REUED s apy Gon) ‘pew. ab amt 4 syepdwoy sgunu gfe tugion uopsizy9 2 vBu > oyp ge,2 spoqduioy sguunu 05 ted “1 INTIAL we) 0< 84,2 uvUrp ‘gaz aleyaie ‘42 32 esauabayy “397 auP «Bz ab atm a (g 0)=2 aup (9 ‘vo)=z rmiay at at AY JRE “CHUQaMBIE wiarysel Fudan 8 -WUrp) ‘QeOxqD t wUKbsed 1s yusnaseld y rurudan aypa remy D aN oO tale tales (=e eQa(Z 21) ATrajta e+Bi qubet mrajté e zakonshme ose algjebrike € numrit kompleks 2=(c& B). Ne vecanti ce quiet pjesé reale e numrit Kompleks z dhe shenohet Rez. B quiet pjese imagiinare etij dhe shénohet imz. Psh., né gofte se z= 3 - Si, atehere Rez=3 dhe Ima =-3. Né saje sé formulave (3), (4) dhe (6), veprimet © mbledhjes, zbrtjes, me dy nucnra kompleksé cshkruar né trate algjebrike kryhen k (a+ Bi) 2(0 +i) = (ato H+ (a + Bi)-(0" + Bi) = (coor - BB) + (B+ Be Kéto barazime tregojne se veprimet e mesiperme me numrat Komplekst loyhen sipas t@ njéjiave megulla gé kryhen veprimet pérkatése me numrat realé, duke patur perasysh shumézi 3. NUMRI KOMPLEKS I KONJUGUAR Le W jeté dhéné numei kompleks 2 = ceBi. Numin kompleks of - Bi e quajmé ré konjuguar té numzit kompleks z dhe e shénojmé z. Pra, 2 = oe him namrit2 & konjuguarine tij 2. Perftojme keshia bijeksionin @: C-3C i percaktuar nga giz)=2, ¥ 2€C. Vémé re gé né qofté se z1=c,+B,i dhe ater 1) 2,2, = (ston) Bo Bis E+E: 2) 2,2, = (8y-Oe- BBs) ~ (cere + Broadi= Bz Ne kets ményré, bijeksioni @ eshte automorfizém né C né lidnje me ibledajen dhe shumézimin Kané vend gjithashtu kéto veti: L242 = 2a, pra shuma e nurrit Korpleks me w Konjuguarin tj ese aurmer real 2. 2-2 = oF+fF, pra prodhimi i numrit kompleks me t# Konjuguarin e ashte persért numér real, madje jonegativ ‘Sipas kesaj vetie, pjesétimi i dy numrave komplekse kthebet né shurnézim: 22; x, % hh Bi Pérshenbull 273 = O27 300-20 _ -1-13i__1_ 13, 142i +2102)" 144 “SS 24% cree / 4. INTERPRETIMI GJEOMETRIK I NUMRAVE KOMPLEKSE het qé bashkésia Re numrave realé pe bashkésiné D pikave te nie boshti Koordinati ajémbinjé lajon pércorimin né algjeber dhe analizé té perfytyrimeve gjeom umrave reale, 18 cilat jané mjaft we dobishire. ‘Terminologiia gleomeike che pérfytyrimet gicometrike pérdoren me sukses edhe pér studimin e bashkesisé C é nurmrave kompleksé duke e pasqyrucr ete 18 funcit né bashkesing P wé pikave t& njé plani koordinativ Le t jeté 2 = a + Bi aj aumér kompleks i gfarédoshém dhe P njé plan yoordinativ. Pika M(x: B) e planic P qubet afits i numrit 2. [ tidkim gdo numsi ompleks z afiksin ¢ tj M. Pécftojme Keshtu njé lidhje té C me P qé éshté nf fakr ohet né ményré bijek Ekzistenca e njé pasqysimi ce tille ke sje bijeksion CP. Pér kite arsye plani koordinativ P quhet edhe plan komplets. Ne veganti afikset e numrave realé c ndodhen né boshtin a = (ci, 0), prandaj bos , megenése sipes (10) Ox quhet bush real. Péc arsye te ngjashme pikat ¢ nave imagjinaré Bi, prandaj boshti Oy quhet dosh imagyinar Eshté e gant se né gotté se pike M eshte afik M i oumrit 2 = o- Bi eshie pike M ng Lidhje me boshtia numsit 2 = 0+ i, atbheré ‘ksi Mi numrit -2 éshee pika ihje me origjinéa simert e koordinatave (fig, Jo mé pak i réndésishém dhe i dobishém eshte interpretimi i_-mumrit Kompleks 2 = c+ Bisi vektor OM (tig. 1) Eshté e qarté se cdo numri kompleks « + fi i njé vekior i veim me fillim né origiinén e koordinatave 0(0: 0) dhe me fund né afiksin M te ti, dhe kjo lichj she nje pasqyrim njémbinje i C ne V2. Vektori 0 éskeé shémbéllimi i numrit O+0i c keté pasayrim. Ky pasgyim dhe ai i mésipérmi lejojné q murat kompleksé te uhen pika ose vektoré dhe t@ fite p.sh. pér pikén & + Bi ose vektorin o + Bi Paragitja e numrave kompleksé si vektoré lejon t& jepet njé interpretim { thjeshte gjeometrik i veprimave me ta, Keshtu, megenése 2 = 2° = (cei) + (a+ = (csc) + (Papi che OS = OM +OM™ = (cz Be’ B) = (aaces BBD, vektori OS este shémbéllim i numsit z + 2’. Pra shuma z + 2° mund t interpretohet gieometcikisht si vektor-diagonale OS e paralelogramit w ndéruar imbi vektorét z dhe 2 (fig. 1), Ne keto kushte, kuptohet ge S eshte aks! | shames 242. 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Nga ana tie, keodi midis giysmécrejtézave (x) che jest Gs, prada) Ihe (OP) éshté @, dim.th. sa kendi midis Ne kate méayre, trekendéshat OOM: che OM:P jané té ngjashem AOQM; rreth origjinés O me kéndin 63, ndérti ; M M: H OP = [2-24 = OM,-OM: => ku Q éshté afiksi i ou 1 x Fig Fig. 4 z Kuptimi gieomewik i herésit =! uegohet ne figurén 4, ku duket se z H ihertsic =! perttoher nga rrotul 2 AOM,M; rreth origiinés O me kéndin -8, 6. NGRITJA NE FUQI E NUMRIT KOMPLEKS. FORMULA E MUAVRIT Le @ jee z numér Kompleks dhe n aumér i plové. Fuginé e n-é t numeit kompleks z qé e shenojme 2’ e pérkufizojmé ne kete ményre: pér gdo ze C dhe gdo ne N, pit cdo 26 C* dhe n=0, “ pét do 26 C* dhe neZ™, (cos 6+ isin OF, co) Fuginé (cos @ + i sin 6)" mund ta paragitima né trajté mé t# thjeshed. Ne gofte se n éshte numér natyror. nga formula (19) kem (B+8+..+8)=c0s 8 + i sin 08, Pra, or : : a (cosB isin 8) ae SMT IANO coe ng + isin cosn6 —isinnd ~ cos! n8 = sin'nd cos) + Sipas saj formula ( cos ni sin n8) Shembull. Té gjendet 2° né qofté se z=14. Kemi gé n 22 dhe numri kompleks z=!2\(cos O+4 sin ©). Rrenjé me tregues 2 qualmé oumrin kompleks u, n& gofte se ekziston, ttle q& fe shénojmé * 2 Acekziston ® 2 pér gdo oumér Kompleks 2? Megendse C ésité unazé ¢ ploté, dim.th, s'ka pjesétues té zeros, barazi W'=0 &shté i verteté vetém per u = 0. Pra, ni gofte se z = 0, atther’ | Z=0. Le jeté tani 2 = 0. E kérkojmé u-né né trajté irigonometrike u = [ul (Cos OH sin @). e duhura né barazimin wu’ = z dhe, duke patur perasysh 4 sin nig) = [2] (cos B4i sin 0). Ne saje Le te jeré dhene che nip = 8+2kr, ke Z. 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