Creativity, Intelligence and Personality: A Critical Review of The Scattered Literature

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS
n
#OPYRIGHT (ELDREF 0UBLICATIONS
#REATIVITY )NTELLIGENCE AND 0ERSONALITY !

#RITICAL 2EVIEW OF THE 3CATTERED ,ITERATURE
-!2+ "!4%9
-ANCHESTER "USINESS 3CHOOL
!$2)!. &52.(!5NIVERSITY #OLLEGE ,ONDON
!"342!#4 4HE AUTHORS EXAMINED THE RELATIONS AMONG INTELLIGENCE PERSONALITY AND
CREATIVITY 4HEY CONSIDER THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE
QUALIFICATIONS THAT RESEARCHERS IN THE FIELD HAVE SUGGESTED 4HE PRESENT AUTHORS BRIEFLY
REFER TO HISTORIOMETRIC STUDIES BUT FOCUS ON PSYCHOMETRIC INTELLIGENCE AND ITS RELATIONS TO
TESTS OF DIVERGENT THINKING $4 AND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY 4HE AUTHORS CONSIDER THE RELA
TION BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY IN THE CONTEXT OF %YSENCKIAN FACTOR AND FACTOR
MODELS OF PERSONALITY AND WITH REFERENCE TO $4 TESTS AND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY 4HE AUTHORS
ALSO PRESENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE STUDY OF CREATIVITY
+EYWORDS CREATIVITY DIVERGENT THINKING FLUENCY INTELLIGENCE ORIGINALITY PERSONALITY
4(% #5,452!, 6!,5% 0,!#%$ /. #2%!4)6)49 IN THE ARTS SCIENCES

TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICAL ENDEAVORS IS IMMENSE #REATIVE PEOPLE HAVE RECEIVED
ADULATION THROUGHOUT HISTORY .ETTLE 3OME RESEARCHERS HAVE ARGUED THAT
CREATIVITY CONSTITUTES HUMANKINDS ULTIMATE RESOURCE 4OYNBEE 3OCIAL
AND TECHNICAL INNOVATION RELY HEAVILY ON CREATIVE PEOPLE AND PROCESSES 2UNCO
9ET DESPITE CREATIVITYS UNDISPUTED IMPORTANCE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
REGARDING CREATIVITY REMAINS AN ACADEMIC BACKWATER
.UMEROUS RESEARCHERS HAVE COMMENTED ON THE RELATIVE PAUCITY OF EITHER
GOOD CREATIVITY STUDIES 'UILFORD 3TERNBERG ,UBART OR PARSIMO
NIOUS THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN AND MANIFESTATION OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CERTAIN INDIVIDUALS 4HE CAUSE OF THIS NEGLECT MAY BE ATTRIBUTABLE IN PART TO THE
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE CONSTRUCT OR MORE PARTICULARLY TO PROBLEMS WITH
DEFINITION AND THEREFORE MEASUREMENT 0ERHAPS WHAT HAS SET BACK THE FIELD FOR SO
LONG HAS BEEN THE RELATIVE ABSENCE OF COMPREHENSIVE AND HIGH QUALITY MEASURES
!DDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO !DRIAN &URNHAM $EPARTMENT OF 0SYCHOLOGY 5NIVERSITY #OLLEGE
,ONDON "EDFORD 7AY ,ONDON 7#( !0 %NGLAND AFURNHAM UCLACUK E MAIL

OF CREATIVITY (OWEVER GROWTH IN AGREEMENT ON DEFINITIONS WIDELY ACCEPTED

MODELS OF PERSONALITY AND THE APPROPRIATE USE OF TESTS OF DIVERGENT THINKING $4
POINT TOWARD A POSITIVE FUTURE FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCH
)N THIS ARTICLE WE ATTEMPTED TO COMPREHENSIVELY AND CRITICALLY REVIEW THE
CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO THE CREATIVITY RESEARCH LITERATURE /UR
AIM WAS TO ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE BY REVIEW RATHER THAN BY META ANALYTIC PROCE
DURES THE EXTENT TO WHICH PSYCHOMETRICALLY ASSESSED INTELLECTUAL AND PERSONALITY
TRAITS RELATE TO AND EXPLAIN EVERYDAY CREATIVITY
(ISTORICAL "ACKGROUND
4HE PERCEPTION OF CREATIVITY AS THE ORIGINAL PRODUCT OF AN INDIVIDUAL IS A PRE
DOMINANTLY 7ESTERN ONE &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY USUALLY IS SEEN AS A TRAIT OR
GIFT THAT IS A NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED PROBABLY PARTLY GENETICALLY DETERMINED PROPERTY OF
INDIVIDUALS %ARLY PERCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY WERE DOMINATED BY THE STORY OF CREATION
IN 'ENESIS &ROM THERE THE CONCEPT OF CREATION AS ORIGINALITY AND UTILITY INFLUENCED
SUBSEQUENT INTERPRETATIONS OF THE PROPERTIES OF CREATIVE PRODUCTS 4HIS CONTRASTS
WITH AN %ASTERN VIEW OF CREATIVITY AS THE EXPRESSION OF PERSONAL TRUTH OR SELF GROWTH
,UBART %ASTERN PERSPECTIVES OF CREATIVITY FOCUS ON DISCOVERY SO THAT THE IDEA
OF CREATION EX NIHILO IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR %ASTERN CULTURES THAT EMPHASIZE HARMONY AND
BALANCE "OORSTIN %ASTERN CULTURES HAVE TENDED TO VIEW CREATIVITY AS A PROCESS
OF UNDERSTANDING AND ENLIGHTENMENT (OWEVER THE 7ESTERN PERSPECTIVE HAS DOMI
NATED CREATIVITY RESEARCH AND ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE
4HE EARLIEST CONCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY DREW ON MYSTICAL INTERPRETATIONS 3TERN
BERG ,UBART -ANY ANCIENT 'REEKS BELIEVED THAT INSPIRATION AND CREATION
RESULTED FROM DIVINE INTERVENTION ,UDWIG &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY
WAS hASSOCIATED WITH MYSTICAL POWERS OF PROTECTION AND GOOD FORTUNEv !LBERT
2UNCO P ! CONSEQUENCE OF THIS CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY HAS BEEN THAT PEO
PLE CONSIDERED IT BEYOND MEASUREMENT AND COMPREHENSION AND THAT CONSEQUENCE
HAS LEFT A LEGACY OVERSHADOWING SOME ATTITUDES TOWARD CREATIVITY RESEARCH TODAY
%VENTUALLY THE 'REEKS BEGAN TO REDUCE THEIR EMPHASIS ON DIVINE INTERVENTION
BY THE HIGHEST GODS INSTEAD CONSIDERING CREATIVITY RELATED TO EACH INDIVIDUALS
$AIMON OR GUARDIAN SPIRIT "Y THE TIME OF !RISTOTLE CREATIVITY WAS SEEN AS A NATURAL
EVENT THAT CONFORMED TO NATURAL LAW EVEN IF IT DID INVOLVE hAN ASSOCIATION WITH MAD
NESS AND FRENZIED INSPIRATIONv !LBERT 2UNCO P 4HE POSSIBLE RELATION
BETWEEN PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND CREATIVITY IS NOW A POPULAR LAY NOTION AND AN ACTIVE
AREA OF RESEARCH ,LOYD %VANS "ATEY &URNHAM 'RADUALLY PEOPLE ASSO
CIATED CREATIVE ACTS WITH THE ABILITIES AND DISPOSITIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PERSON
#REATIVITY AS AN )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCE 6ARIABLE
!S CREATIVITY BECAME ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROPERTIES OF INDIVIDUALS RESEARCH
ERS SUCH AS 'ALTON BEGAN INVESTIGATIONS OF HEREDITY GENIUS AND THE
"ATEY &URNHAM
,ONDON 3CHOOL IE DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT SOUGHT TO ELUCIDATE THE MOST BASIC
COMPONENT OF CREATIVE THOUGHT PRODUCTION FLUENCY ( , (ARGREAVES
4HE GROUNDING OF THE INVESTIGATION OF CREATIVITY IN THE CAMP OF INDIVIDUAL ABILITY
DIFFERENCES IE CREATIVITY AS A COMPONENT OF ABILITY OR INTELLIGENCE MORE THAN
YEARS AGO LED TO THE CONSTRUCTS BEING CONSIDERED A PREDOMINANTLY INTELLEC
TUAL TRAIT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE &OR THIS REASON RESEARCHERS HAVE CONSIDERED
CREATIVITY TO BE THE hPRODIGAL STEPBROTHER TO RESEARCH ON INTELLIGENCEv 3TERNBERG
P (OWEVER RESEARCHERS ALSO BEGAN TO ASSESS CREATIVITY FROM THE PER
SPECTIVE OF PERSONALITY THEORIES AND PROCESSES )NTEREST IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
LED TO INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS EG &INKE 7ARD
3MITH .EWELL 3HAW 3IMON
4HERE HAS BEEN CONSIDERABLE INTEREST IN THE SITUATIONAL FACTORS THAT PROMOTE
OR INHIBIT CREATIVITY AT THE LEVEL OF INDIVIDUALS AND TEAMS EG !MABILE
2ESEARCHERS HAVE STUDIED THE NEUROBIOLOGY AND FUNCTION OF CREATIVES AND CREATIVE
THINKING EG &OLLEY 0ARK -ARTINDALE (INES -ITCHELL #OVELLO
AND THE STUDIES APPEAR PROMISING ALTHOUGH RESEARCHERS STILL WRESTLE WITH
THE DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY 4HE FINAL FRONTIER FOR CREATIVITY RE
SEARCH LIES IN EFFORTS TO INTEGRATE AND UNDERSTAND THIS DIVERSE FIELD OF RESEARCH &OR
THIS REASON SOME RESEARCHERS HAVE PROPOSED CONFLUENCE OR SYNDROME APPROACHES
TO CREATIVITY EG -UMFORD 'USTAFSON
4HE MAJOR ISSUE THAT HAS OBFUSCATED AND SCATTERED SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY RE
SEARCH HAS BEEN THE DEFINITION AND USE OF THE TERM CREATIVITY )T IS NOT A TECHNICAL
WORD INVENTED TO DESCRIBE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OR PROCESSES THAT RESULT IN
CREATION 2ATHER IT IS AN EXPRESSION THAT IS USEFUL TO ARTISTS SCIENTISTS AND LAY PEO
PLE 7EHNER #SIKSZENTMIHALYI -AGYARI "ECK 4HIS USEFULNESS MEANS
THAT THE TERM HAS BEEN APPLIED IN SUCH A DIVERSE MANNER THAT IT HAS ALMOST CEASED
TO MEAN ANYTHING 4OGETHER THE ISSUES RELATING TO THE CULTURAL UNDERPINNINGS OF
THE TERM THE ROOT OF THE NOTION OF CREATIVITY IN THE DIVINE AND THE UNIVERSAL USAGE
OF THE WORD HAVE COMBINED TO PRODUCE A FIELD THAT 'LOVER 2ONNING AND 2EYN
OLDS DESCRIBED AS hA DEGENERATING RESEARCH PROGRAMMEv P
$EFINING #REATIVITY
0RENTKY SUGGESTED THAT hWHAT CREATIVITY IS AND WHAT IT IS NOT HANGS
AS THE MYTHICAL ALBATROSS AROUND THE NECK OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ON CREATIVITYv
P !S A PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPT CREATIVITY HAS RESISTED UNEQUIVOCAL DEFINITION
OR CLEAR OPERATIONALIZATION 0ARKHURST 2UNCO 2HODES
SUGGESTED THAT DEFINITIONS RELATE TO FOUR DIFFERENT POTENTIAL RESEARCH AREAS A THE
PERSON WHO CREATES B THE COGNITIVE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE CREATION OF IDEAS
C THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH CREATIVITY OCCURS OR ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES AND
D THE PRODUCT THAT RESULTS FROM CREATIVE ACTIVITY
!DVOCATES OF THE CREATIVE PERSON APPROACH SEEK TO IDENTIFY THE GENERAL AND
SPECIFIC ABILITIES MOTIVES AND TRAITS THAT RESULT IN A PERSON WHO PRODUCES CREATIVE

PRODUCTS EG #ARROLL ( * %YSENCK 'OUGH "ESIDES THE
PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH NOTABLE HUMANIST RESEARCHERS EG -ASLOW 2OGERS
HAVE EXAMINED CREATIVITY IN A FRAMEWORK OF INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATION 3UCH EF
FORTS HAVE BEEN INFLUENTIAL IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH BUT WE DO NOT EXPLORE THEM IN THIS
ARTICLE BECAUSE THE PRIMARY FOCUS OF THIS REVIEW IS ON STUDIES THAT USED AN EMPIRICAL
APPROACH TO ASSESSING CREATIVITY 2ESEARCHERS ADDRESSING THE INTELLECTUAL FACETS OF
THE CREATIVE PERSON TEND TO ADOPT A PSYCHOMETRIC METHODOLOGY 4HE RESEARCHERS
STUDYING PERSONALITY TRAITS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE TEND TO ADOPT THE MORE TRADITIONAL
FRAMEWORK OF A OR FACTOR MODEL !DVOCATES OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS AP
PROACH TRY TO DELINEATE THE COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL MEANS BY WHICH CREATIVE IDEAS
ARE PRODUCED EG &INKE ET AL -EDNICK 4HIS APPROACH IS MORE IN
THE TRADITION OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2ESEARCHERS WHO INVESTIGATE THE CREATIVE EN
VIRONMENT SEARCH FOR THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH CREATIVITY IS LIKELY
TO UNFOLD EG #SIKSZENTMIHALYI 3IMONTON 4HESE RESEARCHERS ARE
OFTEN APPLIED PSYCHOLOGISTS INTERESTED IN ENCOURAGING CREATIVITY ,AST ADVOCATES OF
THE PRODUCT APPROACH TRY TO SPECIFY THE ATTRIBUTES OF PRODUCTS THAT LEAD TO A PERSON
BEING LABELED AS CREATIVE EG 3TERNBERG +AUFMAN 0RETZ
4HE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS USUALLY DEFINES HOW
THEY TRY TO ASSESS THE CONSTRUCT 4HOSE WHO EMPHASIZE A PERSON CENTERED VIEW OF
CREATIVITY USUALLY ASSESS CREATIVITY WITH REFERENCE TO PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES SUCH AS
INTELLIGENCE OR PERSONALITY EG 'UILFORD !LSO SOME RESEARCHERS TAKE AN
ABNORMAL OR CLINICAL VIEW OF CREATIVITY SEEING IT AS THE RESULT OF UNUSUAL PERSON
ALITY PROCESSES 4HOSE WHO EMPHASIZE A PROCESS CENTERED VIEW OFTEN ASSESS CRE
ATIVITY WITH REFERENCE TO THOUGHT PROCESSES SUCH AS PROBLEM SOLVING -EDNICK
4HOSE WHO EMPHASIZE THE ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOCUS ON THE CLIMATE
FOR CREATIVITY EG 3IMONTON
4HUS WE CAN CONSIDER COGNITIVE PERSONALITY HUMANISTIC SOCIAL ENVIRON
MENTAL AND PSYCHOANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGIES OF CREATIVITY )T IS CERTAIN THAT EVEN
TUALLY THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF CREATIVITY WILL BE EXPLORED EG 2EUTER ET AL
%ACH APPROACH INEVITABLY CONCENTRATES ON THE ISSUE OF CREATIVITY DIFFERENTLY
DEVISING ITS OWN THEORIES METHODS AND INVESTIGATIVE PARADIGMS 4HEREFORE THIS
NEGLECTED FIELD IS ALSO DEEPLY FRAGMENTED INDICATING THE NEED FOR A COMPREHEN
SIVE REVIEW 4HIS FRAGMENTATION AND METHODOLOGICAL VARIANCE MAKES ANY META
ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO CREATIVITY PROBLEMATIC
$ESPITE CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FRAGMENTATION THERE NOW APPEARS TO BE
SOME REASONABLE DEFINITIONAL AGREEMENT IN THE FIELD "ARRON FIRST PROPOSED
THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY WHICH APPEARS TO HAVE GAINED WIDE
ACCEPTANCE -UMFORD 2UNCO (OWEVER SUCH A DEFINITION HAS STILL
BEEN CRITICIZED AND MODIFIED
0ARKHURST INDICATED THE NEW AND USEFUL PERSPECTIVE OF CREATIVITY
REQUIRES DEVELOPMENT BECAUSE THE CURRENT DEFINITION IS NOT STRINGENT ENOUGH TO
ENABLE DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN WHAT IS CREATIVE AND WHAT IS NOT (E PROPOSED THE
FOLLOWING DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY
"ATEY &URNHAM
THE ABILITY OR QUALITY DISPLAYED WHEN SOLVING HITHERTO UNSOLVED PROBLEMS WHEN
DEVELOPING NOVEL SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OTHERS HAVE SOLVED DIFFERENTLY OR WHEN DE
VELOPING ORIGINAL AND NOVEL AT THE LEAST TO THE ORIGINATOR PRODUCTS P
(OWEVER THIS DEFINITION STILL FAILS TO ACCOUNT EXPLICITLY FOR THE ROLE OF SOCIAL
APPRAISAL IN JUDGMENTS ABOUT WHAT CONSTITUTES CREATIVITY OR CREATIVE PROBLEM
SOLVING EG #SIKSZENTMIHALYI
!LTHOUGH THE NEW AND USEFUL ACCOUNT OF CREATIVITY IS RELATIVELY PARSIMONI
OUS THERE HAVE BEEN RECENT MOVEMENTS TO INCORPORATE A MULTICOMPONENTIAL
PERSPECTIVE INTO CREATIVITY ASSESSMENT )N THAT PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY IN THE INDI
VIDUAL IS SEEN AS THE RESULT OF A COMPLEX INTERACTION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND THE
ENVIRONMENT ULTIMATELY LEADING TO A CREATIVE PRODUCT #SIKSZENTMIHALYI
-UMFORD 'USTAFSON !LTHOUGH THESE COMPONENTIAL ACCOUNTS POSSESS A
GREATER BREADTH AND DEPTH IN THEIR TREATMENT OF THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX THEY STILL
DO NOT PROVIDE AN UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT IS CREATIVE )NSTEAD THEY INDICATE THE
CONDITIONS IN WHICH CREATIVITY WILL OCCUR 7E SUGGEST BY DEFINITION THAT IDENTIFI
ABLE CREATIVITY IN A PRODUCT IS A RESULT OF A SYNDROME INVOLVING THE FOLLOWING
!TTRIBUTES OF THE PRODUCT ITSELF THAT ARE NOVEL AND USEFUL WITH RESPECT TO A
PARTICULAR SOCIOCULTURAL GROUP
!TTRIBUTES OF THE PERSONS WHO GENERATED THE PRODUCT
!TTRIBUTES OF THE PERSONS ASSESSING THE CREATIVITY OF THE PRODUCT OR OUTPUT
!TTRIBUTES OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOR CREATORS AND ASSESSORS INCLUDING
THE FOLLOWING SOURCE OF EVALUATION SOURCE OF SUPPORT OR RESOURCES AND
SOURCE OF STIMULATION OR INSPIRATION
)NEVITABLY SUCH A COMPLEX DEFINITION POSES MAJOR PROBLEMS FOR MEASURE
MENT $EFINITIONS OF CREATIVITY HAVE EVOLVED TO INCORPORATE NUMEROUS ISSUES EG
THE ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT THE ROLE OF SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION -OST DEFINITIONS
STILL REFER TO THE CORE CONCEPTS OF NOVELTY AND UTILITY (OWEVER THERE ARE A NUMBER
OF QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY &IRST PERCEIVING
CREATIVITY AS THE ORIGINAL PRODUCT OF AN INDIVIDUAL IS A PREDOMINANTLY 7ESTERN PER
SPECTIVE 3ECOND THERE IS DEBATE ABOUT WHAT CONSTITUTES A PRODUCT !BSTRACT IDEAS
IE THEORIES HAVE BEEN TREATED AS PRODUCTS 2UNCO 0LUCKER ,IM AND
RESEARCHERS HAVE ANALYZED PRODUCTS NOT CREATED DURING AN EXPERIMENT OR INVESTI
GATION OF CREATIVITY "AER +AUFMAN 'ENTILE
4HIRD THERE IS UNCERTAINTY ABOUT WHETHER NEW MUST MEAN UNIQUE OR PRE
EMINENT 3OME COMMENTATORS HAVE ARGUED THAT A PRODUCT NEED ONLY BE NEW
FOR THE CREATOR "ODEN 2OGERS 4HURSTONE WHEREAS OTHERS
HAVE ASSERTED THAT SOCIETY MUST DETERMINE WHETHER A PRODUCT IS NEW AND USEFUL
#SIKSZENTMIHALYI 3TEIN 4HERE IS THE ISSUE OF WHETHER ANY PERSON
CAN PRODUCE SOMETHING THAT IS ENTIRELY NOVEL "ODEN INSTEAD THE REQUIREMENT
OF SURPRISE MAY PROVE A MORE FITTING CRITERIA 4HERE IS ALSO THE ISSUE OF WHETHER

NOVELTY IS ESSENTIAL IN SCIENCE WHERE ADVANCEMENT IS PREDOMINANTLY NORMAL AS

OPPOSED TO REVOLUTIONARY +UHN &OURTH AS A REQUIREMENT OF NOVELTY MAY
BE INAPPROPRIATE FOR SOME SCIENTIFIC ENDEAVORS A REQUIREMENT OF USEFULNESS MAY
NOT PROVE A FITTING CRITERION FOR THE ARTS
&IFTH JUDGEMENTS CONCERNING NOVELTY AND UTILITY INEVITABLY INVOLVE SOCIAL
APPRAISAL !MABILE #SIKSZENTMIHALYI 4HIS CIRCUM
STANCE RAISES ISSUES ABOUT THE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE JUDGES AND ABOUT WHETHER
CONTEMPORARY STUDIES OF EMINENT CREATIVITY ARE POSSIBLE GIVEN THAT THE GATEKEEP
ERS OF A FIELD MAY NOT ALLOW AN INDIVIDUAL TO CONTRIBUTE TO THEIR DOMAIN #SIK
SZENTMIHALYI 4HERE ARE ALSO ISSUES ABOUT THE NATURE OF CONSENSUS -UST
THE JUDGES UNANIMOUSLY AGREE TO THE CREATIVITY OF A PRODUCT OR IS THERE AN ACCEPT
ABLE CUTOFF POINT -UST THESE CONSENSUAL JUDGMENTS BE VALID OVER TIME AND ACROSS
CULTURES TO FULFILL THE BASIC CRITERIA 3IXTH THE RELATION OF CREATIVE ABILITIES AND
DISPOSITIONS TO SPECIFIC DOMAINS EG ART OR SCIENCE IS HIGHLY ARGUABLE "AER
+AUFMAN "AER 0LUCKER
0ERHAPS THE MOST FUNDAMENTAL QUALIFICATION FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE CREATIV
ITY CONSTRUCT INVOLVES THE DISTRIBUTION OF CREATIVITY THROUGHOUT THE GENERAL POPULATION
7HEN CREATIVITY IS ASSESSED PSYCHOMETRICALLY IE AS A COGNITIVE ABILITY OR A PERSON
ALITY OR MOTIVATIONAL TRAIT OR WITH JUDGMENTS OF EVERYDAY PRODUCTS IT CONFORMS TO A
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION A TRAIT 7HEN CREATIVITY IS ASSESSED IN TERMS OF REAL LIFE PRODUC
TION OR EMINENCE THE DISTRIBUTION IS SKEWED TOWARD GREAT ACHIEVEMENT FROM A FEW
CREATORS ,OTKA -OLES 0RICE 4HIS DISCREPANCY MAY IN PART BE
RESOLVABLE BY ADOPTING A MULTICOMPONENT OR SYNDROME APPROACH TO CREATIVITY
4HERE IS GROWING AGREEMENT AMONG RESEARCHERS WITH THE IDEA THAT CREATIVITY IN
THE INDIVIDUAL RELIES ON MULTIPLE COMPONENTS !MABILE ( * %YSENCK
'UILFORD -UMFORD 'USTAFSON 7OODMAN 3CHOEN
FELDT 4HESE COMPONENTS INCLUDE COGNITIVE ABILITY PERSONALITY FACTORS
COGNITIVE STYLE MOTIVATION KNOWLEDGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT AS A SOURCE OF BOTH
STIMULATION $ODDS 3MITH 7ARD -OSS AND EVALUATION #SIKSZENT
MIHALYI 4HE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE COMPONENTS AND ENVIRONMENT
NECESSARY FOR CREATIVE PERFORMANCE IN DIFFERENT DOMAINS IS COMPLEX 4HEREFORE
EXAMINING CORRELATES OF TRAIT OR COGNITIVE ABILITY IN ISOLATION COULD BE MISLEADING
AND PRODUCE UNREPLICABLE RESULTS 4HIS MAY BE SEEN AS THE MAJOR CAUSE OF EQUIVOCAL
RESULTS IN THE FIELD (OWEVER AN OPTIMISTIC ASSESSMENT MAY SUGGEST THAT DESPITE
THE COMPLEXITY AND NUMBER OF VARIABLES INVOLVED AGREEMENT AMONG THE STUDIES ON
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE CORRELATES OF CREATIVITY IS SURPRISINGLY HIGH
#ERTAIN COMPONENTS MAY OPERATE AS FACILITATORS IN CERTAIN DOMAINS BUT INHIBIT
CREATIVITY IN OTHERS !N EXAMPLE IS THE PERSONALITY TRAIT NEUROTICISM . WHICH IS
ELEVATED IN ARTISTIC POPULATIONS &EIST 'OTZ 'OTZ 3TILL SUCCESSFUL
AND POSSIBLY CREATIVE MANAGERS AND LEADERS TEND TO BE EMOTIONALLY STABLE EG
"ARRICK -OUNT 3ALGADO 4HE "IG &IVE PERSONALITY DIMENSION OF
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS # IS ANOTHER AND IT SEEMS TO CONTRIBUTE TO SCIENTIFIC EXCEL
LENCE BUT DETRACT FROM ARTISTIC PERFORMANCE &EIST
"ATEY &URNHAM
&OR A LONG TIME PSYCHOMETRICIANS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE PSYCHOLOGISTS

HAVE POSITED THAT MOST PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS CONFORM TO A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
7HEN CREATIVITY IS CONSIDERED AS RESULTING FROM THE INTERACTION OF MULTIPLE INDI
VIDUAL DIFFERENCE TRAITS EG INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT ;)1= PERSONALITY MOTIVATION
$4 THEN IT IS NOT SURPRISING THAT RESEARCHERS USING A SINGLE STANDARDIZED MEASURE
OF CREATIVITY EG $4 TESTS FIND THE PHENOMENON TO BE DISTRIBUTED NORMALLY
(OWEVER THE SYNERGISTIC INTERACTION OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE TRAITS ENVIRONMENT
AND SOCIOCULTURAL MILIEU NECESSARY TO PRODUCE TRUE EMINENCE IS BY DEFINITION A
RARE OCCURRENCE OFTEN LEADING TO A SKEWED DISTRIBUTION -OLES )F !LBERT
%INSTEIN HAD BEEN BORN TO 7OLFGANG !MADEUS -OZARTS PARENTS OR VICE VERSA
WOULD HE HAVE ACHIEVED THE STATUS OF MUSICAL RATHER THAN SCIENTIFIC GENIUS 4O
UNDERSTAND THE COMPLEX INTERACTION BETWEEN NATURE AND NURTURE IS PARTICULARLY
PROBLEMATIC FOR THOSE STUDYING CREATIVITY
! SIMILAR ARGUMENT MAY BE MADE IN THE PSYCHOMETRIC FRAMEWORK #ONSIDER THE
CHANCES THAT A SINGLE PARTICIPANT FROM A PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTAL SAMPLE WOULD
OBTAIN SCORES ON A LIMITED NUMBER OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE MEASURES THAT CORRESPOND
ED TO THE RECOMMENDED PROFILE FOR A CREATIVE ARTIST FOR EXAMPLE MODERATE TO HIGH
)1 ( * %YSENCK 9AMAMOTO HIGH $4 SCORES 'UILFORD 4OR
RANCE THE IDEAL CONSTELLATION OF PERSONALITY TRAITS HIGH . LOW EXTRAVERSION
;%= HIGH OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE ;/= AND LOW # &EIST 'ELADE INTRIN
SIC MOTIVATION !MABILE AND SELF CONFIDENCE OR SELF EFFICACY 4IERNEY
&ARMER 4HIS EXAMPLE DOES NOT INCLUDE OTHER FACTORS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO
REAL WORLD CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT SUCH AS BIRTH ORDER AND DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES
GENERAL AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE ACCESS TO RESOURCES THE AVAILABILITY OF A
SUITABLE MENTOR THE OVERARCHING SOCIOCULTURAL MILIEU AND ALTHOUGH PSYCHOLOGISTS
WOULD OFTEN NOT WANT IT SO LUCK OR HISTORICAL SERENDIPITY
&OR PSYCHOMETRIC WORK TO PROCEED THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE REQUIRES UNEQUIV
OCAL DEFINITION AND A RELIABLE AND VALID MEASURE !T THIS REQUIREMENT IS WHERE THE
PROBLEMS FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS ARISE !LTHOUGH THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION
IS WIDELY ACCEPTED RESEARCHERS MUST STILL CONSIDER SERIOUS QUALIFICATIONS UNLIKE
RESEARCHERS IN PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE WHO HAVE WELL ESTABLISHED AND VALI
DATED CONSTRUCT AND CRITERION MEASURES (OWEVER RESEARCHERS MAY ARGUE THAT
THE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIVELY UNANIMOUS DEFINITIONS AND MEASURES FOR
THE CONSTRUCTS OF INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY HAS ARISEN AFTER AT LEAST A CENTURY OF
RESEARCH ON INTELLIGENCE 3PEARMAN AND YEARS OF PSYCHOMETRIC RESEARCH
ON PERSONALITY ( * %YSENCK
(OWEVER CREATIVITY RESEARCH HAS PROVEN TO BE SOMETHING OF A BACKWATER )T
MAY BE CONTENDED THAT RARELY IN SCIENCE DO CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS START WITH
SOLID DEFINITIONAL FOUNDATIONS 2ATHER THROUGH RESEARCH AND OPERATIONALIZATION
THE CONSTRUCTS SLOWLY ACQUIRE MEANING AND UNANIMITY )F THIS IS THE CASE THEN
CREATIVITY RESEARCH MAY YET ATTAIN GREATER LEVELS OF AGREEMENT WITH REGARD TO DEFI
NITION AND THEREFORE MEASUREMENT SEE THE !PPENDIX FOR SELECTED QUOTATIONS ON
THE DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY

4HE #RITERION 0ROBLEM

#REATIVITY HAS BEEN CONCEPTUALIZED FROM A NUMBER OF PERSPECTIVES EG
2HODES 4HIS VARIETY HAS MEANT THAT THERE ARE VIRTUALLY AS MANY
WAYS OF ASSESSING OR MEASURING THE CONSTRUCT AS THERE ARE PERSPECTIVES 4HERE
FORE A SIGNIFICANT ISSUE IN CREATIVITY INVESTIGATIONS HAS INVOLVED THE SELECTION OF
PARSIMONIOUS AND VALUED CRITERIA FOR CREATIVITY (OCEVAR AND "ACHELOR AND
,UBART HAVE PRESENTED A TAXONOMY OF THE MEASURES THAT WERE AVAILABLE TO
THEM WHICH CONSISTED OF EIGHT CATEGORIES A $4 TESTS B ATTITUDES AND INTEREST
INVENTORIES C PERSONALITY INVENTORIES D BIOGRAPHICAL INVENTORIES E RATINGS
BY PEERS TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS F JUDGMENTS OF PRODUCTS G RATINGS OF EMI
NENCE AND H SELF REPORTED CREATIVE ACTIVITIES 3OME INVESTIGATORS HAVE GONE SO
FAR AS TO SAY THAT CREATIVITY INVESTIGATIONS MUST BE RELATED TO A SPECIFIC TANGIBLE
PRODUCT (OCEVAR "ACHELOR
3TERNBERG ET AL PRODUCED A THOUGHTFUL TAXONOMY OF CREATIVE PRODUCTS
4HEIR PROPULSION MODEL OF CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS PROPOSED THAT CREATIVITY PROPELS
A FIELD FORWARD IN SOME WAY 4HEY HYPOTHESIZED THAT THERE ARE EIGHT TYPES OF
CREATIVE CONTRIBUTION DIVIDED INTO THREE CATEGORIES 4HE THREE MAJOR CATEGORIES
OF CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS ARE THOSE THAT A ACCEPT CURRENT PARADIGMS AND TRY TO
EXTEND THEM B REJECT CURRENT PARADIGMS AND TRY TO REPLACE THEM AND C TRY TO
SYNTHESIZE PARADIGMS
4HERE ARE A NUMBER OF ISSUES WITH THESE CRITERIA &IRST IF RESEARCHERS PRESUME
THAT CREATIVITY INVOLVES A PRODUCT THAT POSSESSES NOVELTY AND UTILITY THEN WE PRE
CLUDE A NUMBER OF TESTS AND POPULATIONS FROM INVESTIGATION 4ESTS OF $4 WOULD
BE INADMISSIBLE AS EVIDENCE OF CREATIVITY BECAUSE THE IDEAS GENERATED DURING A
TESTING ADMINISTRATION ARE USEFUL ONLY TO THE CREATIVITY RESEARCHER !BSTRACT RATINGS
OF CREATIVE IDEAS IE WITHOUT SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO A PRODUCT WOULD NOT SUFFICE
!LSO IF CREATIVITY INVOLVES THE GENERATION OF PRODUCTS THAT ARE GIVEN THE LABEL CRE
ATIVE BY SOCIETY IN GENERAL EG #SIKSZENTMIHALYI THEN RESEARCHERS COULD
NOT INVESTIGATE POPULATIONS YET TO DEVELOP IE CHILDREN OR STUDENTS
-ANY OF THE CRITERION ISSUES MAY BE RESOLVED THROUGH CAREFUL CONSTRUCT AND
CRITERION VALIDITY STUDIES )F A PUTATIVE TEST OF CREATIVITY HAS PROVEN TO CONSISTENTLY
PREDICT WHO WILL PRODUCE NOVEL AND USEFUL PRODUCTS THEN THAT MEASURE MAY BE
CALLED A TEST OF CREATIVITY EVEN WHEN USED LATER IN THE ABSENCE OF A PRODUCT
4HEREFORE IN THIS ARTICLE WE ASSERT THAT RESEARCHERS SHOULD REFER TO A PRODUCT
DURING THE VALIDATION PROCESS OF A CREATIVITY INSTRUMENT /NCE THAT RELATION IS
ESTABLISHED THE TEST MAY BE USED IN ISOLATION HAVING DEMONSTRATED PREDICTIVE OR
CRITERION VALIDITY "ECAUSE OF THE MULTICOMPONENTIAL NATURE OF CREATIVITY IT SEEMS
PRUDENT TO USE A NUMBER OF MEASURES TO ADEQUATELY ASSESS THE CONSTRUCT EG
7OLFRADT 0RETZ
"ECAUSE OF THE GENERALLY ACCEPTED NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY
ONE MAY EXPECT RESEARCHERS TO USE MEASURES THAT CONSIDER BOTH NOVELTY AND UTIL
ITY (OWEVER THIS HAS SELDOM BEEN THE CASE 4HE DIVERSITY OF INSTRUMENTS AND
"ATEY &URNHAM
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY USED THROUGHOUT THE LITERATURE HAS YIELDED

PROBLEMS #AN RESEARCHERS COMPARE THE RESULTS OF A STUDY IN WHICH THE CRITERION
FOR CREATIVITY WAS OUTSTANDING LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT WITH THE RESULTS OF A STUDY IN
WHICH THE CRITERION WAS A WORD FLUENCY TEST )N TRUTH AND PRACTICE THE ANSWER HAS
OFTEN BEEN YES $ESPITE THIS INAPPROPRIATE MIXING AND MATCHING THERE HAS BEEN
A SURPRISING DEGREE OF CONVERGENCE IN THE RESULTS
#REATIVITY AND )NTELLIGENCE
!LTHOUGH SOME RESEARCHERS ARGUE THAT THERE REMAINS NO GOOD OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE EXCELLENT TESTS OF THIS ABSTRACT CONCEPT OR LATENT VARIABLE
EXIST ,UBINSKI ! FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH HAS BEEN
4O WHAT EXTENT MAY CREATIVITY BE DELINEATED FROM INTELLIGENCE 2ESEARCHERS HAVE
LONG QUESTIONED WHETHER IT IS POSSIBLE TO BE CREATIVE IN THE ABSENCE OF HIGH INTEL
LIGENCE AND VICE VERSA ! CONSIDERABLE OBSTACLE IN RESOLVING THIS ISSUE CONCERNS
HOW INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS REFER TO EACH OTHERS CONCEPTS &EIST
"ARRON 3NYDERMAN 2OTHMAN &OR EXAMPLE 3PEARMAN
EQUATED INTELLIGENCE WITH REFERENCE TO HIS NEOGENETIC LAWSCREATING SOMETHING
NEW 4HERE ARE CLEAR PARALLELS WITH THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY
7E HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT CREATIVITY LACKS A SOLID DEFINITIONAL FOUNDATION
5NFORTUNATELY ALTHOUGH INTELLIGENCE RESEARCH HAS BEGUN TO CONVERGE ON A SERIES
OF PRINCIPLES EG .EISSER ET AL DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE STILL RANGE
FROM A NEURAL EFFICIENCY PERSPECTIVE *ENSEN TO THE ABILITY TO ADAPT THE SELF
TO THE ENVIRONMENT 3TERNBERG $EFINITIONAL PROBLEMS HAVE NOT PREVENTED
INTELLIGENCE RESEARCHERS FROM DEVELOPING SOME OF THE BEST PSYCHOMETRIC MEA
SURES IN ALL OF PSYCHOLOGY $EARY
%ARLY 2ESEARCH
4HE EARLIEST RESEARCHERS STUDYING THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTEL
LIGENCE USED RUDIMENTARY DEFINITIONS OF THE CREATIVITY CONSTRUCT WHICH THEN WERE
RELATED TO RATINGS OF INTELLIGENCE OR )1 TESTS OF THE DAY $EARBORN STUDIED
THE IMAGINATIVE RESPONSES OF STUDENTS AND FACULTY AT (ARVARD TO INKBLOTS NOTING
THAT INTELLECTUALS DID NOT PROVIDE THE MOST IMAGINATIVE RESPONSES #OLVIN
AND #OLVIN AND -EYER STUDIED INVENTIVENESS IN %NGLISH CHILDREN AND CON
CLUDED THAT hLOGICAL POWERv BORE hNO PRONOUNCED RELATION TO ANY TYPE OF IMAGI
NATIONv P #HASSEL STUDIED A NUMBER OF TESTS SOME BEING SIMILAR TO
MODERN TESTS OF )1 REQUIRING UNUSUAL AND ORIGINAL RESPONSES TO NOVEL SITUATIONS
3HE FOUND THAT PERFORMANCE ON THE )1 TASKS BORE LITTLE RELATION TO PERFORMANCE ON
THE TASKS SIMILAR TO MODERN $4 TESTS
!N EARLY CHALLENGE TO THE SUPPOSITION THAT )1 TESTS ARE A COMPREHENSIVE
MEASURE OF HUMAN COGNITIVE FUNCTION CAME FROM 3IMPSON (E ARGUED THAT
hCREATIVE TESTSv SHOULD BE USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH TESTS OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE

TO PROVIDE hA MORE ACCURATE STATEMENT OF THE WORTH OF THE INDIVIDUALv P
INDICATING THAT HE SAW THE TWO AREAS AS ORTHOGONAL !NDREWS ADMINISTERED
THREE TESTS OF IMAGINATION AND )1 TESTS TO PRESCHOOL CHILDREN AND FOUND CORRELA
TIONS BETWEEN SCORES OF IMAGINATION AND )1 OF R AND -C#LOY AND
-EIER GAVE hRE CREATIVE IMAGINATIONv P TESTS TO SCHOOLCHILDREN
0ARTICIPANTS RESPONDED TO SYMBOLISM IN ABSTRACT PAINTINGS 4HE QUALITY OF THEIR
RESPONSES CORRELATED WITH )1 AT R
4HE EARLY INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
SUGGESTED THAT THE TWO CONCEPTS ARE NOT THE SAME 4HE MOST INTELLIGENT INDIVIDUALS
WERE NOT FOUND TO BE THE MOST CREATIVE AND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND )1
WERE FAIRLY LOW NEVER EXCEEDING R BUT THEY WERE MORE OFTEN ABOUT R
4HAT FINDING INDICATES THAT LESS THAN OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY SCORES CAN
BE EXPLAINED BY )1 (OWEVER INCONSISTENT DEFINITIONS OF BOTH CREATIVITY AND INTEL
LIGENCE AND THE FAIRLY PRIMITIVE PSYCHOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS INVOLVED IN THE STUDIES
SUGGEST THAT MAKING UNEQUIVOCAL CONCLUSIONS IS UNWISE #REATIVITY IMAGINATION
AND INVENTIVENESS WERE FOUND TO BEAR LITTLE RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE /F COURSE
MANY OF THESE EARLY STUDIES WERE PLAGUED BY THE TRADITIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE DAY
THE DESIGN OF THE )1 TESTS SMALL SAMPLE SIZES AND STATISTICAL ANALYSES !LTHOUGH WE
MAY NOT INFER MUCH THEORETICALLY THESE EARLY STUDIES ARE IMPORTANT BECAUSE THEY
REFLECTED THE THINKING AT THE TIME AND HAVE INFLUENCED SUBSEQUENT RESEARCH
)N THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE TWO 7ORLD 7ARS 4ERMAN n USED THE
THEN RECENTLY VALIDATED 3TANFORD "INET )1 TEST TO IDENTIFY CHILDREN WHOSE )1
SCORES WERE GREATER THAN 4ERMAN ADMINISTERED A BATTERY OF INTELLIGENCE
BIOMETRICAL PERSONALITY AND ACHIEVEMENT TESTS TO A SAMPLE OF #ALIFORNIAN
SCHOOLCHILDREN FROM AN INITIAL SAMPLE OF 4HE MOST IMPORTANT FINDING
FROM THE STUDY OF THE GIFTED CHILDREN WAS THAT SUPERIOR INTELLECT DID NOT NECESSAR
ILY RESULT IN EMINENT ACHIEVEMENT /F THE CHILDREN NOT ONE WENT ON TO MAKE
AN EMINENT CREATIVE CONTRIBUTION BY THE RESEARCHERS DEFINITION /F THE CHILDREN
EXCLUDED FROM THE STUDY TWO WERE AWARDED .OBEL PRIZES
)N A SUMMARY OF THE STUDIES 4ERMAN AND /DEN ARGUED h4HE DATA
REVIEWED INDICATE THAT ABOVE THE )1 LEVEL OF ADULT SUCCESS IS LARGELY DE
TERMINED BY SUCH FACTORS AS SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT EMOTIONAL STABILITY AND DRIVE TO
ACCOMPLISHv PP n )N A LATER STUDY WHEN THE 4ERMITES IE PARTICIPANTS
IN 4ERMANS STUDIES OF GENIUS HAD REACHED THEIR S &ELDMAN FOUND THAT
THOSE OF THE VERY HIGHEST )1 SCORES WERE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY MORE SUCCESSFUL
THAN THOSE OTHER 4ERMAN n PARTICIPANTS WHO HAD )1S AROUND 4HE
WORK OF EARLY PIONEERS MANY OF WHOM LIKE 4ERMAN HAD ASSUMED THAT )1 WOULD
CORRELATE STRONGLY WITH CREATIVITY INDICATED THE OPPOSITE TO BE TRUE )1 COULD EX
PLAIN A LITTLE OF THE VARIANCE OF THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX BUT OTHER FACTORS APPEARED
TO BE IMPORTANT &URTHER IN TERMS OF ACHIEVEMENT EXTREMELY HIGH INTELLIGENCE
APPEARED TO CONFER NO ADVANTAGE OVER HIGH INTELLIGENCE
5P TO THE )1 TESTS USED IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH WERE PRIMARILY BASED ON
EARLY VERSIONS OF THE 3TANFORD "INET 4ESTS 4ERMAN 4HERE ARE NUMEROUS
"ATEY &URNHAM
CRITICISMS OF THESE TESTS -ACKINTOSH BUT THEIR PRIMARY LIMITING FACTORS
WITH REGARD TO CREATIVITY INVESTIGATIONS WERE THAT A THEY YIELDED A SINGLE SCORE
WHICH WAS THOUGHT TO CORRESPOND TO G OR GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND B THEY WERE
NOT CULTURE FREE #ATTELL ,ATER STUDIES INDICATED THAT EMINENT SCIENTISTS
DIFFERED IN THEIR PARTICULAR CONSTELLATION OF ABILITY TRAITS WITH VARIATIONS IN VER
BAL MATHEMATICAL AND SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE DIFFERENTIATING PHYSICISTS BIOLOGISTS
AND SOCIAL SCIENTISTS 2OE A B 4HUS VERBAL ABILITY MAY BE
MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO ARTISTIC CREATIVITY AND TESTS OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING
MAY BE MORE RELATED TO SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY -ORE RECENT ABILITY BATTERIES OFTEN
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN VERBAL AND PERFORMANCE MEASURES WHICH MAY RELATE QUITE
DIFFERENTLY TO CREATIVITY TEST SCORES
'UILFORDS $4
4HE STARTING POINT FOR MODERN INVESTIGATIONS OF CREATIVITY CONCERNED INVESTI
GATIONS OF FLUENCY AS A COMPONENT OF INTELLECTUAL ABILITY ( , (ARGREAVES
4HURSTONE ( , (ARGREAVES ADMINISTERED A BATTERY OF FLUENCY F TESTS
FINDING AVERAGE CORRELATIONS WITH )1 OF R 4HIS FINDING INDICATES THAT FLU
ENCY IS RELATED BUT NOT IDENTICAL TO G 'UILFORD EXPANDED THIS AVENUE
OF RESEARCH TO PRODUCE $4 TESTS $4 TESTS hREQUIRE INDIVIDUALS TO PRODUCE SEVERAL
RESPONSES TO A SPECIFIC PROMPT IN SHARP CONTRAST TO MOST STANDARDISED TESTS OF
ACHIEVEMENT OR ABILITY THAT REQUIRE ONE CORRECT ANSWERv 0LUCKER 2ENZULLI
P
&LUENCY IS PREDOMINANTLY A QUANTITATIVE MEASURE RATHER THAN A QUALITATIVE
ONE -UCH OF 'UILFORDS EG WORK RELIED ON SIMPLE QUANTITATIVE
COUNTS OF IDEAS RATHER THAN CONSIDERING THE QUALITY EG UNUSUALNESS QUIRKINESS
OF RESPONSE AS DETERMINED BY A PANEL OF RATERS )F BOTH MEASURES ARE USED A MORE
COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT RESULTS 3OME OF THE CONTRADICTORY AND CONFUSING RE
SULTS IN THIS AREA MAY BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE WAY IN WHICH FLUENCY IS MEASURED
'UILFORD WAS ONE OF THE FIRST RESEARCHERS TO DEVELOP A TAXONOMY OF HUMAN
ABILITIES THAT MADE CREATIVE THINKING RELATABLE TO INTELLIGENCE 'UILFORDS
STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT 3/) MODEL POSTULATED THREE FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS
OF INTELLIGENCE A OPERATIONS COGNITION MEMORY DIVERGENT PRODUCTION CON
VERGENT PRODUCTION EVALUATION B CONTENT FIGURAL SYMBOLIC SEMANTIC BE
HAVIORAL AND C PRODUCTS UNITS CLASSES RELATIONS SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATIONS
IMPLICATIONS 4HESE DIMENSIONS ARE REPRESENTED AS A CUBE 7HEN THE OPERA
TIONS CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS ARE CROSSED THE MODEL YIELDS FACTORS )N
EVERYDAY TERMS THIS MADE THE 3/) MODEL UNSUITABLE FOR APPLIED WORK EG
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT BUT IT ENABLED SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF COGNITION TO
BE RELATED TO CREATIVITY 'UILFORD AND ASSOCIATES 7ILSON 'UILFORD #HRISTENSEN
,EWIS ORIGINALLY POSTULATED INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES RELATED TO CREATIVE
THINKING 4HESE INCLUDED A FLUENCY OF THINKING CONSISTING OF WORD IDEATIONAL
EXPRESSIONAL AND ASSOCIATIONAL FLUENCY B FLEXIBILITY OF THINKING CONSISTING

OF SPONTANEOUS AND ADAPTIVE FLEXIBILITY C ORIGINALITY D SENSITIVITY TO PROB

LEMS AND E FIGURAL AND SEMANTIC ELABORATION IE EMBELLISHMENT PICTORIALLY
OR VERBALLY #OLLECTIVELY THESE FACTORS WERE CALLED DIVERGENT THINKING
3TARTING WITH 7ILSON 'UILFORD #HRISTENSEN AND ,EWIS WHO TESTED
!IR &ORCE CADETS AND STUDENT OFFICERS A SERIES OF STUDIES CULMINATING IN 'UILFORD
AND (OEPFNER ISOLATED MOST OF THE $4 FACTORS IN NORMAL POPULATIONS )T
APPEARED THAT 'UILFORD AND HIS COINVESTIGATORS HAD BEEN ABLE TO DISTINGUISH AND
MEASURE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF $4
4HE NEXT STAGE WAS TO INVESTIGATE THE RELATION OF THESE $4 FACTORS TO CREATIV
ITY 'UILFORDIAN $4 TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED TO THREE MAIN POPULATIONS STUDENTS
OCCUPATIONAL SAMPLES AND EMINENT PEOPLE ,OWENFELD AND "EITTEL EXAM
INED HIGHLY CREATIVE ART STUDENTS AND FOUND EVIDENCE FOR THE ROLE OF FIVE DISTINCT
ATTRIBUTES FLUENCY FLEXIBILITY REDEFINITION SENSITIVITY TO PROBLEMS AND ORIGINAL
ITY SEEMINGLY SUPPORTING 'UILFORDS MODEL $REVDAHL STUDIED ART
AND SCIENCE STUDENTS AND FOUND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY CORRELATED WITH 'UILFORDS
$4 TESTS TO THE MAGNITUDE OF R 4ESTS OF $4 SIMILAR TO THOSE USED BY 'UIL
FORD WERE ADMINISTERED TO HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND THEN RELATED TO TEACHER RATINGS
OF CREATIVITY -ERRIFIELD 'ARDNER #OX 0IERS $ANIELS 1UAKENBUSH
4ORRANCE 4HE CORRELATIONS WERE POSITIVE BUT LOW GENERALLY IN THE
ORDER OF R )N A TEST OF A LARGE SAMPLE OF FIFTH GRADE SCHOOLCHILDREN ,AURIT
ZEN FOUND THAT A SCORE FOR ORIGINALITY PREDICTED TEACHER RATINGS OF ORIGINAL
ITY WITH A CORRELATION OF R 4HE RESULTS OF THESE STUDIES REVIEWED BY "ARRON
(ARRINGTON SEEMED TO INDICATE THAT $4 AND CREATIVITY IN STUDENT SAMPLES
ARE RELATED #ORRELATIONS WERE USUALLY R
2ESEARCHERS HAVE ALSO STUDIED ADULT NONSTUDENT GROUPS )N A STUDY OF
!IR &ORCE CAPTAINS "ARRON FOUND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THREE $4 TESTS
UNUSUAL USES PLOT TITLES AND CONSEQUENCES AND RATED ORIGINALITY 4HE TESTS COR
RELATED BY R AND RESPECTIVELY WITH RATED ORIGINALITY "ARRON
REPORTED A POSITIVE CORRELATION OF R BETWEEN RATED ORIGINALITY AND AN AG
GREGATE $4 SCORE FROM EIGHT DIFFERENT $4 TESTS IN THE SAME SAMPLE OF !IR &ORCE
OFFICERS 7ALLACE USED THE $4 TESTS WITH SALESWOMEN 4HE KEY FINDING WAS
THAT THE SALESWOMEN ASSIGNED TO THE GROUP OF HIGH CUSTOMER SERVICE OBTAINED SIG
NIFICANTLY HIGHER MEAN SCORES ON THE $4 TESTS THAN DID THE SALESWOMEN ASSIGNED
TO THE GROUP OF LOW CUSTOMER SERVICE 4HEREFORE 7ALLACE DEMONSTRATED THAT $4
RELATED TO PROBLEM SOLVING FOR CUSTOMERS %LLIOT ALSO FOUND THAT CREATIVE
PUBLIC RELATIONS PERSONNEL COULD BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM THEIR LESS CREATIVE PEERS
ON THE BASIS OF FIVE OF EIGHT 'UILFORD TYPE TESTS 4HE RESULTS OF THE STUDIES OF OCCU
PATIONAL GROUPS AUGMENT THE RESULTS OF THE STUDIES OF STUDENT GROUPS #REATIVITY
EXPLAINING n OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY SCORES COULD DEFINITELY BE SAID TO
CONTRIBUTE TO REAL WORLD CREATIVE PERFORMANCE NO MATTER HOW IT WAS DEFINED
(OWEVER THE RESULTS OF THE EMINENCE STUDIES CAUSED CONFUSION RATHER THAN
CONSOLIDATION 7HEN THE $4 TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED TO EMINENT POPULATIONS IE
THOSE WHO HAD SUCCEEDED ALREADY IN THEIR OCCUPATIONS THE VALIDITY OF THE TESTS
"ATEY &URNHAM
SEEMED TENUOUS -AC+INNON FOUND THAT ARCHITECTS WHO WERE CREATIVE
PER THEIR PEERS COULD NOT BE IDENTIFIED ON THE BASIS OF THEIR $4 SCORES 'OUGH
NOTED SIMILAR FINDINGS FOR RESEARCH SCIENTISTS 2ATED CREATIVITY CORRELATED
WITH 'UILFORDS UNUSUAL USES CONSEQUENCES AND TRANSFORMATIONS AT R
n n AND RESPECTIVELY 7E NOTE THAT THESE SAMPLES CONTAINED ONLY AP
PROXIMATELY PARTICIPANTS
4HE RESULTS OF THE $4 INVESTIGATIONS SUGGEST THAT $4 SKILLS CONTRIBUTE TO CRE
ATIVITY IN STUDENTS AND IN OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS BUT DO NOT DIFFERENTIATE HIGHLY CRE
ATIVE INDIVIDUALS 4HIS POSSIBILITY INDICATES THAT $4 SKILLS ARE PART OF CREATIVITY
AS A NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED TRAIT BUT DO NOT HELP TO EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
MODERATELY AND HIGHLY CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS 4HUS CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS POSSESS
$4 SKILLS BUT WE MUST LOOK FOR OTHER FACTORS TO EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
THE EVERYDAY CREATIVE INDIVIDUAL AND THE EMINENT ACHIEVER
)T SEEMS THAT $4 IS A NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT TRAIT FOR ACHIEVEMENT CREATIV
ITY )N NORMAL INDIVIDUALS FLUENCY ADDS TO PERCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY BY OTHER PEO
PLE (OWEVER EMINENT SAMPLES ARE A HIGHLY SELECT POPULATION WHO MUST POSSESS
CERTAIN ABILITIES OVER AND ABOVE FLUENT $4 TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS 4HIS DISCREPANCY
MAY BE PARTLY RESOLVED BY LOOKING TO QUALITY RATHER THAN QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO
TRADITIONAL $4 TESTS
2ESEARCHERS HAVE MADE VARIOUS CRITICISMS OF 'UILFORDS WORK 'UILFORD
ASSUMED THAT THE DIFFERENT FACTORS THAT COMPOSE THE 3/) MODEL WERE ORTHOGONAL
4HEREFORE HE USED ORTHOGONAL AS OPPOSED TO OBLIQUE ROTATION PROCEDURES TO ISOLATE
THE DIFFERENT FACTORS (OWEVER CRITICS HAVE FUNDAMENTALLY DISAGREED WITH THESE FAC
TORIAL STATISTICAL PROCEDURES #ATTELL (ORN +NAPP 3TERNBERG 'RI
GORENKO )F THESE CRITICS ARE CREDIBLE 'UILFORDS 3/) MODEL IS PROBLEMATIC
)N APPLIED TERMS EVEN IF THE ROTATIONAL ANALYSES BY 'UILFORD IN HIS NUMEROUS
STUDIES WERE UNACCEPTABLE THE FACTORS THAT 'UILFORD ISOLATED APPEAR TO EXPLAIN
SOME OF THE VARIANCE OF RATED CREATIVITY SCORES IN NONEMINENT SAMPLES 'UILFORD
TREATED CREATIVITY AS A SUBSET OF OVERALL INTELLIGENCE WITH $4 AS ONE OF THE INTEL
LECTUAL FACTORS THAT CONSTITUTED THE STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT /THER RESEARCHERS BEGAN
TO QUESTION THAT IDEA AND SUGGESTED THAT THERE SHOULD BE A CLEAR DISTINCTION BE
TWEEN THE TRADITIONAL CONCEPT AND MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY AS
IDENTIFIED BY 'UILFORD
$4 AS A #RITERION OF #REATIVITY
5NTIL AROUND THE MID S $4 WAS SEEN AS A COGNITIVE ABILITY THAT WAS NEC
ESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT 'UILFORD 4HE NEXT WAVE
OF RESEARCHERS STARTED TO USE VARIOUS OTHER CREATIVITY TESTS (OWEVER THESE CREATIV
ITY TESTS WERE PRACTICALLY IDENTICAL TO THOSE USED BY 'UILFORD TO MEASURE $4
)N AN EARLY SYSTEMATIC AND CELEBRATED STUDY 'ETZELS AND *ACKSON AD
MINISTERED FIVE CREATIVITY MEASURES TO APPROXIMATELY SCHOOLCHILDREN WHICH
THOSE RESEARCHERS THEN CORRELATED WITH TESTS OF )1 PREDOMINANTLY 3TANFORD "INET

4HEIR MAIN AIM WAS TO IDENTIFY TWO TYPES OF STUDENTS AND TO EXAMINE THE DIFFER
ENCES BETWEEN THEM 4HE FIRST GROUP COMPRISED THOSE CHILDREN WHO HAD HIGH )1
SCORES AND LOW CREATIVITY SCORES THE HIGH )1 GROUP 4HE SECOND GROUP COMPRISED
CHILDREN WHO HAD LOW )1 SCORES AND HIGH CREATIVITY SCORES THE HIGH # GROUP
7E NOTE THE FOLLOWING ABOUT THE STUDY BY 'ETZELS AND *ACKSON A 4HE
MEAN )1 OF THE STUDENTS TESTED WAS B 4HE AUTHORS WISHED TO COMPARE HIGH
)1 BUT LOW CREATIVITY WITH HIGH CREATIVITY BUT LOW )1 4HIS MEANT THAT CHILDREN
WHO SCORED HIGH OR LOW ON BOTH TESTS WERE EXCLUDED FROM THE FINAL ANALYSIS C
4HE AUTHORS DID NOT REPORT MANY OF THE INTERCORRELATIONS BETWEEN MEASURES SO IT
IS DIFFICULT TO ASCERTAIN THE PATTERN OF RESULTS D 4HE TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED IN A
CLASSROOM SETTING IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO THAT OF )1 TESTS WHICH MAY HAVE INHIB
ITED STUDENTS CREATIVE EXPRESSION 4HE AVERAGE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CREATIVITY
MEASURES AND )1 WAS IN THE ORDER OF R 7HEN COMPARING THE HIGH )1 GROUP
- )1 WITH THE HIGH # GROUP - )1 'ETZELS AND *ACKSON FOUND
NO DIFFERENCES IN THE SCORES OF SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT OR ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE 4HE
MOST STRIKING DIFFERENCES WERE OBSERVED IN THE ATTITUDES OF THE TWO GROUPS WITH
THE HIGH # GROUP RATED AS MORE UNCONVENTIONAL
&OLLOWING THE STUDY BY 'ETZELS AND *ACKSON 7ALLACH AND +OGAN
CONDUCTED AN INVESTIGATION INTO )1 AND $4 WITH AN AIM TO CORRECT SOME
OF THE ERRORS THAT THEY PERCEIVED AS ENCUMBERING 'ETZELS AND *ACKSONS INVES
TIGATION 7ALLACH AND +OGANS STUDY OF SCHOOLCHILDREN WAS CAREFUL TO INDUCE
A GAME LIKE QUALITY TO THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE $4 CREATIVITY MEASURES 4HEY
USED FIVE CREATIVITY MEASURES NOT DISSIMILAR TO THE 'UILFORD TESTS EACH SCORED
FOR UNIQUENESS AND PRODUCTIVITY TO YIELD SCORES FOR CREATIVITY 4HEY USED
DIFFERENT TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE TO ASSESS )1 4HE TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED TO THE
CHILDREN INDIVIDUALLY 4HE AVERAGE CORRELATION AMONG THE $4 SCORES WAS R
AND THE AVERAGE CORRELATION AMONG THE )1 MEASURES WAS R WHEREAS
THE AVERAGE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE SCORES WAS R
7ALLACH AND +OGAN NOTED THAT THIS FINDING WAS ESPECIALLY SURPRISING BECAUSE THE
CREATIVITY MEASURES RELIED IN PART ON VERBAL INTELLECTUAL SKILLS
#ROPLEY USED THE SAME TESTS AS 7ALLACH AND +OGAN AND REPLI
CATED THEIR FINDINGS IN A GROUP ADMINISTRATION SETTING 4HESE FINDINGS SUGGESTED
THAT CREATIVITY AS OPERATIONALIZED IN $4 TESTS AND INTELLIGENCE ARE ESSENTIALLY
INDEPENDENT CONCEPTS /F COURSE THIS RAISES THE IMPORTANT QUESTION OF WHAT COR
RELATION SIZE INDICATES THAT TWO CONSTRUCTS ARE SYSTEMATICALLY RELATED
4HE STUDIES ALSO INDICATED THAT THE PRIOR EXPERIMENTS INTO THE RELATION BETWEEN
CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE MAY HAVE BEEN FLAWED "EFORE 7ALLACH AND +OGANS
STUDY RESEARCHERS CONDUCTED CREATIVITY ASSESSMENTS IN EXAMINATION LIKE
CONDITIONS SIMILAR TO THE CONDITIONS IN WHICH )1 TESTS ARE ADMINISTERED 4HEY CON
CLUDED THAT THE INABILITY TO PRODUCE AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVITY LED TO
POOR CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF CREATIVITY TESTS 4HIS REFLECTS THE SOCIAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCERN WITH SITUATIONAL VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE
THE CREATIVITY PROCESS 4HUS IT MAY BE ARGUED THAT THE TESTING SITUATION INFLUENCES
"ATEY &URNHAM
MOOD WHICH INFLUENCES THE CREATIVITY PROCESS +AUFMANN (OWEVER THE
CRITICISMS OF 'ETZELS AND *ACKSONS STUDY BECAUSE OF THEIR USE OF $4 TESTS
AS A CRITERION ARE JUST AS RELEVANT TO THE 7ALLACH AND +OGAN INVESTIGATIONS
! REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF GAME LIKE CONDITIONS HAS
INDICATED THAT THERE ARE NO DIFFERENCES IN THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND
INTELLIGENCE RELATING TO THE CONDITIONS OF MEASUREMENT (ATTIE (ATTIE
ADMINISTERED FIVE $4 TESTS AND A MEASURE OF )1 TO YEAR OLD STUDENTS
UNDER BOTH UNTIMED GAME LIKE CONDITIONS AND TIMED TEST LIKE CONDITIONS 4HE
AVERAGE CORRELATION AMONG THE CREATIVITY VARIABLES WAS R AND THE AVERAGE
CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE MEASURES WAS R 4HE RE
SULTS OF THESE TWO STUDIES INDICATE THAT THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE ENVIRONMENT MAY NOT MATTER AS MUCH AS 7ALLACH AND +OGAN ASSERTED
AND THAT $4 PERFORMANCE MAY BE MORE TRAIT LIKE THAN STATE LIKE (OWEVER THIS
FINDING REQUIRES REPLICATION WITH A WIDER VARIETY OF TESTING SITUATIONS AND PAR
TICIPANTS !LSO IT IS NECESSARY TO ASCERTAIN THROUGH STANDARD MANIPULATION CHECK
METHODS THE SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF THESE DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS 4HIS LINE OF
RESEARCH LARGELY HAS NOT BEEN FOLLOWED ADEQUATELY PARTLY BECAUSE IT RELATES TO THE
STATEnTRAIT DISTINCTION SUGGESTING THAT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS MAY INDUCE MOOD
STATES THAT INFLUENCE TRAIT MEASURES
4ORRANCE A WELL KNOWN RESEARCHER IN THE FIELD CONDUCTED AN EARLY
META ANALYSIS OF CORRELATIONS BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE MEASURES AND THE 4OR
RANCE 4ESTS OF #REATIVE 4HINKING 44#4 4ORRANCE 4ORRANCE
"ALL 4ORRANCE FOUND A MEDIAN CORRELATION BETWEEN THE VERBAL
$4 TESTS AND )1 OF R AND A MEDIAN CORRELATION OF R FOR THE FIGURAL
$4 TESTS 'UILFORD REPORTED AVERAGE CORRELATIONS WITH )1 MEASURES OF R
FOR VERBAL $4 TESTS R FOR SYMBOLIC $4 TESTS AND R FOR SEMANTIC
$4 TESTS 3UBSEQUENT STUDIES IN THE AREA CONTINUED TO YIELD SIMILAR RESULTS 7ADE
STUDIED TH GRADE STUDENTS FROM SELECTIVE SCHOOLS 3HE REPORTED A CORRE
LATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY MEASURED USING 'UILFORD $4 TESTS OF R !
COMBINATION OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY WAS ABLE TO EXPLAIN TWICE THE VARIANCE
IN SCORES OF ACHIEVEMENT THAN INTELLIGENCE ALONE 4HESE RESULTS INDICATE THAT $4
SKILLS AND INTELLIGENCE INDEPENDENTLY WORK TO AFFECT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT BUT
THIS DOES NOT MAKE THEM CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY
)N A LARGE STUDY 2ICHARDS ADMINISTERED ELEMENTS OF BOTH 'UILFORDS
AND 7ALLACH AND +OGANS $4 TESTS TO ALMOST NAVAL OFFICERS $ATA
WERE AVAILABLE FOR THREE TYPES OF )1 TEST 4HE MEAN CORRELATION BETWEEN THE BATTERY
OF CREATIVITY TESTS AND )1 TESTS WAS R 4HE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT
MEASURES OF CREATIVITY WAS R 4HESE RESULTS ARE NOT SURPRISING 'UILFORD EG
ORIGINALLY DESIGNED THE TESTS OF $4 AS MEASURES OF A SUBSET OF INTELLIGENCE
4HEREFORE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN $4 AND )1 IN THE ORDER OF R TO R ARE TO
BE EXPECTED IRRESPECTIVE OF THE NATURE OF THE )1 OR $4 TEST USED
!S WE SUGGESTED EARLIER IN THIS ARTICLE ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL PROBLEMS WITH RE
SEARCH ON THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE HAS BEEN THE CONFUSION

ABOUT THE CHOICE OF A CRITERION AND THUS A MEASURE OF CREATIVITY 4HE EXPERIMENTS
CONDUCTED USING $4 TESTS AS A MEASURE OF CREATIVITY EG #ROPLEY 'ETZELS
*ACKSON 7ALLACH +OGAN HAVE BEEN CRITICIZED !MABILE
(UDSON ,UBART #RITICS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT $4 TESTS MEASURE AS
PECTS OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE BUT THAT THEY CANNOT ALSO BE STAND ALONE MEASURES OF
CREATIVITY 4HIS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE IF CREATIVITY INVOLVES THE PRODUCTION OF SOCIALLY
VALUABLE PRODUCTS 0ROBABLY BECAUSE $4 TESTS ARE RELATIVELY EASY TO ADMINISTER
AND SCORE GREAT ATTENTION HAS BEEN PLACED ON THEM (OWEVER QUESTIONS ABOUT
THE RELIABILITY OF THESE MEASURES REMAIN ESPECIALLY BECAUSE VERBAL AND FIGURAL
VERSIONS OF THE TEST ARE NOT RELATED SIGNIFICANTLY #ARROLL
'ILHOOLY 7YNN AND /SMAN HAVE RAISED QUESTIONS ABOUT THE VALIDITY
OF $4 TESTS AS CRITERIA FOR CREATIVITY 4HEY SUGGESTED THAT PARTICIPANTS INVOLVED IN
A $4 TEST MAY RELY ON MEMORY MORE THAN THEY RELY ON THE GENERATION OF NOVEL
CONCEPTS 4HE STUDIES INDICATED THAT $4 TESTS AND ESPECIALLY $4 TESTS THAT ARE AD
MINISTERED OVER SHORT PERIODS OF TIME ARE LARGELY MEASURES OF LONG TERM MEMORY
,4- RETRIEVAL 7HEREAS MOST RESEARCHERS WOULD AGREE THAT ,4- PLAYS A ROLE IN
THE PRODUCTION OF CREATIVE IDEAS THOSE RESEARCHERS WOULD BE UNLIKELY TO CONSIDER
,4- ALONE SUFFICIENT (OWEVER STUDIES THAT HAVE USED 'UILFORD LIKE TESTS OF $4
MAY HAVE MEASURED EXACTLY THOSE TRAITS 3IMILARLY IT COULD BE ARGUED THAT ,4MAY BE A COMMON OVERLAPPING FACTOR BETWEEN SCORES ON CREATIVITY TESTS AND THOSE
ON TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE BOTH RELYING PARTLY ON ,4- RETRIEVAL
4HE FAILURE TO CLEARLY DIFFERENTIATE AMONG INTELLIGENCE CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS
AND CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT HAS MADE THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VAST BULK OF THE PSY
CHOMETRIC INVESTIGATIONS OF CREATIVITY PROBLEMATIC 4HIS PROBLEM REMAINS TODAY IN
THAT DISAGREEMENT STILL SURROUNDS THE SELECTION OF VALID AND RELIABLE MEASURES OF
TRAIT CREATIVITY &OLLOWING THE PIONEERING EFFORTS OF RESEARCHERS SUCH AS 'UILFORD
'ETZELS AND *ACKSON 4ORRANCE 4ORRANCE "ALL
AND 7ALLACH AND +OGAN MOST OF THE RESEARCH EFFORTS OF THE S
WERE EXPLORATIVE AND THEN REPLICATIVE -OST STUDIES USED THE 'UILFORD OR 7ALLACH
AND +OGAN $4 TESTS AS THEIR STARTING POINT AND RELATED THE RESULTS OF THESE TESTS TO
MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE 6INCENT $ECKER -UMFORD
2ATINGS OF #REATIVITY
!N ALTERNATIVE TO THE USE OF $4 TESTS AS A CRITERION OF CREATIVITY IS THE USE OF
RATINGS OF CREATIVITY RELIABLE RATINGS BY OBSERVERS OF THE TRAIT CREATIVITY IN OTHERS
3UCH MEASURES MAY BE VULNERABLE TO GREATER BIAS THAN THE SCORES BY INDIVIDUALS
ON A $4 TEST BUT POSSESS FAR GREATER ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY 4HE USE OF RATED CREATIV
ITY ENSURES THAT ASSESSMENT TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE ROLE OF SOCIAL JUDGMENT EG
!MABILE (OWEVER THERE ARE SIGNIFICANT ISSUES REGARDING THE USE OF RATINGS
OF CREATIVITY A 2ATINGS MAY BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO GLOBAL CREATIVITY OR A NUMBER OF
CREATIVITY RELEVANT FACTORS !MABILE B 2ATINGS MAY BE PROVIDED
WITH REFERENCE TO A GUIDING DEFINITION OR LEFT ENTIRELY TO THE SUBJECTIVE JUDGMENT
"ATEY &URNHAM
OF THE ASSESSOR C 2ATINGS MAY BE MADE WITH REFERENCE TO PEOPLE PRODUCTS OR

BOTH D 4HE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE JUDGES IS PROBLEMATIC 3HOULD THEY BE EX
PERTS 3HOULD THEY BE FAMILIAR WITH THE PERSON OR PRODUCT E 4HERE IS AN ISSUE
ABOUT THE RELIABILITY OF RATINGS OVER TIME ACROSS RATERS AND ACROSS PRODUCTS
2ESEARCHERS AT THE )NSTITUTE OF 0ERSONALITY !SSESSMENT AND 2ESEARCH )0!2
AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF #ALIFORNIA "ERKELEY STUDIED EMINENT PEOPLE AND USED SO
CIALLY CONSTRUCTED RATINGS OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL AND ACHIEVEMENT !MONG ARTISTS
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN RATED QUALITY OF WORK AND )1 WAS OR SLIGHTLY NEGATIVE
"ARRON &OR -AC+INNONS STUDIES OF ARCHITECTS THE CORRELATION
BETWEEN THE 4ERMAN #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST 4ERMAN AND RATED CREATIVITY
WAS R n !MONG MATHEMATICIANS AND SCIENTISTS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN
RATED CREATIVITY AND )1 WAS R 'OUGH )N A LATER STUDY 'OUGH
REPORTED A CORRELATION OF R n BETWEEN THE #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST AND CREATIVE
ACHIEVEMENT FOR RESEARCH SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
3IMONTONS REANALYSIS OF #OXS HISTORIOMETRIC STUDY OF EMI
NENCE INDICATED THAT RATED )1 AND RANKED EMINENCE DID NOT CORRELATE 7ITH THE
FINDINGS OF THE )0!2 GROUP THAT FINDING INDICATES THAT WHEN THE CRITERION OF
CREATIVITY IS SOCIALLY OR ECOLOGICALLY VALID AS OPPOSED TO A $4 TEST THERE IS
LITTLE OR NO RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY "ARRON AND -AC+INNON
SUMMARIZED THE )0!2 RESEARCH !CROSS THE TOTAL RANGE OF INTELLIGENCE AND
CREATIVITY BOTH FOUND A POSITIVE CORRELATION OF R (OWEVER ABOVE AN )1 OF
INTELLIGENCE SEEMS TO EXPLAIN LITTLE OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT
4HIS HAS BECOME KNOWN AS THE THRESHOLD THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY
'UILFORD 4ORRANCE 9AMAMOTO
4HRESHOLD 4HEORY OF )NTELLIGENCE AND #REATIVITY
4HE THRESHOLD THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY POSITS THAT AT LOW )1 LEVELS
THERE IS LITTLE VARIATION IN THE LEVELS OF CREATIVITY WITH LOW )1 USUALLY CORRESPONDING
TO LOW LEVELS OF CREATIVITY !T HIGH LEVELS OF )1 THERE IS CONSIDERABLE VARIANCE IN
THE RANGE OF CREATIVITY SCORES 4ORRANCE 9AMAMOTO IN A REPLICATION
OF 4ORRANCE DIVIDED A SAMPLE OF STUDENTS INTO A HIGH CREATIVITY GROUP AND A LOW
CREATIVITY GROUP 4HE RESULTS DEMONSTRATED THAT IRRESPECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER
HIGHLY CREATIVE STUDENTS PERFORMED AT A HIGHER LEVEL THAN DID LESS CREATIVE STUDENTS
WHEN THE EFFECTS OF INTELLIGENCE WERE CONTROLLED )N A SUMMARY OF SOME OF HIS
EARLIER WORK 'UILFORD SUGGESTED A NONLINEAR RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY
AND INTELLIGENCE WITH A A HIGH CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 LESS THAN AND CREATIV
ITY AND B A LOW CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 GREATER THAN AND CREATIVITY 'UILFORD
EXPLAINED THIS DISCREPANCY ON THE BASIS OF THE LEVELS OF CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT
THINKING THAT MAY BE USED BY PROBLEM SOLVERS 0ROBLEM SOLVERS WITH )1S LESS THAN
MAY MAKE GREAT USE OF THEIR $4 SKILLS TO REACH AN ACCEPTABLE ANSWER WHEREAS
PROBLEM SOLVERS WITH )1S GREATER THAN MAY RELY ON THEIR STRONG CONVERGENT
THINKING SKILLS TO REACH AN ACCEPTABLE ANSWER 'UILFORD

(OWEVER 'ILHOOLY ET AL INDICATED THAT ,4- ALSO MAY PLAY A ROLE IN
THIS RELATION #OMPARISONS BETWEEN -AC+INNONS SAMPLE OF ARCHITECTS
WHO HAD ABOVE AVERAGE INTELLIGENCE AND "ARRONS SAMPLE OF MILITARY OF
FICERS WHO HAD AVERAGE INTELLIGENCE YIELD INTERESTING FINDINGS &OR THE ARCHITECTS
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY WAS n WHEREAS FOR THE MILITARY OF
FICERS THE CORRELATION WAS &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE INTELLIGENCE CAN BE SEEN AS
NECESSARY FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT BUT NOT SUFFICIENT )N ADDITION ATTENTION MUST
BE PAID TO THE DOMAIN OF THE ENDEAVOR WHERE TRAIT CREATIVITY MAY BE MORE IMPOR
TANT FOR SOME PURSUITS EG SCIENCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS THAN FOR OTHERS
EG ART DESIGN !S 'UILFORD NOTED IT IS POSSIBLE hFOR AN INDIVIDUAL TO
BECOME DISTINGUISHED IN SOME AREAS OF CREATIVE ENDEAVOUR SUCH AS INVENTING AND
COMPOSING PERHAPS PAINTING WITHOUT AN EXCEPTIONALLY HIGH )1v P
(OWEVER FOR SOME DOMAINS ESPECIALLY MATHEMATICS THE THRESHOLD THEORY DOES
NOT APPLY -AC+INNON REPORTED A CORRELATION OF R BETWEEN CREATIVE
LIFE PERFORMANCE AND )1 SCORES FOR MATHEMATICIANS
4HE THRESHOLD THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY APPEARS TO BE SUPPORTED
BY EMPIRICAL DATA ALTHOUGH IT REQUIRES EXPLICATION AND REPLICATION )N PARTICULAR
RESEARCHERS NEED TO EXPLORE FULLY THE NATURE OF THE THRESHOLD WITH REFERENCE TO DIF
FERENT CREATIVITY MEASURES AND PARTICIPANT POPULATIONS 4HE PRIMARY IMPLICATIONS
OF THE RESEARCH ARE THAT THE ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUALS SHOULD ACCOUNT FOR BOTH
)1 AND CREATIVITY FACTORS 4O IGNORE THE ROLE OF CREATIVE THINKING WHEN ASSESSING
INDIVIDUALS EITHER IN A DEVELOPMENTAL CONTEXT OR AN ASSESSMENT CONTEXT WOULD
BE TO DISCOUNT SOME HIGHLY ABLE INDIVIDUALS 9ET THE MAJORITY OF UNIVERSITY AND
OCCUPATIONAL APPLICATION PROCEDURES PARTICULARLY IN THE 5NITED 3TATES RELY ON
MEASURES OF )1 ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY EG '-!4 3!4 -#!4
)F ELEVATED )1 WERE TO ACCURATELY PREDICT CREATIVE EMINENCE THEN 4ERMANS
n GIFTED SAMPLE SHOULD HAVE INCLUDED MANY GREAT CREATORS &ELDMAN
!S 4ORRANCE NOTED h.O MATTER WHAT MEASURE OF )1 IS CHOSEN WE
WOULD EXCLUDE ABOUT OF OUR MOST CREATIVE CHILDREN IF )1 ALONE WERE USED IN IDEN
TIFYING GIFTEDNESSv P 4HIS IS A VALID POINT BECAUSE 4ERMAN MISSED TWO .OBEL
0RIZE WINNERS SEE .OTE 5NTIL THIS STAGE RESEARCHERS HAD TREATED THE CONCEPTS OF
INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY PRIMARILY AS UNITARY CONCEPTS TRYING TO RELATE THE TWO !S
THE FIELDS OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY RESEARCH EVOLVED THEORISTS BEGAN TO POSIT A
MORE COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
2OLE OF +NOWLEDGE
)N THE S THEORISTS TRIED TO EXPLAIN THE COMPLEX RELATION BETWEEN INTEL
LECTUAL ABILITY AND CREATIVITY +OESTLER -EDNICK -OST ACCOUNTS OF
HOW CREATIVE IDEAS ARE PRODUCED DREW ON THE EARLY WORK OF *AMES AND
0OINCAR
-EDNICKS ASSOCIATIVE BASIS OF CREATIVE THINKING SUGGESTED THAT
CREATIVITY AROSE FROM THE COMBINATION OF ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS AND THAT MENTAL
"ATEY &URNHAM
ELEMENTS THAT ARE CONCEPTUALLY DISTANT WILL BE THE MOST LIKELY ON COMBINATION
TO YIELD CREATIVE RESULTS !S -EDNICK SUGGESTED h4HE MORE MUTUALLY REMOTE
THE ELEMENTS OF THE NEW COMBINATION THE MORE CREATIVE THE PROCESS OR SOLUTIONv
P -EDNICK ASSERTED THAT CREATIVE PEOPLE COULD BE DISTINGUISHED FROM THEIR
LESS CREATIVE PEERS BY THEIR TENDENCY TO RESPOND IN AN ORIGINAL MANNER TO STIMULI
OR RESPONSE HIERARCHIES -EDNICK POSTULATED THAT LESS CREATIVE PEOPLE HAVE A STEEP
HIERARCHY OR A LESS EXPANSIVE SET OF POSSIBLE RESPONSES TO A STIMULI QUESTION OR
IDEA 4HEREFORE WHEN A SITUATION DEMANDS THE COMBINATION OF IDEAS THE POOL
FROM WHICH IDEAS MAY BE DRAWN AND COMBINED IS LIMITED #ONSEQUENTLY THE
COMBINATIONS OF IDEAS ARE NOT LIKELY TO BE NOVEL AND WILL BE EXHAUSTED QUICKLY
!LTERNATIVELY THE CREATIVE PERSONS RESPONSE HIERARCHY IS FLAT &LAT ASSOCIATIVE
HIERARCHIES ARE THOSE IN WHICH THE PROBABILITY OF THE EVOCATION OF A LARGE NUMBER
OF ASSOCIATES IS HIGH 4HUS WHEN NEW COMBINATIONS ARE APPROPRIATE THE DIVERSITY
OF POTENTIAL IDEAS IS GREAT MAKING THE LIKELIHOOD OF CREATIVE COMBINATION GREATER
-EDNICK POSTULATED THAT LESS CREATIVE PEOPLE CAN PROVIDE STEREOTYPED
ANSWERS QUICKLY BECAUSE OF THE RELATIVE EASE OF ASSOCIATION OF HIGHLY RELATED BUT
LIMITED ASSOCIATES 4HIS POSSIBILITY WOULD AFFECT LONG TERM FLUENCY BECAUSE THE
POTENTIAL POOL OF IDEAS WOULD SOON BE EXHAUSTED -EDNICK THOUGHT THAT CREATIVE
PEOPLE PRODUCE IDEAS MUCH MORE SLOWLY BECAUSE THEY ARE COMBINING IDEAS THAT
ARE CONCEPTUALLY DISTANT AND THEREFORE TAKE LONGER TO BE ASSOCIATED BUT PRODUCE
IDEAS FOR A LONGER PERIOD AND WITH GREATER POTENTIAL FOR NOVELTY
-EDNICK PROPOSED THAT REMOTE IDEAS MAY BE BROUGHT TOGETHER
THROUGH SERENDIPITY SIMILARITY OR MEDIATION 3ERENDIPITOUS IDEAS WOULD OCCUR
AS A RESULT OF UNGUIDED CONTIGUITY 4HE COMBINATION OF IDEAS BASED ON SIMILAR
ITY OCCURS WHEN ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS ARE COMBINED BECAUSE THEY SHARE SIMILAR
FEATURES -EDNICK FELT THE MOST IMPORTANT MEANS OF COMBINING ELEMENTS WAS
MEDIATION )N MEDIATION )DEA 8 AND )DEA 9 WOULD BE COMBINED BECAUSE THEY
WERE BOTH ASSOCIATED WITH )DEA : &URTHER THE PROBABILITY AND SPEED OF CREATIVE
SOLUTIONS WOULD DEPEND ON THE CONDITION OF THE PROBLEM SOLVER )NDIVIDUALS WITH
A VAST ARRAY OF KNOWLEDGE IE CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE AND GOOD COGNITIVE
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE OR PROCESSES WOULD BE BETTER ABLE TO COMBINE NEW ELE
MENTS 2ESEARCHERS MIGHT ARGUE THAT THE CONDITION OF THE PROBLEM SOLVER REFERS
TO INTELLIGENCE )N EFFECT -EDNICK POSTULATED THAT CREATIVITY ARISES FROM BOTH
INTELLIGENCE AND KNOWLEDGE
4HE 2EMOTE !SSOCIATES 4EST 2!4 -EDNICK -EDNICK WAS DE
SIGNED AS AN EASILY ADMINISTERED PAPER AND PENCIL MEASURE OF CREATIVITY 4EST
TAKERS ARE REQUIRED TO PROVIDE A REMOTE ASSOCIATE TO SETS OF THREE PRESENTED WORDS
-EDNICK AND !NDREWS DEMONSTRATED CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE 2!4 AND
THE 7ECHSLER )NTELLIGENCE 3CALE FOR #HILDREN AS R WITH THE 3!4 VERBAL AS
R AND WITH THE ,ORGE 4HORNDIKE 6ERBAL INTELLIGENCE MEASURE AS R
(OWEVER THERE HAVE BEEN VARIOUS CRITICISMS OF THE 2!4 AND ITS RELATION
TO CREATIVITY &IRST THE TEST ITEMS REQUIRE THE PRODUCTION OF ONE CORRECT ANSWER
MAKING THE 2!4 A TEST OF CONVERGENT THINKING 3ECOND THE TEST IS UNABLE TO

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PEOPLE WITH FLAT RESPONSE HIERARCHIES AND THOSE WITH STEEP
RESPONSE HIERARCHIES BECAUSE RESPONDENTS NEED TO FIND ONLY ONE ANSWER 4HIRD
THE TEST DOES NOT REQUIRE THE COMBINATION OF IDEAS IN NEW WAYS 4HE TEST TAKERS
ARE ASKED TO FIND TRADITIONAL ASSOCIATIONS TO STIMULUS WORDS &OURTH THE 2!4
ITEMS SEEM TO REQUIRE HIGH LEVELS OF CRYSTALLIZED VERBAL KNOWLEDGE -EDNICK
!NDREWS
-EDNICK HYPOTHESIZED THAT THERE WOULD BE A DIFFERENCE OF LEVEL RATH
ER THAN STYLE BETWEEN THE CREATIVE AND UNCREATIVE 4HEREFORE CREATIVITY WOULD
BE AN EXTENSION OF ORDINARY INTELLIGENCE -EDNICKS THEORIES ALSO DEPEND ON THE
QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF THE INFORMATION ENCODED BY THE INDIVIDUAL !N INDIVIDUAL
WITH LITTLE STORED KNOWLEDGE IE CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE WOULD NOT BE ABLE TO
PRODUCE CREATIVE COMBINATIONS EVEN WITH AN EXTREMELY FLAT RESPONSE HIERARCHY
4HIS INDICATES AN IMPORTANT DISTINCTION BETWEEN -EDNICK AND 'UIL
FORD 'UILFORDS THEORIES SUGGESTED THAT $4 WAS SUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVE
THINKING BECAUSE A PROBLEM SOLVER HAS THE MENTAL MACHINERY TO THINK DIVERGENTLY
-EDNICKS THEORY IS THAT PEOPLE MAY HAVE THE COGNITIVE MECHANISMS TO COMBINE
IDEAS IN WAYS THAT COULD BE CREATIVE BUT THAT CREATIVITY WILL ONLY OCCUR IF THE QUAL
ITY OF THE IDEAS TO BE ASSOCIATED IS HIGH
#ATTELL ALSO MADE A DISTINCTION BETWEEN MENTAL PROCESSING AND
ACCUMULATED KNOWLEDGE IN HIS THEORY OF FLUID GF AND CRYSTALLIZED GC INTELLI
GENCE &LUID INTELLIGENCE CONCERNS INFORMATION PROCESSING AND REASONING ABILITY
#RYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE REPRESENTS THE ABILITY THAT AN INDIVIDUAL USES TO GAIN
RETAIN STRUCTURE AND CONCEPTUALIZE INFORMATION #RYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE IS MEA
SURED BY TESTS OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE AND VERBAL COMPREHENSION WHEREAS FLUID IN
TELLIGENCE IS ASSESSED BY TESTS OF ABSTRACT REASONING "OTH GC AND GF ARE POSTULATED
TO OCCUPY A POSITION JUST BELOW THAT OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE WHICH CORRESPONDS
WITH G 3PEARMAN )N ADDITION TO THE THREE FACTORS OF GC GF AND G #AT
TELL EG HYPOTHESIZED THAT THERE ARE A NUMBER OF PRIMARY ABILITIES 4HE
LIST OF ABILITIES IS EXTENSIVE BUT MORE APPLICABLE THAN 'UILFORDS OR
FACTORS 'UILFORD 4HE PRIMARY ABILITIES THAT #ATTELL THOUGHT
PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR CREATIVITY WERE ORIGINALITY AND IDEATIONAL FLUENCY
#ATTELL AND "UTCHER SUGGESTED THAT REAL LIFE CREATIVE ENDEAVOR
WAS DETERMINED PRIMARILY BY G FOLLOWED BY GF #RYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE WAS
DEEMED LESS IMPORTANT #ATTELL AND "UTCHER NEITHER DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN EMI
NENT AND EVERYDAY CREATIVITY NOR CONSIDERED THE RELATIONS BETWEEN G GF AND GC
AND SPECIFIC DOMAINS OF ENDEAVOR #ATTELL AND "UTCHERS THEORY OF THE RELATION
BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLECT DIRECTLY OPPOSES THE STUDY BY -EDNICK
WHO IMPLIED THAT CREATIVITY RELIED ON THE COMBINATION OF IDEAS KNOWLEDGE OR
CRYSTALLIZED )1
)N EVERYDAY CREATIVITY CRYSTALLIZED KNOWLEDGE PROBABLY IS NOT PARTICULARLY
IMPORTANT (OWEVER GREAT CREATORS IN KNOWLEDGE INTENSIVE DOMAINS EG SCIENCE
ENGINEERING MUST ACQUIRE A CERTAIN LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE TO ADVANCE IN A FIELD (OW
EVER THERE IS MOST LIKELY AN INVERTED 5 SHAPED RELATION BETWEEN DOMAIN SPECIFIC
"ATEY &URNHAM
KNOWLEDGE AND SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY ,OW LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE DO NOT AFFORD THE
CREATOR A SUFFICIENTLY DETAILED KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD TO ADVANCE IT #ONVERSELY
EXTREMELY HIGH LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE ARE LIKELY TO LEAD TO ENTRENCHMENT 3TERNBERG
AND AN INABILITY TO CONCEIVE OF THE FIELD IN A RADICALLY DIFFERENT LIGHT 3ECOND
PERHAPS GF AND GC PLAY DIFFERENT ROLES DURING THE LIFESPAN OF A GREAT CREATOR )N AN
INDIVIDUALS EARLY PERIOD CAREER ONCE A CERTAIN LEVEL OF COMPETENCE HAS BEEN AT
TAINED GF IS LIKELY TO BE PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR ABSTRACT THINKING AND FOR PROBLEM
SOLVING TO PRODUCE CREATIVE IDEAS )N THE LATE PERIOD CAREER WHEN ATTENTION OFTEN
TURNS TO CONSOLIDATION GC WOULD BE ESSENTIAL
2OLE OF 3PECIFIC !BILITIES
4HAT CREATIVE PEOPLE POSSESS EXTRAORDINARY ABILITIES HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED
SINCE ANTIQUITY 4HE FIRST INDICATION THAT INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES NEED NOT BE UNI
FORM FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF CREATIVE EMINENCE MAY BE DERIVED FROM THE SEMINAL
HISTORIOMETRIC STUDY OF GENIUSES BY #OX 4HERE ARE A NUMBER OF
METHODOLOGICAL CONCERNS SURROUNDING #OXS STUDY ( * %YSENCK YET
HER DATA SUGGEST AT LEAST THAT )1 SCORES ARE NOT THE SAME ACROSS DOMAINS 4HE
ESTIMATED )1 SCORES FOR GENIUSS ADULTHOOD RANGE FROM TO FOR SOLDIERS
AND PHILOSOPHERS RESPECTIVELY 4HAT EARLY STUDY INDICATES THAT NOT ALL CREATORS
POSSESS THE SAME OR EVEN SIMILAR ABILITIES ! RELATED CONCLUSION MAY BE REACHED
ON EXAMINATION OF THE 4ERMAN #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST SCORES OF CON
TEMPORARY CREATIVE ACHIEVERS ADMINISTERED BY THE )0!2 GROUP AND REPORTED BY
-AC+INNON !S MAY BE EXPECTED VERBAL ABILITY WAS HIGHEST IN THE CRE
ATIVE WRITERS GROUP WITH INCREASINGLY LOWER SCORES FOR SCIENTISTS ARCHITECTS !IR
&ORCE CAPTAINS AND INDEPENDENT INVENTORS &ROM THIS RESEARCH IT SEEMS CLEAR THAT
THE VERBAL ABILITY NECESSARY FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT VARIES ACROSS DISCIPLINES
ALTHOUGH IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT SOME OF THE SAMPLE SIZES FOR THE GROUPS WERE
PARTICULARLY SMALL 5NFORTUNATELY NO NUMERICAL TEST WAS ADMINISTERED TO INDICATE
THAT THE DIFFERENCES IN THE SCORES ACHIEVED BETWEEN THESE GROUPS OF PARTICIPANTS
WERE RELATED TO G
)N ONE OF THE EARLIEST SYSTEMATIC PSYCHOMETRIC INVESTIGATIONS 2OE A
B EXAMINED THE ROLE OF SPECIFIC INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES AND CREATIVE
ACHIEVEMENT 3HE ADMINISTERED SPECIALLY DESIGNED TESTS OF VERBAL SPATIAL AND
MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE TO HIGHLY EMINENT SCIENTISTS FROM DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES
3HE FOUND FOR EXAMPLE THAT THE VERBAL INTELLIGENCE SCORES OF THEORETICAL PHYSI
CISTS WERE SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THE SCORES FOR EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICISTS 2OE
EXPECTED THAT FINDING BECAUSE OF HER HYPOTHESIS THAT THEORETICAL PHYSICISTS WOULD
BE REQUIRED TO WRITE MORE THAN THEIR EXPERIMENTAL COLLEAGUES 4HE STUDIES OF EMI
NENT SCIENTISTS ARE AN IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO CREATIVITY RESEARCH THAT REVEAL THAT
THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IN THE SPECIFIC INTELLECTUAL COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR CREATIVE
ACHIEVEMENT 3OCIAL SCIENTISTS WORK PRIMARILY WITH VERBAL CONCEPTS AND THEREFORE
SCORED HIGHEST ON VERBAL ABILITY WHEREAS PHYSICISTS WORK WITH MATHEMATICAL

CONCEPTS AND THEREFORE FOUND THE NUMERICAL TESTS UNDEMANDING 4HIS RESEARCH OF
EMINENT ACHIEVERS HIGHLIGHTS THE IMPORTANCE OF DOMAIN SPECIFICITY AND ABILITY
#ONFLUENCE AND #OMPONENTIAL -ODELS
%ARLY RESEARCHERS EXAMINED UNITARY CONCEPTS OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY
4HE STUDIES OF THE S AND BEYOND ARE BOTH SCIENTIFICALLY AND THEORETICALLY
MORE SOPHISTICATED BECAUSE THE RESEARCHERS TRIED TO EXPLAIN VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY
CRITERIA BY USING A HOST OF RELEVANT INDEPENDENT VARIABLES 0ERHAPS OF GREATEST
IMPORTANCE WAS THAT $4 BECAME A PREDICTOR OF CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT NOT THE
CRITERION 4HIS IS AN IMPORTANT ADVANCE IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTING HOW
EFFORTS TO EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCT HAVE BECOME INCREASINGLY SOPHISTICATED 4HE
GROWTH OF THIS TYPE OF CONFLUENCE APPROACH SUGGESTS BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF
CREATIVITY ACROSS DOMAINS IN THE FUTURE
(OCEVAR EXAMINED THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF A TRADITIONAL MEASURE
OF INTELLIGENCE 4ERMAN #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST 4ERMAN AND THREE $4
MEASURES OF IDEATIONAL FLUENCY IN RELATION TO CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT IN THE FIELDS OF
ARTS CRAFTS PERFORMING ARTS MATH SCIENCE LITERATURE AND MUSIC FOR A SAMPLE OF
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS )N THIS EXPERIMENT THE RATINGS OF CREATIVITY WERE DRAWN
FROM BEHAVIORAL INVENTORIES OF CREATIVE ABILITIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS AND THEN COM
PARED TO $4 ABILITIES 4HE MEAN CREATIVITY SCORE WAS THE AGGREGATE FLUENCY SCORE
FOR THE THREE $4 TESTS USED 4HE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MEAN CREATIVITY AND
INTELLIGENCE SCORES WAS R 4HE TOTAL SCORE FOR IDEATIONAL FLUENCY CORRELATED
WITH AN AGGREGATE CREATIVITY ACHIEVEMENT SCORE AT R 4HE THREE $4 MEA
SURES INTERCORRELATED BETWEEN R AND R )T APPEARS THAT INTELLIGENCE AND
IDEATIONAL FLUENCY ARE DISTINCT BECAUSE THE CORRELATIONS WITHIN THE TRAITS ARE HIGH
WHEREAS THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE TRAITS ARE LOW (OWEVER THE RESULTS FROM THE
STUDY SHOULD BE INTERPRETED WITH CARE &IRST THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY THROUGH
RATINGS ON AN INVENTORY OF CREATIVE BEHAVIORS RELIES ON SELF REPORTED INCIDENTS OF
CREATIVE ABILITY AND ACHIEVEMENT 3ECOND THE CREATIVE BEHAVIORS AND ABILITIES THAT
EACH PARTICIPANT LISTED ARE INDEPENDENT OF QUALITY !N ACHIEVEMENT THAT A PARTICI
PANT LISTED HAD NOT BEEN ASSESSED FOR QUALITY OR UTILITY EG #ONSENSUAL !SSESS
MENT 4ECHNIQUE !MABILE 2ATHER A QUANTITATIVE APPROACH WAS TAKEN
+ERSHNER AND ,EDGER COMPARED HIGHLY GIFTED CHILDREN n
YEARS OLD WITH MATCHED CONTROLS ON MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE AND $4 4HOSE
RESEARCHERS TESTED 7ALLACHS SUGGESTION THAT FLEXIBILITY ORIGINALITY AND
ELABORATION ARE LARGELY MEASURES OF )1 4HE SUPPOSITION WAS THAT ONLY FLUENCY
PROVIDES AN ACCURATE MEASURE OF $4 4HE RESULTS INDICATED THAT THE SCORES FOR
VERBAL ORIGINALITY WERE HIGHLY INFLUENCED BY )1 4HE GIFTED CHILDREN HELD NO
ADVANTAGE OVER THE AVERAGE CHILDREN WHEN IT CAME TO THE SCORES FOR FIGURAL
FLEXIBILITY AND FLUENCY 4HAT STUDY RAISES AN IMPORTANT ISSUE IN THE STUDY OF CRE
ATIVITY &LUENCY AND FLEXIBILITY AS MEASURED BY $4 TESTS APPEAR TO BE RELATIVELY
INDEPENDENT OF )1 4HE STUDY INDICATES THAT SCORES OF ORIGINALITY ARE HIGHLY
"ATEY &URNHAM
DEPENDENT ON INTELLECTUAL ENDOWMENT 4HIS IMPLICATION CALLS INTO QUESTION THE

VALIDITY AND UTILITY OF 4ORRANCES SCORING SYSTEM FOR $4 TYPE TESTS ESPE
CIALLY IF THE $4 TESTS ARE TO BE USED AS MEASURES OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE
2USHTON CONDUCTED THREE STUDIES BY USING VARIOUS TESTS OF PERSONALITY
INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 3TUDY WAS OF PROFESSORS OF PSYCHOLOGY (E FOUND
THAT WHEN THE CREATIVITY SCORE WAS PRODUCED FROM NUMBER OF WORKS PUBLISHED AND
NUMBER OF CITATIONS THE SCORE CORRELATED WITH A COMPOSITE SCORE OF INTELLIGENCE
OF R 3TUDY WAS A SURVEY OF PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCHERS 4HE CORRELATION BE
TWEEN A COMPOSITE MEASURE OF RESEARCH EFFECTIVENESS AND A COMPOSITE MEASURE
OF INTELLIGENCE WAS R 3TUDY WAS A SURVEY OF UNDERGRADUATES 4HE
PARTICIPANTS WERE TESTED WITH SOME OF THE 7ALLACH AND +OGAN $4 MEA
SURES AND AN )1 TEST 4HE MEAN )1 OF THE SAMPLE WAS 4HE TOTAL CREATIVITY
SCORE CORRELATED WITH )1 AT R 4HESE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT THE RELATION BETWEEN
CREATIVITY AND )1 IS NOT EASY TO PREDICT
3TUDY AND 3TUDY USED PROFESSIONAL RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGISTS 3TUDY RE
TURNED A CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY OF R WHEREAS 3TUDY YIELDED
A CORRELATION OF R (OWEVER METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS MAY EXPLAIN THIS
DIFFERENCE 4HE CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY USED WERE NOT THE SAME FOR EACH STUDY MAKING
COMPARISON DIFFICULT 7E RAISE QUESTIONS REGARDING THE VALIDITY OF THE CRITERIA OF CRE
ATIVITY SELECTED THE INCONSISTENT ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE AND THE SMALL SAMPLE
SIZE WHICH MAY HAVE ARTIFICIALLY INFLATED CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE VARIABLES
6INCENT ET AL CONDUCTED A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY TO ASSESS THE RELATION
BETWEEN $4 AND OTHER COGNITIVE CAPACITIES IN MILITARY LEADERS 4HE AIM OF THE
STUDY WAS TO EXAMINE THE RELATIONS AMONG INTELLIGENCE EXPERTISE KNOWLEDGE AND
$4 INSOFAR AS THEY INFLUENCED CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING AND PERFORMANCE ! WIDE
RANGE OF RELEVANT FACTORS WERE CONSIDERED AND THEN RELATED CLEARLY TO A SPECIFIC
DOMAIN MILITARY LEADERSHIP 6INCENT ET AL ASSESSED INTELLIGENCE PSYCHOMETRICALLY
WITH THE VERBAL REASONING TEST OF THE %MPLOYEE !PTITUDES 3URVEY 4HEY ASSESSED
EXPERTISE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE DOMAIN OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP BY
USING A RANK ORDERING EXERCISE 4HEY MEASURED $4 BY USING FIVE ITEMS FROM THE
#ONSEQUENCES 4EST 'UILFORD 2ESPONSES WERE SCORED BY USING A VARIATION
OF (ENNESSEY AND !MABILES #ONSENSUAL !SSESSMENT 4ECHNIQUE
!LSO 6INCENT ET AL MADE ASSESSMENTS REGARDING THE PARTICIPANTS
PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS AND LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE 0ROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS WERE
ASSESSED BY USING AN ILL DEFINED NOVEL TASK IN THE FORM OF A COMPLEX MILITARY
PROBLEM 0ARTICIPANTS SUGGESTED WHAT THEY MIGHT DO IN THE HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION
4HE QUESTIONS FOCUSED ON BOTH IDEA GENERATION AND IDEA IMPLEMENTATION 4HE RE
SEARCHERS POSTULATED IDEA GENERATION TO BE AN EARLY CYCLE PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITY
WHEREAS IDEA IMPLEMENTATION WAS CONSIDERED A LATE CYCLE PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITY
"ASADUR &OUR OBSERVERS RATED THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOLUTIONS 4HEY ALSO OB
TAINED A MEASURE OF LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE &OR THIS PARTICIPANTS LISTED THE NUMBER
OF MEDALS CITATIONS RECEIVED PRIOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS PROMOTIONS AHEAD OF
SCHEDULE AND ADMISSION TO SPECIAL TRAINING PROGRAMS

6INCENT ET AL FOUND INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERTISE TO BE CORRELATED R

"OTH INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERTISE HAD A DIRECT EFFECT ON $4 4HESE RESULTS SUG
GEST THAT BOTH G AND GC EXPERTISE AFFECTED THE PRODUCTION OF SOCIALLY MEANINGFUL
CONSEQUENCES 4HIS EVIDENCE SUPPORTS -EDNICKS THEORY THAT CREATIVITY RE
LIES ON A RICH SET OF STORED INFORMATION !N IMPORTANT FINDING WAS THAT $4 DIRECTLY
AFFECTED IDEA GENERATION BUT NOT IDEA IMPLEMENTATION %XPERTISE ALSO PRODUCED
A MODERATE EFFECT ON IDEA GENERATION 4HAT EFFECT SUGGESTS THAT PEOPLE ARE ABLE
TO CREATE VIABLE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS WHEN THEY USE BOTH $4 SKILLS AND ACQUIRED
EXPERTISE 4HE GENERATION OF GOOD SOLUTIONS HAD A DIRECT EFFECT ON THE EFFECTIVE
IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLUTIONS
4HAT FINDING IS NOT SURPRISING BECAUSE AN IMPLEMENTED IDEA WOULD LIKELY
BE RATED UNFAVORABLY IF IT WAS BASED ON A POOR GENERATED IDEA 4HE RESULTS OF THE
6INCENT ET AL STUDY CONFIRMED THE PATH FROM IDEA IMPLEMENTATION TO OR
GANIZATIONAL RECOGNITION LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE 6INCENT ET AL SUGGESTED THAT
$4 IS MOST IMPORTANT FOR EARLY CYCLE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ! MORE IMPORTANT
FINDING WAS THAT $4 HAD A STRONGER DIRECT EFFECT ON IDEA GENERATION THAN DID IN
TELLIGENCE 4HIS FINDING SUGGESTS THAT $4 MEASURES hCAPTURE UNIQUE VARIANCE AND
DO NOT SIMPLY REPRESENT A SURROGATE FOR INTELLIGENCE OR EXPERTISE 4HESE FINDINGS
MOREOVER SUGGEST THAT DIVERGENT THINKING CANNOT BE VIEWED AS SIMPLY A SUBSET OF
INTELLIGENCEv 6INCENT ET AL P
#OMPONENTIAL APPROACHES TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF CREATIVITY ENABLE MULTIFAC
TOR ANALYSES OF THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX 3OME MULTIPLE COMPONENT MODELS LACK EM
PIRICAL EVIDENCE WHEREAS THE INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA FOR SOME MODELS HAS BEEN
DEBATED #ONFLUENCE MODELS SUCH AS THAT PRESENTED BY 6INCENT ET AL OFFER
A BETTER INSIGHT INTO THE RELATION BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE KNOWLEDGE AND PERFORMANCE
THAN THAT AFFORDED BY SIMPLE ACCOUNTS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND SINGLE
VARIABLES )N TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE EFFECTS OF LATE AND EARLY CYCLE PROBLEM SOLV
ING 6INCENT ET AL WERE ABLE TO EXAMINE SOME ASPECTS OF THE CREATION PROCESS
&ACTOR !NALYTICAL 3TUDIES
7ITHOUT A DOUBT #ARROLL PERFORMED THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE INVESTIGA
TION OF PSYCHOMETRIC CREATIVITY 4HE CENTRAL THEME TO HIS SURVEY OF ABILITIES IN THE
DOMAIN OF IDEA PRODUCTION CONCERNED THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT MEASURES
OF CREATIVITY AND THE QUESTION OF WHETHER THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THEM INDICATE
THE PRESENCE OF A GENERAL CREATIVITY FACTOR WHAT WE CALL C #ARROLL COLLATED AND
REFACTORED DATA SETS OUT OF A TOTAL OF DATA SETS RELATING TO IDEA PRODUCTION
CONTAINING DIFFERENT CREATIVITY TESTS 4HESE TESTS WERE ALMOST ALL OPEN ENDEDTHAT
IS THEY REQUIRED A DIVERGENT RESPONSE -OST SIMPLY THESE TESTS COULD BE BROKEN
DOWN INTO FLUENCY TESTS IN WHICH VOLUMINOUS PRODUCTION IS DESIRED AND ORIGINALITY
TESTS IN WHICH UNUSUALNESS UNIQUENESS OR QUALITY WAS REQUIRED
#ARROLL REACHED THE CONCLUSION THAT CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY hIS LINEARLY
INDEPENDENT OF MANY OF THE FACTORS IN OTHER DOMAINS OR MORE GENERALLY OF WHAT IS
"ATEY &URNHAM
REGARDED AS INTELLIGENCE AS MEASURED BY STANDARD TESTSv P (E FOUND FACTORS

SUCH AS VERBAL VISUALIZATION AND REASONING ABILITY TO BE INDEPENDENT OF CREATIVITY
ALTHOUGH PROBABLY LINKED AS SECOND ORDER FACTORS 4HE FINDINGS OF THE DIFFERENT DATA
SETS WERE NOT UNANIMOUS BUT MANY SEEMED TO INDICATE THAT CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY
IS AN INDEPENDENT ORTHOGONAL FACTOR BUT SECOND AND THIRD ORDER FACTORS ARE ALSO
SALIENT 4HAT INDICATION COMPELLED #ARROLL TO SUGGEST h)T APPEARS TO REQUIRE A CON
SIDERABLE DEGREE OF GENERAL COGNITIVE ABILITY FOR AN INDIVIDUAL TO BE ABLE TO MAKE
HIGH SCORED RESPONSES TO TESTS OF ;CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY=v P
4HE COMMON ELEMENTS OF THIS CREATIVITY FACTOR ARE THAT THEY REQUIRE PEOPLE
TO THINK FAIRLY QUICKLY AND TO WRITE A SERIES OF RESPONSES FITTING THE REQUIREMENTS
OF A PRESENTED TASK OR SITUATION THAT IS THIS FACTOR INDICATES SOME ELEMENT OF
QUALITY 4HIS FACTOR WAS INDEPENDENT OF A QUANTITY OR FLUENCY FACTOR WHEREBY
RESPONDENTS ARE REQUIRED TO WRITE AS MANY RESPONSES AS POSSIBLE (OWEVER THERE
IS INSUFFICIENT SPACE IN THIS ARTICLE TO FULLY EXPLORE THE ISSUE THAT AMONG OTHERS
THERE WERE INDEPENDENT FACTORS FOR VERBAL FLUENCY CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY AND
FIGURAL FLUENCY !S #ARROLL NOTED IT IS IMPORTANT TO CONSIDER THAT THESE
FACTORS ARE ONLY THOSE SUGGESTED BY THE AVAILABLE RESEARCH )NCONSISTENCIES IN THE
TESTS USED TO ASSESS DIFFERENT FACTORS TYPES OF SCORING AND ADMINISTRATIVE ENVIRON
MENT COULD MEAN THAT FUTURE FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDIES MAY SHOW SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT
DISTINCT ABILITIES IN THE DOMAIN OF IDEA PRODUCTION
#ARROLLS ANALYSES INDICATE THAT CREATIVITY IS NOT THE SAME AS INTEL
LIGENCE BUT DOES REQUIRE IN PART GENERAL MENTAL ABILITIES 4HESE INCLUDE SPEED OF
RETRIEVAL ESPECIALLY IN TIMED TESTS TO ACCESS STORED KNOWLEDGE GC FLUID INTELLI
GENCE TO MANIPULATE RETRIEVED INFORMATION AND FINE MOTOR SKILLS TO WRITE QUICKLY
0ERHAPS MOST IMPORTANT FLUENCY WAS NOT FOUND TO BE THE SAME AS ORIGINALITY
/N THE BASIS OF THOSE WHO HAVE CRITICIZED DIFFERENT SCORING TECHNIQUES TO
ASSESS ORIGINALITY VERSUS FLUENCY EG $ * (ARGREAVES "OLTON (OCE
VAR THE #ARROLL STUDIES SUGGEST THAT THE BEST WAY TO DIFFERENTIATE
BETWEEN FLUENCY AND ORIGINALITY IS TO PROVIDE DIFFERENT TESTS FOR THESE INDEPENDENT
FACTORS &LUENCY TESTS SUCH AS THE 4HURSTONE 7ORD &LUENCY TEST DO NOT
PROVIDE RESPONDENTS WITH A PARTICULAR OPPORTUNITY FOR ORIGINALITY WHEREAS THE
#ONSEQUENCES 4EST 'UILFORD DOES 2ESEARCHERS ARE MISGUIDED IN TRYING TO
FIND ORIGINALITY IN THE FLUENCY TESTS EG 4ORRANCE SEE &IGURES AND
#ONCLUSION 2EGARDING )NTELLIGENCE
4HE EARLIEST STUDIES OF THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY FOUND THAT
INTELLECTUALS WERE NOT ASSURED OF PRODUCING IMAGINATIVE RESPONSES TO OPEN ENDED
STIMULI $EARBORN !FTER MORE THAN YEARS OF RESEARCH INVESTIGATORS
STILL HOLD THERE TO BE SOME FORM OF A DICHOTOMY BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY
(OWEVER WE DO NOT SUGGEST THAT THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY HAS BEEN
MAPPED AND EXPLAINED 4HE STUDY OF )1 AND CREATIVITY HAS BEEN AT TIMES POORLY
DEFINED AND EMPIRICALLY APPROACHED )N SOME CASES $4 MEASURES WERE USED AS A

$4

GF
GR
GC
GS
-OTOR SKILLS
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$4 PERFORMANCE
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ACHIEVEMENT
* ! 0LUCKER
&)'52% 2ELATION OF INTELLIGENCE TO DIVERGENT THINKING $4 TEST PERFOR
MANCE GF FLUID INTELLIGENCE GC CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE GR RETRIEVAL
'S SPEED GK GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
MEASURE OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE WHEREAS IN OTHERS RESEARCHERS USED $4 SCORES

AS A CRITERION OF CREATIVITY
2ESEARCHERS CAN ARGUE THAT THE OVERRELIANCE ON $4 TESTS BECAME A REAL PROB
LEM UNDULY LIMITING THE SCOPE OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH WHILE RAISING THE SPECTER OF
METHOD BIAS IN BOTH THEORY AND FINDINGS -UMFORD B &UNDAMENTAL DIF
FERENCES ARISE IN THE RELATION BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY DEPENDING ON
WHETHER CREATIVITY IS ASSESSED VIA A $4 TEST OR CREATIVITY ASSESSMENTS BY RATINGS
4HE STUDIES OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE INDICATE THAT
THE TWO CONSTRUCTS ARE MODESTLY RELATED #ORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE TWO ARE FOUND
IN THE RANGE OF R n SUGGESTING THAT APPROXIMATELY n OF THE VARIANCE
MAY BE ACCOUNTED FOR %VEN WITH CORRECTIONS FOR RELIABILITY IT IS UNLIKELY THAT
THESE TWO TRAITS WILL EVER BE THOUGHT OF AS SYNONYMOUS ALTHOUGH THEY ARE CLEARLY
"ATEY &URNHAM
2ATED EMINENCE
G
'OOD PERFORMANCE
IN TRAINING EDUCATION
GF
GC
/PPORTUNITY TO
EXPRESS CREATIVITY
2ATED EMINENCE
&)'52% 2ELATION OF INTELLIGENCE TO RATED EMINENCE GF FLUID INTELLI
GENCE G GENERAL INTELLIGENCE GC CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
RELATED )T APPEARS THAT CREATIVITY AS FLUENCY IS MORE STRONGLY RELATED TO )1 THAN IS

CREATIVITY AS ORIGINALITY
!N EXPLANATION FOR THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE MAY RESIDE
IN THE NEUROPHYSIOLOGY OF INTELLECT )T IS LIKELY THAT THE EFFICIENT NEURAL BASIS OF
INTELLIGENCE EG ( * %YSENCK "ARRETT *ENSEN EXPLAINS SOME OF
THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY TEST SCORES #REATIVITY TESTS ARE USUALLY TIMED ESPECIALLY
$4 TESTS 5NDER THESE CONDITIONS NEURAL EFFICIENCY CONTRIBUTES TO AN INCREASE IN
$4 PERFORMANCE (OWEVER THE RESULTS ALSO INDICATE THAT NEURAL EFFICIENCY ALONE IS
NOT SUFFICIENT TO EXPLAIN CREATIVE OUTPUT 4HE CONFLUENCE STUDIES EG 6INCENT ET AL
AND META ANALYSES #ARROLL HAVE INDICATED THAT ALONGSIDE INTELLECTUAL
ABILITY A NUMBER OF OTHER TRAITS CAN EXPLAIN THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY CRITERIA !
CREATIVITY TEST ESPECIALLY ONE THAT INVOLVES TIMED PAPER AND PENCIL SUBTESTS REQUIR
ING PARTICIPANTS TO PROVIDE DIVERGENT RESPONSES ALWAYS RELIES IN PART ON COGNITIVE
SPEED RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION FROM MEMORY FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND MOTOR SKILLS
4HE MORE SIMILAR TO A TEST OF POWER THE ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVITY IS THE GREATER IS

THE RELATION TO INTELLECT (OWEVER IT IS MOST IMPORTANT THAT HIGH SCORES ON TESTS OF
THESE FACTORS ARE NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVITY
4HIS NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CRE
ATIVITY WHEN ASSESSED BY $4 CAN EXPLAIN WHY INTELLIGENCE IS RARELY CORRELATED
WITH RATED CREATIVITY LARGELY BECAUSE RATINGS ARE NOT ASSESSED VIA PAPER AND
PENCIL TESTS AND THEREFORE DO NOT GIVE THE OPPORTUNITY TO ASSESS ASPECTS OF )1 EG
SPEED OF RETRIEVAL 4HIS RAISES A SERIOUS ISSUE ABOUT COMMON METHOD OF MEASURE
MENT BIAS (OWEVER INTELLIGENCE IS LIKELY TO BE IMPORTANT FOR RATED CREATIVITY
TOO 7E ARGUE THAT TO DEMONSTRATE SIGNIFICANT CREATIVITY ESPECIALLY IN TERMS OF
ACHIEVEMENT OR EMINENCE AN INDIVIDUAL MUST FIRST REACH A POSITION WHERE HE OR
SHE HAS SUFFICIENT FREEDOM TO CREATE (AYES &OR MOST DOMAINS THAT IN
VOLVES TRAINING AND EDUCATION TO A REASONABLY HIGH DEGREE WHICH IN TURN RELY ON
A REASONABLY HIGH )1 'OTTFREDSON 4HIS REFERENCE TO DOMAIN SPECIFICITY
IS IMPORTANT 4HE ROLE OF )1 IN RELATION TO DOMAINS WILL LIKELY DIFFER (IGH )1 IS
A NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT TRAIT FOR SUCCESS IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BUT IT IS
LESS LIKELY TO BE IMPORTANT FOR ACHIEVEMENT IN THE ARTS
7E SURMISE THAT )1 ALTHOUGH PROBABLY MORE SPECIFICALLY GF PROVIDES THE
POWER FOR $4 OR THE ABILITY TO FIND A JOB WHERE CREATIVITY CAN BE EXPRESSED
READILY (OWEVER IN ADDITION TO MOTIVATIONAL AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES A RICH
KNOWLEDGE STORE -EDNICK PROVIDES THE DRIVE AND THE UNUSUALNESS FOR CRE
ATIVITY (OWEVER AS MAY BE EXPECTED FROM A TRAIT BASED INVESTIGATION THE SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY OF CREATIVITY HAS A SIZEABLE EFFECT 4EST TAKING CONDITIONS AND CULTURAL
INFLUENCES WILL MAKE INDIVIDUALS MORE OR LESS LIKELY TO PROFFER UNUSUAL IDEAS
2ECENT APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY HAVE BEEN COMPONENTIAL LEAD
ING RESEARCHERS TO TRY TO UNDERSTAND CREATIVE THINKING AND PRODUCTION IN TERMS OF
THE INTERRELATION BETWEEN SPECIFIC VARIABLES #ONFLUENCE APPROACHES SUCH AS THOSE
USED BY 6INCENT ET AL HAVE BEGUN TO SHOW THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND
CREATIVITY SPECIFICALLY IN A MORE COMPREHENSIVE LIGHT 2ESEARCHERS ARE BEGINNING
TO EXPLORE THE ROLES OF INTELLIGENCE $4 AND EXPERTISE GC IN THE EXPRESSION OF
CREATIVE TALENT &UTURE RESEARCHERS WILL UNDOUBTEDLY BEGIN TO EXPLORE THE RELATIONS
BETWEEN THESE DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN DIFFERENT DOMAINS WITH RECOGNITION OF THE
INFLUENCE OF THE CULTURAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SETTING
)F THERE IS ONE CONCLUSION TO BE MADE FROM THE RESEARCH ON )1 AND CREATIVITY
IT IS THAT )1 OR $4 SKILLS ALONE CANNOT ACCOUNT FOR MUCH OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVE
ACHIEVEMENT ,IKE THE EXPERIMENTERS OF THE S S AND S WHO WERE
SURE THAT SOMETHING OTHER THAN )1 COULD EXPLAIN CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT WE NOW
TURN TO INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY SEE 4ABLE
#REATIVITY AND 0ERSONALITY
6IGOROUS DEBATES HAVE REGARDED THE NUMBER OF DIMENSIONS THAT CONSTITUTE PERSON
ALITY #OSTA -C#RAE A B ( * %YSENCK A B /UR RE
VIEW CONCENTRATES PRIMARILY ON THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND TWO MAJOR MODELS
"ATEY &URNHAM
OF PERSONALITY ( * %YSENCKS 'IGANTIC AND #OSTA AND -C#RAES "IG 7E THEN

PRESENT THE LESSONS FROM THAT LITERATURE WITH REFERENCE TO THE CREATIVE PROCESS
&EIST SUGGESTED THAT PERSONALITY RESEARCH WITH REGARD TO CREATIVITY HAS
TAKEN TWO FORMS 4HE FIRST IS THE BETWEEN GROUPS COMPARISON (ERE TWO GROUPS
OF PEOPLE ARE COMPARED EG ARTISTS COMPARED WITH SCIENTISTS )N THE SECOND
FORM OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH WITH REGARD TO PERSONALITY RESEARCHERS TRY TO ANALYZE
WITHIN GROUP DIFFERENCES )N THESE CASES HIGHLY CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS FROM A DO
MAIN ARE COMPARED WITH THEIR LESS CREATIVE PEERS 3UCH ANALYSES ARE ESSENTIAL BE
CAUSE THE WITHIN GROUP VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY IS MARKEDLY DIFFERENT FOR ARTISTS AND
SCIENTISTS -AC+INNON 3CIENTISTS WERE POSITED TO HAVE MORE PRONOUNCED
VARIATION IN RATINGS OF CREATIVITY BECAUSE SCIENTISTS MAY BE INVOLVED IN hVERY
ROUTINE ROTE AND PRESCRIBEDv RESEARCH &EIST P BESIDES THE FEW
SCIENTISTS ENGAGED IN hREVOLUTIONARYv WORK +UHN P !LTERNATIVELY
ALTHOUGH ARTISTS CAN BE USED IN ROUTINE WORK hANYONE WHO MAKES A LIVING AT ART
HAS TO BE MORE THAN ONE STEP ABOVE A TECHNICIANv &EIST P
4HE EARLY STUDIES OF CREATIVITY AND PERSONALITY WERE CHARACTERIZED BY THE DI
VERSITY OF PERSONALITY MEASURES USED !S IN THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
RESEARCHERS HAVE USED DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS OF PERSONALITY AND HAVE SOUGHT TO ASSESS
THE CONSTRUCT BY USING DIFFERENT MEASURES 4HIS DIVERSITY MAKES THE INTERPRETATION OF
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY PARTICULARLY DIFFICULT 3OME INTERESTING
EARLY STUDIES USED THE #ALIFORNIA 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY #0) 'OUGH -AC+
INNON USED EXPERT RATINGS AND THE #0) TO INVESTIGATE THE CREATIVITY OF ARCHI
TECTS 4O ASCERTAIN WITHIN GROUP DIFFERENCES HE COMPARED EXPERT RATED CREATIVE AR
CHITECTS WITH THEIR LESS CREATIVE PEERS 4HE KEY FINDINGS FROM -AC+INNONS
WORK WERE THAT THE HIGHLY CREATIVE ARCHITECTS IN COMPARISON WITH THE NONCREATIVE
ARCHITECTS WERE LESS DEFERENT AND TEAM ORIENTED MORE AGGRESSIVE DOMINANT AND
AUTONOMOUS AND LESS SOCIALIZED RESPONSIBLE SELF CONTROLLED TOLERANT CONCERNED
WITH GOOD IMPRESSIONS AND COMMUNAL IN ATTITUDE
$OMINO ALSO USED THE #0) IN ADDITION TO THE %DWARDS 0ERSONAL 0REFER
ENCE 3CHEDULE !DJECTIVE #HECKLIST !#, 'OUGH (EILBURN SCORED
FOR CREATIVITY $OMINO "ARRON 7ELSH !RT 3CALE 7ELSH "ARRON
AND THE 2!4 -EDNICK -EDNICK TO ASSESS THE CREATIVITY OF CINEMATOGRA
PHERS VERSUS MATCHED CONTROLS 4HE MAIN TREND OF HIS RESULTS WAS THAT CINEMATOG
RAPHERS IN COMPARISON WITH MATCHED CONTROLS EXHIBITED A GREATER DESIRE FOR STATUS
NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT SELF ACCEPTANCE AND NEED FOR CHANGE 4HE CINEMATOGRAPHERS
SCORED LOWER THAN THE CONTROLS ON THE SCALES FOR NEED FOR DEFERENCE AND NEED FOR
ORDER 7HEN SCORED FOR CREATIVITY THE !#, DIFFERENTIATED THE TWO GROUPS WITH
THE CINEMATOGRAPHERS SCORING HIGHER .EITHER THE "ARRON 7ELSH !RT 3CALE 7ELSH
"ARRON NOR THE 2!4 REVEALED ANY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS %ARLY
RESEARCH USING THE #0) AND OTHER MEASURES INDICATED THAT CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS TEND
TO PREFER AUTONOMY AND INDEPENDENCE THAT THEY ARE OFTEN LESS SOCIALIZED THAN LESS
CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS WITH TENDENCIES TOWARD AGGRESSION OR LOW AGREEABLENESS AND
THAT THEY APPEAR LESS CONCERNED WITH CONVENTION OR CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
3CHOOLCHILDREN
!RT AND SCIENCE STUDENTS
2ESEARCH SCIENTISTS
!RCHITECTS
3CHOOLCHILDREN
!GGREGATED )0!2 FINDINGS
!IR &ORCE OFFICERS
&IFTH GRADE SCHOOLCHILDREN
7 -C#LOY
. # -EIER
* % $REVDAHL
( ' 'OUGH
$ 7 -AC+INNON
* 7 'ETZELS
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& 8 "ARRON
& 8 "ARRON
- ! 7ALLACH
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% 0 4ORRANCE
-ETA ANALYSIS
%MINENT CREATIVE GENIUSES

2EANALYSIS OF #OXS DATA
0RESCHOOL CHILDREN
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# - #OX
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% ' !NDREWS
2ESEARCHERS
(ISTORIOMETRIC
(ISTORIOMETRIC
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)1
1UALITY OF RESPONSE TO
ABSTRACT SYMBOLISM
)1
$4
2ATINGS OF CREATIVITY
$4
2ATED CREATIVITY
)1
$4
)1
$4
!GGREGATE $4
$4
)1
4ORRANCE 4ESTS OF
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)1 MEASURES
-EASURES
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R BETWEEN - CREATIVITY SCORES AND - )1

SCORES
R BETWEEN )1 AND A VERBAL $4
B FIGURAL $4
R
R
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R n
- R n
R
R
R BETWEEN )1 AND RANKED EMINENCE

.O R BETWEEN )1 AND RANKED EMINENCE
- R
4!",% ! 3AMPLE OF 2EPRESENTATIVE #ORRELATIONS "ETWEEN #REATIVITY AND )NTELLIGENCE

#OLLEGE STUDENTS
3CHOOLCHILDREN
.AVAL OFFICERS
5NDERGRADUATES
'IFTED CHILDREN VS MATCHED

CONTROLS
0SYCHOLOGY PROFESSORS
3 ! -EDNICK
& - !NDREWS
3 7ADE
2 , 2ICHARDS
$ (OCEVAR
* 2 +ERSHNER
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* 0 2USHTON
2EMOTE !SSOCIATES
4EST 2!4
)1
$4
)1
$4
)1
$4
)1
#REATIVE BEHAVIORS
CHECKLIST
$4 MEASURES
)1
#REATIVITY SCORE
NUMBER OF CITATIONS
WORKS PUBLISHED ETC
#OMPOSITE RATING OF )1
#OMPOSITE MEASURES
OF RESEARCH
EFFECTIVENESS
)1
$4 MEASURES
-ULTIDIMENSIONAL
!PTITUDE "ATTERY
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)1
.OTE )1 INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT $4 'UILFORD DIVERGENT THINKING TESTS
5NDERGRADUATES
2ESEARCHERS
-ETA ANALYSIS
* 0 'UILFORD
R
R
R BETWEEN - CREATIVITY AND - )1 SCORE

R BETWEEN )DEATIONAL &LUENCY AND CREATIVITY SCORE
A &LUENCY IS BEST MEASURE OF $4 ABILITY
B 'IRLS OUTPERFORM BOYS ON $4 SUBSCALES
R
- R
- R BETWEEN )1 AND A VERBAL $4

B SYMBOLIC $4 C SEMANTIC
$4
#ORRELATION BETWEEN 2!4 AND A 7)3#
B 3!4 6ERBAL C ,ORGE
4HORNDIKE VERBAL
- R
"ATEY &URNHAM

%YSENCKIAN )NSPIRED 2ESEARCH

4HE CONCEPT OF THE 'IGANTIC CF FOR A DETAILED EXAMINATION OF THE THEORY
SEE ( * %YSENCK %YSENCK PERSONALITY FACTORS IS INEXTRICABLY LINKED TO
THE WORK OF ( * %YSENCK ( * %YSENCK POSITED THREE ORTHOGONAL DIMENSIONS
OR SUPERFACTORS IN THE DESCRIPTION OF PERSONALITY EXTRAVERSION VERSUS INTROVERSION
% EMOTIONAL STABILITY VERSUS INSTABILITY OR NEUROTICISM . AND PSYCHOTICISM
VERSUS IMPULSE CONTROL 0 ( * %YSENCK %YSENCK 3 " ' %YSENCK
%YSENCK "ARRETT 4HESE DIMENSIONS OR SUPERFACTORS ARE BASED ON hCON
STITUTIONAL GENETIC OR INBORN FACTORS WHICH ARE TO BE DISCOVERED IN THE PHYSI
OLOGICAL NEUROLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE INDIVIDUALv 3 " '
%YSENCK ET AL PP n
4HE CONCEPT THAT CREATIVITY INVOLVES THE COMBINATION OF DISPARATE CONSTRUCTS
IS COMMON THROUGHOUT THE LITERATURE +OESTLER -EDNICK 2OTHEN
BERG ( * %YSENCK HAS ARGUED THAT VARIATIONS IN 0 CAN BE
SEEN AS THE BASIS FOR CREATIVE THINKING AND ALSO AS THE BASIS FOR A DISPOSITION TO
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY WITH HIGH 0 SCORERS PRONE TO UNUSUAL IDEATION AND MENTAL ILL
NESS ( * %YSENCK PRODUCED A MODEL TO EXPLAIN HOW 0 AND CREATIV
ITY WERE RELATED (E ARGUED THAT THE PROCESS OF OVERINCLUSIVE OR ILLUSIVE THINKING
CHARACTERIZES BOTH PSYCHOTIC AND CREATIVE THINKING ( * %YSENCK
2ESEARCHERS HAVE EXAMINED THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PSYCHOPA
THOLOGY #ATTELL $REVDAHL $ELLAS 'AIER 'OERTZEL 'OERTZEL
'OERTZEL (ESTON *AMISON ,LOYD %VANS ET AL
,UDWIG 0RENTKY 3ASS AND MANY OF THEM
HAVE FOUND EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT ( * %YSENCKS HYPOTHESIS THAT THERE ARE
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CREATIVES AND INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA OR SUFFERERS OF
BIPOLAR DISORDER 0SYCHOTICISM OR SCHIZOTYPY IS POSTULATED TO CONTRIBUTE TO A
CREATIVE THINKING STYLE WHEREAS BIPOLAR DISORDER IS POSTULATED TO CONTRIBUTE TO
CREATIVITY BY PREDISPOSING SUFFERERS TO EXPERIENCE THE EXTREMES OF AFFECT &OR
THIS REASON MODERN RESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND THE RELATION OF SCHIZOTYPAL DIMEN
SIONS TO CREATIVITY IN DIFFERENT DOMAINS TO VARY EG .ETTLE
-OST OF THESE RESEARCHERS HAVE CONCLUDED THAT THERE ARE SIGNS OF PSYCHO
PATHOLOGY ESPECIALLY PSYCHOSES AMONG FAMOUS CREATORS AND HAVE POINTED
TO A LINK BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY ( * %YSENCK SUG
GESTED THAT MUCH OF THE DEBATE ABOUT WHETHER CREATIVE GENIUSES ARE PSYCHOTIC
COULD BE RESOLVED BY DISREGARDING THE ASSUMPTION THAT PSYCHIATRIC ABNORMAL
ITY IS CATEGORICAL RATHER THAN DIMENSIONAL !CCORDING TO ( * %YSENCK AND
%YSENCK PSYCHOPATHOLOGY CAN BE CONCEPTUALIZED AS AN EXAGGERATION
OR EXTENSION OF UNDERLYING PERSONALITY TRAITS AN IDEA SUPPORTED BY THE INTRO
DUCTION OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS IN THE $IAGNOSTIC AND 3TATISTICAL -ANUAL OF
-ENTAL $ISORDERS THIRD EDITION $3- ))) !MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION
AND CONTINUED WITH THE $IAGNOSTIC AND 3TATISTICAL -ANUAL OF -ENTAL
$ISORDERS FOURTH EDITION $3- )6 !MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION
"ATEY &URNHAM
!CCORDINGLY PSYCHOSIS LIES AT THE EXTREME END OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PSY

CHOTICISM A HYPOTHETICAL DISPOSITIONAL PERSONALITY TRAIT WHICH IS CONCEIVED
OF AS A CONTINUUM RANGING FROM NORMAL TO PSYCHOTIC 0SYCHOTICISM HAS BEEN
DESCRIBED AS CONSISTING OF SEVERAL CHARACTERISTICS ONE OF WHICH IS CREATIVITY
/THER CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE AGGRESSIVENESS IMPERSONAL AND ANTISOCIAL BE
HAVIOR COLDNESS EGOCENTRICITY IMPULSIVITY UNEMPATHIC BEHAVIOR AND TOUGH
MINDEDNESS ( * %YSENCK %YSENCK
( * %YSENCK ASSUMED THAT CREATIVE PEOPLE POSSESS THE PERSONALITY
CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOTICISM PREDISPOSITION TO PSYCHOSIS AT A HIGHER LEVEL
THAN DOES THE NORMAL INDIVIDUAL AND THAT IF ADEQUATE CONTROL IS MISSING OR IF THEY
EXPERIENCE STRESSFUL SITUATIONS THEN THEY MAY DEVELOP PSYCHOSIS 4HE PERSONALITY
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIGH 0 SCORERS MAKE THEM PREDISPOSED TOWARD CREATIVITY
4HE COEXISTENCE OF BOTH A DOMINANT OR INDEPENDENT ATTITUDES AND B A COGNI
TIVE STYLE THAT ALLOWS FOR GREATER FLEXIBILITY ENSURES THAT HIGH 0 SCORERS COULD BE
CREATIVE IF THEY ALSO POSSESS THE NECESSARY MOTIVATIONAL TRAITS COGNITIVE VARIABLES
AND AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE EXPRESSION
( * %YSENCKS POSITION CAN BE SUMMARIZED AS FOLLOWS )F A THERE
IS A LINK BETWEEN PSYCHOSIS AND CREATIVITY AND B PSYCHOTICISM TAPS A UNITARY
DIMENSION UNDERLYING SUSCEPTIBILITY TO PSYCHOTIC ILLNESS THEN THE IMPORTANT
PERSONALITY FACTORWHICH ACTS SYNERGISTICALLY WITH TRAIT CREATIVITY $4 AND
WHICH MAY UNDER FAVORABLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS LEAD TO REAL LIFE CREATIVE
ACHIEVEMENTIS PSYCHOTICISM 2ESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND A CORRELATION BETWEEN
PSYCHOTICISM AND TRAIT CREATIVITY EG !GUILAR !LONSO -ERTEN &ISCHER
7OODY #LARIDGE AND ALSO BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND ACHIEVEMENT
CREATIVITY 'OTZ 'OTZ A B 2USHTON (OWEVER RESEARCHERS
HAVE FAILED TO FIND SIGNIFICANT RELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND 0 ( * %YSENCK
&URNHAM +LINE #OOPER -ARTINDALE $AILEY
( * %YSENCK SUGGESTED THAT THE COMMON FACTOR OR FACTORS UNDERLYING
THE RELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND THE CREATIVE PROCESS CONCERN INFORMATION
PROCESSING OR ATTENTIONAL DEFICIT PATTERNS IN BOTH CREATIVE PEOPLE AND PEOPLE WITH
PSYCHOSIS #LOSE EXAMINATION OF THE THEORIES DEVELOPED TO EXPLAIN THE COGNITIVE
DEFICITS IN PEOPLE WITH PSYCHOSIS &RITH (EMSLEY AND THOSE RELATING TO
THE COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF CREATIVITY -ARTINDALE REVEALS MANY SIMILARI
TIES -EEHL SUGGESTED THAT THE TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA AND
SCHIZOTYPAL DISORDERS ARE LOOSENING OF ASSOCIATIONS AMBIVALENCE SOCIAL WITHDRAW
AL AND INAPPROPRIATE AFFECT 4HESE CHARACTERISTICS ARE HIGHLY SIMILAR TO THOSE OF THE
CREATIVE PERSON WHO MUST PRODUCE NOVEL IDEAS SHOW A TOLERANCE FOR AMBIGUITY TRY
TO hDEFY THE CROWDv 3TERNBERG ,UBART P AND ENGAGE IN WHAT IS OFTEN
CONSIDERED STRANGE BEHAVIOR 'OERTZEL ET AL /CHSE
-OST OF THE THEORISTS STUDYING THE COGNITIVE DEFICIT IN SCHIZOPHRENIA HAVE
PROPOSED A DEFICIT IN SELECTIVE ATTENTION MECHANISMS WHICH RESULTS IN INDIVIDUALS
WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA WHO ARE UNABLE TO INHIBIT IRRELEVANT INFORMATION FROM ENTERING
CONSCIOUSNESS &RITH (EMSLEY 4HIS ACTIVE INHIBITION PROPOSITION

4IPPER MAY BE CONTRASTED WITH THE PASSIVE DECAY THEORY OF ATTENTION
"ROADBENT 4HIS INDICATES THAT THERE IS AN ATTENTIONAL MECHANISM RESPON
SIBLE FOR INHIBITING IRRELEVANT INFORMATION THE NORMAL VARIATIONS OF WHICH CAN BE
USED TO EXPLAIN TRAIT CREATIVITY
-ANY RESEARCHERS HAVE DIRECTLY EXAMINED THE HYPOTHESIS THAT A MECHANISM
OF REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION DURING SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
WIDENING OF ASSOCIATIVE CONNECTIONS -OST OF THESE RESEARCHERS HAVE USED A
NEGATIVE PRIMING 4IPPER OR LATENT INHIBITION ,) ,UBOW -OORE
PARADIGM TO MEASURE INHIBITION .EGATIVE PRIMING TYPICALLY USES A MODIFIED
VERSION OF THE 3TROOP COLOR WORD INK NAMING TASK AND REFERS TO THE DELAY
IN RESPONDING TO A CURRENT TARGET OBJECT IF THE OBJECT HAD BEEN A DISTRACTER TO BE
INHIBITED ON A PREVIOUS DISPLAY
2ESEARCHERS HAVE DEMONSTRATED A REDUCED NEGATIVE PRIMING EFFECT IN SCHIZO
PHRENIC PATIENTS PROVIDING EVIDENCE OF REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION IN PEOPLE WITH
SCHIZOPHRENIA "EECH -C-ANUS "AYLIS 4IPPER !GAR "EECH 0OWELL
-C7ILLIAM #LARIDGE 4HIS EFFECT HAS ALSO BEEN FOUND WITH THE ,) PARA
DIGM "ARUCH (EMSLEY 'RAY A 7UTHRICH AND "ATES DEMONSTRATED
THAT THE RELATION OF PSYCHOSIS PRONENESS TO PRIMING AND THAT TO ,) ARE SIMILAR SUG
GESTING THAT STUDIES USING THESE DIFFERENT METHODS CAN BE CONTRASTED
"ULLEN AND (EMSLEY BY USING A NEGATIVE PRIMING WORD TASK AND THE
%YSENCK 0ERSONALITY 1UESTIONNAIRE %01 AS A MEASURE OF PSYCHOTIC TENDEN
CIES FOUND A SIGNIFICANT NEGATIVE CORRELATION BETWEEN 0 AND THE MAGNITUDE OF
THE INHIBITORY NEGATIVE PRIMING EFFECT (IGH 0 SCORERS SHOWED REDUCED COGNITIVE
INHIBITION COMPARED TO LOW 0 SCORERS 4HOSE RESEARCHERS DID NOT OBTAIN CORRELA
TIONS BETWEEN THE NEGATIVE PRIMING TASK AND THE OTHER %01 SUBSCALES )N A SIMILAR
STUDY "ARUCH (EMSLEY AND 'RAY B FOUND THAT THE GREATER THE SCORES ON
%YSENCKS 0 THE GREATER THE REDUCTION IN ,) )N AN EXTENSION ,UBOW )NGBERG
3ACHS :ALSTEIN /RDA AND 'ERWITZ DEMONSTRATED THAT EFFECT FOR BOTH AUDI
TORY AND VISUAL ,) PARADIGMS
"EECH "AYLISS 3MITHSON AND #LARIDGE STUDIED THE EFFECT OF CHLOR
PROMAZINE A DRUG ROUTINELY ADMINISTERED TO REDUCE SCHIZOPHRENIC SYMPTOM
ATOLOGY ON NEGATIVE PRIMING 4HEY FOUND THAT ALTHOUGH NEGATIVE PRIMING WAS
OBSERVED IN BOTH THE DRUG AND PLACEBO CONDITIONS THE EFFECT WAS STRONGER IN THE
DRUG CONDITION 4HIS INDICATES THAT A DRUG THAT REDUCES THE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZO
PHRENIA ALSO INCREASES COGNITIVE INHIBITION 4HIS FINDING SHOWS THE RELATION BE
TWEEN ATTENTIONAL DEFICITS AND THE NEUROTRANSMITTER DOPAMINE WHICH IS RELATED TO
LEVEL OF INHIBITION 3OLOMON ET AL )N THE FUTURE THIS RELATION WOULD ALLOW
RESEARCHERS TO FIND THE GENES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CODING OF DOPAMINE NEUROTRANS
MITTERS WHICH BY PROXY WOULD ENABLE A GENETIC TEST FOR SOME OF THE COGNITIVE
ELEMENTS OF CREATIVITY
4HEORIES DEVELOPED TO EXPLAIN THE CREATIVE PROCESS HAVE MANY SIMILARITIES TO
THE THEORIES ABOUT SCHIZOPHRENIA ! NUMBER OF AUTHORS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT THE
CREATIVE PROCESS IS ASSOCIATIVE -EDNICK PROPOSED THAT INDIVIDUALS WHO
"ATEY &URNHAM
DEMONSTRATE LOW CREATIVITY HAVE A SMALL NUMBER OF STRONG STEREOTYPED ASSOCIA

TIVE RESPONSES TO A GIVEN STIMULUS COMPARED WITH HIGHLY CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS
7ALLACH SUGGESTED THAT WHAT IS IMPORTANT IN CREATIVITY IS THE GENERATION OF
ASSOCIATES AND THAT ATTENTION DEPLOYMENT IS THE PROCESS UNDERLYING THIS GENERA
TION +ASOF SHOWED THAT BREADTH OF ATTENTION CORRELATED POSITIVELY WITH
CREATIVE PERFORMANCE ON A POETRY WRITING TASK THEREBY DEMONSTRATING THAT PART OF
AN INDIVIDUALS PERFORMANCE ON A CREATIVITY TASK CAN BE EXPLAINED BY ATTENTIONAL
ABILITIES -ARTINDALE HAS DEMONSTRATED THAT CREATIVE PEOPLE
HAVE A HIGH RESTING LEVEL OF ACTIVATION AND THAT THEY ARE OVERSENSITIVE TO STIMULI
(OWEVER THEY ALSO HAVE A LOW LEVEL OF INHIBITION SO THAT THE MORE THEY ARE STIMU
LATED THE MORE THEIR LEVEL OF AROUSAL DROPS FAVORING CREATIVE PERFORMANCE !GAIN
THE NOTIONS OF REDUCED INHIBITION AND MOOD FLUCTUATION AROUSAL LEVELS RISING AND
FALLING ARE COMMON NOTIONS IN THE LITERATURE ON SCHIZOPHRENIA
#REATIVE INDIVIDUALS MAY BE ABLE TO ATTEND TO MANY ASPECTS OF A GIVEN STIMU
LUS AND THUS PRODUCE MORE AND MORE VARIED ASSOCIATIONS 4HE SIMILARITY BETWEEN
THE AFOREMENTIONED THEORIES AND THE NOTION OF WIDE ASSOCIATIVE HORIZONS THAT
CHARACTERIZE SCHIZOPHRENIC COGNITION IS CLEAR (OWEVER EXPERIMENTERS INVESTIGAT
ING THIS AVENUE OF RESEARCH HAVE CONTINUED TO REPEAT THE ERRORS OF EARLY CREATIVITY
INVESTIGATORS 4HESE LATER RESEARCHERS HAVE MADE LITTLE ACCOUNT OF DOMAIN SPECI
FICITY AGE OR GENDER DURING ANALYSES
! NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS HAVE REPORTED RESULTS SUPPORTING THE AFOREMEN
TIONED THEORIES -AC+INNON IN HIS STUDY OF ARCHITECTS FOUND THAT RATED
CREATIVITY CORRELATED BY R WITH A MEASURE OF UNUSUALNESS OF ASSOCIATIONS ON
A WORD ASSOCIATION TEST &URTHERMORE THE DEGREE OF UNUSUALNESS OF RESPONSE WAS
GREATEST WITH THE MOST CREATIVE SAMPLE WITH LOWER SCORES FOR THE MEDIAN AND LEAST
CREATIVE GROUPS RESPECTIVELY 3IMILARLY 'OUGH REPORTED THAT THE SCORES ON
TWO WORD ASSOCIATION TESTS USING A GENERAL WORD LIST AND A SCIENTIFIC WORD LIST
CORRELATED WITH RATED CREATIVITY IN A SAMPLE OF ENGINEERING STUDENTS AND INDUSTRIAL
REWARD SCIENTISTS 4HESE RESULTS HAVE BEEN REPLICATED IN OTHER SAMPLES -ERTEN
&ISCHER -ILLER #HAPMAN 5PMANYU "HARDWAJ 3INGH
2ESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND COMPARABLE RESULTS IN STUDIES IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS WITH
SCHIZOPHRENIA AND CREATIVES COMPLETED OBJECT SORTING TASKS WITH THE CREATIVES
PERFORMING SIMILARLY TO THE INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA !NDREASEN 0OW
ERS $YKES -C'HIE
! FEW RESEARCHERS HAVE CONTRASTED THE ATTENTIONAL AND INFORMATION PROCESSING
STRATEGIES OF INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA AND HIGH 0 SCORERS AND CREATIVE INDIVID
UALS 2AWLINGS USED THE %01 TWO SUBSCALES OF THE 7ALLACH +OGAN 7ALLACH
+OGAN $4 TEST AND A DICHOTIC SHADOWING TASK AS A MEASURE OF COGNITIVE
INHIBITION WITH A GROUP OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS (E FOUND THAT PERFORMANCE ON
THE SHADOWING TASK WAS POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH $4 SCORES AND WITH PSYCHOTICISM
SCORES ON THE DIVIDED ATTENTION CONDITION (OWEVER THE PATTERN OF RESULTS WAS RE
VERSED IN THE FOCUSED ATTENTION CONDITION AND THE CORRELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM
AND $4 WAS NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT

3TAVRIDOU AND &URNHAM TESTED A SAMPLE OF UNDERGRADUATE PARTICI

PANTS BY USING THE %01 THE 7ALLACH +OGAN 7ALLACH +OGAN $4 TESTS
AND A NEGATIVE PRIMING TASK AS A MEASURE OF COGNITIVE INHIBITION 4HEY FOUND THAT
0 WAS CORRELATED WITH $4 SCORES (IGH 0 SCORERS EXHIBITED A REDUCED NEGATIVE
PRIMING EFFECT WHEN COMPARED WITH LOW 0 SCORERS 0ARTICIPANTS WHO SCORED HIGHLY
ON THE $4 TESTS SHOWED A SMALLER NEGATIVE PRIMING EFFECT COMPARED WITH LOW $4
SCORERS BUT THIS EFFECT FAILED TO REACH STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 2ECENT EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCHERS HAVE INDICATED THAT PARTICIPANTS RATED AS SUPERIOR IN CREATIVE ABILITY ALSO
DEMONSTRATE LOW LEVELS OF LATENT INHIBITION IN COMPARISON WITH PEOPLE NOT RATED
AS CREATIVE #ARSON 0ETERSON (IGGINS 0ETERSON #ARSON 4HIS
EVIDENCE SUPPORTS ( * %YSENCKS THEORY OF CREATIVITY
7ITH THE RELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND CREATIVITY REASONABLY WELL ESTAB
LISHED WE EXAMINE THE GENERALIZABILITY OF ( * %YSENCKS IDEAS 2ESEARCH
ERS RELATING THE 'IGANTIC TO CREATIVITY HAVE INVESTIGATED THE RELATION OF %YSENCKIAN
PERSONALITY TO A $4 B RATINGS AND SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND C CONFLU
ENCE APPROACHES 7OODY AND #LARIDGE DEMONSTRATED A LINK BETWEEN 0 AND
TRAIT CREATIVITY 4HEY ADMINISTERED TO UNDERGRADUATES THE %01 AND SLIGHTLY
MODIFIED VERSIONS OF THE FIVE TESTS THAT CONSTITUTED THE 7ALLACH +OGAN 7ALLACH
+OGAN CREATIVITY TESTS 4HE TESTS YIELDED SCORES FOR FLUENCY AND ORIGINAL
ITY &LUENCY SCORES FOR THE FIVE TESTS WERE ALL SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH 0 WITH
A RANGE OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN R AND R /RIGINALITY SCORES
WERE ALSO SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH 0 WITH A RANGE OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS
BETWEEN R AND R 4HERE WERE NO SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS BETWEEN A THE
SCORES FOR THE CREATIVITY TESTS AND B EITHER % OR .
+LINE AND #OOPER HOWEVER PUBLISHED RESEARCH THAT hCAST DOUBT ON THE
GENERALITY OF THE LINK BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND 0v P 4HEY WANTED TO TEST THE
SUPPOSITION THAT 0 WAS MORE PREDICTIVE OF ORIGINALITY THAN FLUENCY SCORES ON $4 TESTS
( * %YSENCK %YSENCK 7OODY #LARIDGE +LINE AND #OOPER GAVE
UNDERGRADUATES THE %01 AND THE #OMPREHENSIVE !BILITY "ATTERY #!" (AKSTIAN
#ATTELL 4HE #!" CONSISTED OF SEVERAL MEASURES OF PRIMARY ABILITY FACTORS
INCLUDING SOME TO MEASURE CREATIVITY FLEXIBILITY OF CLOSURE SPONTANEOUS FLEXIBILITY
IDEATIONAL FLUENCY WORD FLUENCY AND ORIGINALITY 4HE RESULTS WERE SURPRISING
/NLY ONE SIGNIFICANT CORRELATION BETWEEN THE #!" AND 0 WAS REVEALED A COR
RELATION FOR MALE PARTICIPANTS N ONLY ON THE WORD FLUENCY MEASURE +LINE
#OOPER 4HERE WERE NO SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS BETWEEN 0 SCORES AND
#!" MEASURES FOR THE FEMALE PARTICIPANTS N 4O EXPLAIN WHY THE RESULTS
OF THIS STUDY WERE INCONGRUENT WITH THE FINDINGS OF 7OODY AND #LARIDGE
+LINE AND #OOPER SUGGESTED THAT UNLIKE THE UNTIMED TESTS OF CREATIVITY USED BY
7OODY AND #LARIDGE THE #!" WAS TIMED 7ALLACH AND +OGANS ASSERTION
THAT TIMED TESTS PRODUCE LESS CREATIVE RESPONSES MAY BE AT THE HEART OF THESE DIS
CREPANT FINDINGS ON THE NATURE OF 0 AND CREATIVITY 7ALLACH AND +OGAN ALSO NOTED
THAT THE VARIANCE IN )1 SCORES FOR THE +LINE AND #OOPER SAMPLE WAS GREATER THAN
THAT OF THE STUDENTS IN THE 7OODY AND #LARIDGE EXPERIMENT
"ATEY &URNHAM
5SING A BATTERY OF CREATIVITY TESTS !GUILAR !LONSO FOUND THAT 0 AND
% WERE SIGNIFICANT CORRELATES OF $4 MEASURES OF CREATIVITY (IGH 0 SCORERS WERE
MORE VERBALLY CREATIVE AND FLEXIBLE THAN LOW 0 SCORERS -OREOVER EXTROVERTS
WERE MORE ORIGINAL FLUENT AND FLEXIBLE THAN INTROVERTS BUT THE NEUROTICISM
FACTOR WAS UNCORRELATED
3OME RESEARCHERS HAVE EXAMINED %YSENCKIAN PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY BY
USING RATINGS WITH PARTICULAR OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS 'OTZ AND 'OTZ A
B STUDIED THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF 7EST 'ERMAN ARTISTS 4HOSE IN
VESTIGATIONS REVEALED THAT IN THE DOMAIN OF THE VISUAL ARTS . AS MEASURED BY THE
-AUDSLEY 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY -0) ( * %YSENCK AND THE %01 ( *
%YSENCK %YSENCK IS AN IMPORTANT VARIABLE FOR RESEARCHERS TO CONSIDER
'OTZ AND 'OTZS STUDY INDICATED THAT GIFTED ART STUDENTS N SCORED
HIGHER ON . AND INTROVERSION ) SCALES THAN DID LESS GIFTED ART STUDENTS 'OTZ
AND 'OTZ A STUDIED PROFESSIONAL ARTISTS AND FOUND THEM TO HAVE HIGHER
SCORES ON 0 THAN DID A GROUP OF CONTROL PARTICIPANTS )N A FOLLOW UP STUDY 'OTZ
AND 'OTZ B COMPARED THE PERSONALITY SCORES OF HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL PROFES
SIONAL ARTISTS AND LESS SUCCESSFUL PROFESSIONAL ARTISTS 4HOSE RESEARCHERS FOUND
THAT SUCCESSFUL ARTISTS SCORED SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER ON THE 0 SCALE THAN DID LESS
SUCCESSFUL ARTISTS .O DIFFERENCES WERE FOUND BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS ON THE %
. OR LIE , SCALES
-ERTEN AND &ISCHER SELECTED CREATIVES ON THE BASIS OF OCCUPATION
4HOSE RESEARCHERS COMPARED ACTORS AND WRITERS WITH INDIVIDUALS WITH
SCHIZOPHRENIA AND CONTROL PARTICIPANTS 0ARTICIPANTS TOOK A WORD ASSOCIATION
TEST REQUIRING COMMON AND UNCOMMON RESPONSES -ERTEN TWO TESTS
OF VERBAL CREATIVITY 3CHOPPE AND TWO STORY WRITING TASKS WHICH WERE
USED AS MEASURES OF CREATIVITY 4HE %01 WAS USED AS A MEASURE OF PERSONALITY
0ARTICIPANTS WERE ALSO GIVEN A VOCABULARY TEST 2AVENS 3TANDARD 0ROGRES
SIVE -ATRICES AND A MEASURE OF BASIC COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING 2EITAN 4HE
CREATIVES SCORED HIGHER ON THE 0 SCALE THAN DID THE CONTROL GROUP 4HE CREATIVES
ALSO PRODUCED THE MOST ORIGINAL WORD ASSOCIATIONS OF THE THREE GROUPS 4HE
CREATIVES DID NOT PRODUCE ANY RESPONSE REPETITIONS IN THE COMMON OR UNUSUAL
RESPONSE CONDITIONS 4HIS WAS CONSIDERED AN INDICATION OF THE MENTAL HEALTH OF
THE CREATIVE GROUP (OWEVER WE EXERCISE CAUTION WHEN INTERPRETING THE RESULTS
OF THIS STUDY 4HE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY WAS NOT PARTICULARLY STRINGENT 4HE CRE
ATIVES GROUP CONSISTED OF ACTORS AND WRITERS &IRST ACTORS AND WRITERS MAY HAVE
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CREATIVITY 4HEREFORE THE STUDY MAY HAVE FAILED TO TAKE
DOMAIN SPECIFICITY INTO ACCOUNT 3ECOND THERE WAS NO MEASURE OF THE QUALITY OF
THE WORK OF THE ACTORS OR WRITERS MAKING IT DIFFICULT TO ASCERTAIN WHETHER THEY
SHOULD BE CALLED CREATIVE
)N A STUDY OF ADOLESCENTS 3EN AND (AGTVET ADMINISTERED A BATTERY OF
TESTS WHICH INCLUDED MEASURES OF PERSONALITY -0) ( * %YSENCK $4
4ORRANCE AND INTELLIGENCE 2AVEN AND A STUDY OF VALUES !LLPORT
6ERNON ,INDZEY 3EN AND (AGTVET ALSO USED EXAMINATION MARKS AS A

MEASURE OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT /F THE PERSONALITY VARIABLES ONLY % CORRE

LATED SIGNIFICANTLY WITH THE COMPOSITE CREATIVITY SCORE R 7HEN THE SAMPLE
WAS SPLIT TO COMPARE THE SCORES OF HIGH SCORERS AND LOW SCORERS ON THE CREATIVITY
TESTS THE HIGH CREATIVES WERE FOUND TO BE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE EXTROVERTED 7E
INTERPRET THESE RESULTS CAUTIOUSLY BECAUSE THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY WAS NOT PAR
TICULARLY COMPREHENSIVE
-ARTINDALE AND $AILEY USED MEASURES OF PERSONALITY %01 AND .%/
0) #OSTA -C#RAE AND SEVERAL MEASURES OF CREATIVITY -ARTINDALE AND
$AILEY FAILED TO FIND ANY CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MEASURES OF CREATIVITY AND THE
0 SCALE 4HE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN .%/ OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE / AND CREATIV
ITY SCORES ALL FAILED TO REACH SIGNIFICANCE 3IGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS WERE DEMON
STRATED BETWEEN THE %01 % SCORES AND THE CREATIVITY SCORES AT THE LEVEL 3OME
MARGINALLY SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS WERE OBSERVED FOR THE .%/ % SCORES AND
CREATIVITY SCORES 4HE DESIGN OF THIS INVESTIGATION WAS COMPREHENSIVE -ULTIPLE
MEASURES OF PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY WERE USED (OWEVER THE SAMPLE INCLUDED
ONLY PARTICIPANTS MAKING GENERALIZATION DIFFICULT
5PMANYU ET AL TESTED MALE GRADUATE STUDENTS IN )NDIA 5PMANYU ET
AL WERE INTERESTED IN TESTING A FINDING BY 'OUGH THAT MODERATELY UNUSUAL
RESPONSES ON A WORD ASSOCIATION TEST WERE MORE PREDICTIVE OF CREATIVITY THAN
WERE EXTREMELY UNUSUAL RESPONSES 'OUGH DID NOT CONTROL FOR PSYCHIC
DISTURBANCE IN HIS STUDY AND BECAUSE UNUSUALNESS OF RESPONSE IS A CHARACTERISTIC
OF SCHIZOPHRENIA 5PMANYU ET AL WANTED TO TEST THE RELATIONS BETWEEN UNUSUAL
NESS OF RESPONSE $4 SCORES PERSONALITY VARIABLES AND MEASURES OF PSYCHIC
DISTURBANCE !MONG OTHER MEASURES THEY USED THE %01 A WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
+ENT 2OSANOFF 7ORD !SSOCIATION 4EST ;+ 2 7!4= +ENT 2OSANOFF AND
FIGURAL AND VERBAL $4 TESTS 4ORRANCE 4O ASSESS SCHIZOTYPICAL TENDENCIES
THEY USED THE --0) 0SYCHOPATHIC $EVIATE SUBSCALE (ATHAWAY -C+INLEY
5PMANYU ET AL FOUND THAT EXTREMELY UNIQUE WORD ASSOCIATIONS
WERE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH VERBAL CREATIVITY (OWEVER ATYPICAL OR MODER
ATELY UNUSUAL RESPONSES WERE SUBSTANTIALLY RELATED TO VERBAL CREATIVITY %XTREMELY
UNIQUE WORD ASSOCIATIONS WERE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH 0 AND PSYCHOPATHIC
DEVIATION 4HE AUTHORS SUGGESTED THAT THE 0 SCALE CONTRIBUTES TO CREATIVITY IN THAT
IT PREDISPOSES INDIVIDUALS TO SOCIAL ANHEDONIA SOCIAL DEVIANCE UNCONVENTIONAL
ITY AND MILD ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR 4HEY CONCLUDED THAT THE FINDINGS SUPPORTED THE
SUPPOSITION OF hA LINK BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM MILD ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND LACK
OF CONFORMITYUNCONVENTIONALITY RATHER THAN THE MORE SPECIFIC CLINICAL ENTITY OF
PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIOURv P (OWEVER WE TREAT THE RESULTS OF THAT EXPERI
MENT WITH CAUTION BECAUSE THE CRITERION FOR CREATIVITY WAS $4 TEST SCORES
4HE RELATION BETWEEN ( * %YSENCKS PERSONALITY FACTORS AND CREATIVITY AP
PEARS TO BE MIXED IN THAT NO SINGLE DIMENSION CAN BE SAID TO BE THE SOURCE OF
CREATIVITY -OST LIKELY THIS CIRCUMSTANCE IS DUE TO DOMAIN SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES
%XTRAVERSION IS SEEN TO RELIABLY CORRELATE WITH PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF CREATIV
ITY EG $4 TESTS (OWEVER INTROVERSION SEEMS PREDICTIVE OF REAL LIFE ARTISTIC
"ATEY &URNHAM
ENDEAVOR PARTLY BECAUSE ARTISTS SPEND MUCH TIME ON THEIR OWN .EUROTICISM
APPEARS IMPORTANT FOR ARTISTIC CREATIVITY DIFFERENTIATING GIFTED ARTISTS FROM LESS
GIFTED ARTISTS )N TERMS OF REAL LIFE SUCCESS ESPECIALLY FOR ARTISTS PSYCHOTICISM
APPEARS INFLUENTIAL
4HE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND ( * %YSENCKS PSYCHOTICISM IS NOT
CONCLUSIVE 4HE RESEARCH ON THE 'IGANTIC SUGGESTS THAT IT IS NOT PSYCHOTICISM
ALONE THAT CHARACTERIZES CREATIVITY )NSTEAD THE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT ALL THREE DI
MENSIONS OF %YSENCKIAN PERSONALITY CONTRIBUTE TO CREATIVITY %XTRAVERSION ASSISTS
IN $4 PERFORMANCE AND IN OCCUPATIONS WHERE SOCIAL INTERACTION IS PARAMOUNT
#ONVERSELY INTROVERSION APPEARS IMPORTANT TO ENABLE SOME CREATORS TO WITHDRAW
FROM DISTRACTING SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 3IMILARLY INTROVERSION ASSISTS IN DOMAINS WHERE
LENGTHY INTROSPECTION IS PARAMOUNT BECAUSE EXTROVERTS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE
DISTRACTED - 7 %YSENCK 'RAYDON .EUROTICISM PROVIDES ARTISTS WITH
THE EMOTIONAL SENSITIVITY TO APPRECIATE AND EXPRESS IDEAS WITH EMOTIONAL CONTENT
,AST PSYCHOTICISM IS RELATED NOT ONLY TO ATTENTIONAL DEFICITS THAT INCREASE THE
LIKELIHOOD THAT IDEAS AND KNOWLEDGE WILL COMBINE IN OVERINCLUSIVE INTERESTING
WAYS BUT ALSO TO NONCONFORMITY WHICH ASSISTS THE CREATOR IN DEFYING THE CROWD
3TERNBERG ,UBART
&IVE &ACTOR -ODEL
$URING THE S AND S POPULARITY BEGAN TO FORM AROUND A NEW CON
CEPTUALIZATION OF PERSONALITY THE "IG OR FIVE FACTOR MODEL &&- OF PERSONALITY
.%/ #OSTA -C#RAE B 4HE &&- HYPOTHESIZES THAT THERE
ARE FIVE FACTORS OF PERSONALITY NEUROTICISM . EXTRAVERSION % OPENNESS TO EX
PERIENCE / AGREEABLENESS ! AND CONSCIENTIOUSNESS # 2ESEARCHERS STARTED
TO EXAMINE THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY IN RELATION TO THIS NEW MODEL "Y THE TIME
THIS CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PERSONALITY HAD BECOME POPULAR THE FIELD OF CREATIVITY
RESEARCH HAD EVOLVED #ONFLUENCE STUDIES HAD BECOME THE NORM
&&- AND $4
-C#RAE FOUND THAT $4 WAS CONSISTENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH SELF REPORTS
AND PEER RATINGS OF / BUT NOT WITH % . ! OR # (OWEVER HE NOTED h#REATIVE
ABILITY DOES NOT INEVITABLY LEAD TO RECOGNIZED CREATIVITY AND A VARIETY OF PERSONAL
ITY TRAITS MAY BE INVOLVED IN BEING CONCEIVED AS CREATIVEv P
+ING 7ALKER AND "ROYLES EXAMINED THE RELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVE
ABILITY CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND AN &&- 4HEY GAVE PARTICIPANTS
VERBAL $4 TESTS ASKED THEM TO LIST THEIR CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OVER THE
PREVIOUS YEARS AND HAD THEM TAKE THE ITEM "IG &IVE )NVENTORY "&) *OHN
$ONAHUE +ENTLE 4HE 0EARSON CORRELATIONS INDICATED THAT VERBAL CRE
ATIVITY WAS SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH % AND / 4HERE WERE SIGNIFICANT COR
RELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS / AND NEGATIVE ! ! REGRESSION

WITH ALL FIVE PERSONALITY FACTORS USING VERBAL $4 SCORES AND THEN CREATIVE AC
COMPLISHMENTS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES REVEALED A SIGNIFICANT PREDICTION
FOR / ALONE -ARTINDALE AND $AILEY FAILED TO FIND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN
SCORES ON THE / SUBSCALE FROM THE .%/ 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY .%/ 0) AND
CREATIVITY AS MEASURED BY $4 TESTS OR FANTASY STORY WRITING 4HEY DID FIND COR
RELATIONS BETWEEN $4 PERFORMANCE AND %
&&- 2ATINGS AND 3ELECTED /CCUPATIONAL 'ROUPS
!N INNOVATIVE STUDY BY $OLLINGER AND #LANCY REQUIRED PARTICIPANTS
TO CREATE AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STORY ESSAYS USING PHOTOGRAPHS :ILLER 4HE
INSTRUCTIONS STATED h0HOTOGRAPHS SHOULD DESCRIBE WHO YOU ARE AS YOU SEE YOUR
SELFv $OLLINGER #LANCY P 0ARTICIPANTS WERE ALSO GIVEN THE .%/ 0)
4HE PICTORIAL AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STORIES WERE EXTENSIVELY CODED WITH A MAIN RATING
OF RICHNESS OF SELF DEPICTION ! MULTIPLE REGRESSION TO PREDICT RICHNESS RATING RE
VEALED THAT / HAD A SIGNIFICANT BETA WEIGHT . AND % FELL JUST SHORT OF SIGNIFICANCE
7HEN ANALYSES WERE CONDUCTED TO INVESTIGATE GENDER DIFFERENCES THE RICHNESS OF
MENS ESSAYS WAS PREDICTED BY / R WITH THE ONLY SIGNIFICANT FACET BEING
AESTHETIC OPENNESS R 4HESE RESULTS WERE REPLICATED FOR WOMEN (OWEVER
THE / FACET OF IDEAS WAS ALSO A SIGNIFICANT CORRELATE 4HE RICHNESS RATINGS FOR
WOMEN WERE SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH THE . POSITIVE AND ) DOMAINS
'ELADE GAVE THE .%/ 0) TO A GROUP OF ADVERTISING AND DESIGN CREATIVES
COMMERCIAL CREATIVES AND A COMPARABLE GROUP OF PROFESSIONALS AND MANAGERS IN
OCCUPATIONS THAT WERE NOT APPARENTLY CREATIVE NONCREATIVES #OMPARED TO THE
NONCREATIVES THE COMMERCIAL CREATIVES WERE MORE NEUROTIC PARTICULARLY IN TERMS
OF ANGRY HOSTILITY DEPRESSION SELF CONSCIOUSNESS IMPULSIVITY AND VULNERABILITY
MORE EXTROVERTED ESPECIALLY IN TERMS OF GREGARIOUSNESS AND EXCITEMENT SEEKING
MORE OPEN TO EXPERIENCE PARTICULARLY IN TERMS OF FANTASY AESTHETICS AND FEEL
INGS AND LESS CONSCIENTIOUS PARTICULARLY IN TERMS OF OVERALL COMPETENCE ORDER
SELF DISCIPLINE AND DELIBERATION
&URNHAM ADMINISTERED THE "ARRON 7ELSH 7ELSH "ARRON
!RT 3CALE AND THE .%/ 0) 0ARTICIPANTS PROVIDED THREE SELF RATINGS OF CREATIVITY
AN ESTIMATE OF THE "ARRON 7ELSH SCORE A RATING OF HOW CREATIVE THEY THOUGHT
THEY WERE AND A RATING OF THE FREQUENCY OF CREATIVE HOBBIES / WAS A SIGNIFICANT
PREDICTOR OF THE PARTICIPANTS ESTIMATE OF THEIR "ARRON 7ELSH SCORE THE SELF RATING
OF HOW CREATIVE THEY THOUGHT THEY WERE AND THE RATING OF CREATIVE HOBBIES
&&- AND #ONFLUENCE 3TUDIES
)N A STUDY USING THREE MEASURES OF CREATIVITY 7OLFRADT AND 0RETZ
INVESTIGATED THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PERSONALITY 4HE MEASURES OF CRE
ATIVITY WERE THE #REATIVITY 0ERSONALITY 3CALE #03 'OUGH OF THE !#, A
STORY WRITING EXERCISE FOR WHICH THE STIMULUS WAS A PICTURE AND A LIST OF HOBBIES
"ATEY &URNHAM
4HE STORY EXERCISE AND THE LIST OF HOBBIES WERE RATED BY USING THE #ONSENSUAL
!SSESSMENT 4ECHNIQUE !MABILE 4HEY USED A 'ERMAN VERSION OF THE
.%/ &&) TO ASSESS PERSONALITY "ORKENAU /STENDORF 0ARTICIPANTS WERE
STUDENTS FROM DIVERSE ACADEMIC FIELDS 4HE #03 WAS PREDICTED BY HIGH SCORES ON
/ AND % 4HE BEST PREDICTOR FOR HOBBY CREATIVITY WAS / #REATIVE STORY WRITING
WAS PREDICTED BY / AND BY LOW SCORES ON # 4HE RESULTS WERE ALSO ANALYZED BY
FIELD OF STUDY WITH PURE SCIENTISTS SCORING SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER ON THE THREE MEA
SURES OF CREATIVITY AND / THAN DID PARTICIPANTS STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY OR ART AND
DESIGN 4HERE WERE ALSO GENDER EFFECTS WITH WOMEN SCORING HIGHER ON STORY AND
HOBBY CREATIVITY THAN DID MEN
'EORGE AND :HOU ADOPTED AN INTERACTIONAL APPROACH INVESTIGATING
THE ROLES OF / AND # AND WORK ENVIRONMENT ON CREATIVE BEHAVIOR 4HEY DEMON
STRATED THAT THE APPLICATION OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL DEPENDS ON SEVERAL FACTORS 4HEY
FOUND THAT RATED CREATIVE BEHAVIOR WAS HIGHEST WHEN INDIVIDUALS WITH HIGH /
WERE SET TASKS THAT HAD UNCLEAR DEMANDS OR UNCLEAR MEANS OF ACHIEVING ENDS AND
WERE GIVEN POSITIVE FEEDBACK 'EORGE AND :HOUS ANALYSES OF THE ROLE OF # ALSO
YIELDED CLEAR FINDINGS 4HEY FOUND THAT IF INDIVIDUALS SUPERVISORS MONITORED THEIR
WORK CLOSELY AND THEIR COWORKERS WERE UNSUPPORTIVE OF CREATIVE ENDEAVOR THEN
HIGH # INHIBITED CREATIVE BEHAVIOR )F THE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY ARE GENERALIZED
FROM THE WORKPLACE TO THE LABORATORY THEN IT MAY EXPLAIN WHY SOME STUDIES HAVE
PRODUCED CONTRADICTORY FINDINGS
)T MAY BE THAT PARTICIPANTS IN LABORATORY STUDIES HAVE BEEN INFLUENCED BY THE
ENVIRONMENT EG EXPERIMENTER ATTITUDE EXAM LIKE CONDITIONS AND THAT THESE
UNACCOUNTED FOR VARIABLES HAVE INFLUENCED THE EXPRESSION OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL )T
MAY BE THAT 7ALLACH AND +OGAN WERE CORRECT 4HE CONDITIONS OF TESTING
CAN AFFECT CREATIVITY 4HIS METHODOLOGICAL ISSUE IS RESTRICTED NEITHER TO THESE TWO
STUDIES NOR TO THE STUDY OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY 4HE AFOREMENTIONED RESEARCH
HAS ILLUSTRATED THAT A VAST ARRAY OF CREATIVITY TESTS HAS BEEN USED 3OME OF THOSE
TESTS ARE WELL SUITED FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF CREATIVITY AS ACHIEVEMENT EG
EXPERT RATINGS OF CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT OR POTENTIAL FREQUENCY COUNTS OF AWARDS
AND ACHIEVEMENTS WHEREAS SOME OF THE TESTS ARE WELL SUITED FOR THE ANALYSIS OF
CREATIVITY AS A TRAIT EG VERBAL AND FIGURAL $4 TESTS )NVESTIGATORS HAVE RARELY
USED A FULL ASSORTMENT OF INSTRUMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS THAT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT LESS
COMMONLY USED MEASURES
,ONGITUDINAL AND -ETA !NALYTICAL 2ESEARCH
4O SEPARATE CAUSE AND CORRELATION LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH IS NECESSARY &UR
THERMORE META ANALYSES PROVIDE A POWERFUL METHOD TO EXAMINE PATTERNS IN
RESULTS )N AN IMPORTANT META ANALYSIS &EIST INVESTIGATED CREATIVE PERSON
ALITY IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES 4O ANALYZE THE DISPARATE COLLECTION OF PERSONALITY
DATA HE CONVERTED THE DATA FROM EXPERIMENTS SO THAT THE DIFFERENT PERSONALITY
SCORES WERE ALL IN THE &&- FORMAT AND EFFECT SIZES WERE MEASURED BY D #OHEN

3UBSEQUENT ANALYSES WERE CONDUCTED BY INVESTIGATING THREE MAIN COM

PARISONS A SCIENTISTS VERSUS NONSCIENTISTS B CREATIVE SCIENTISTS VERSUS LESS
CREATIVE SCIENTISTS AND C ARTISTS VERSUS NONARTISTS
&OR THE SCIENTISTS VERSUS NONSCIENTISTS &EIST ANALYZED STUDIES 4HE
RESULTS INDICATED THAT / % AND # DIFFERENTIATED SCIENTISTS FROM NONSCIENTISTS (E
FOUND THAT THE CONFIDENCEnDOMINANCE SUBCOMPONENT WAS MORE IMPORTANT THAN
THE SOCIABILITY SUBCOMPONENT 7ITH REGARD TO # hIT IS CLEAR THAT RELATIVE TO NONSCI
ENTISTS SCIENTISTS ARE ROUGHLY HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION HIGHER ON CONSCIENTIOUS
NESS AND CONTROLLING OF IMPULSESv &EIST P &OR CREATIVE SCIENTISTS
VERSUS LESS CREATIVE SCIENTISTS STUDIES WERE META ANALYZED 4HE TRAITS THAT
MOST STRONGLY DISTINGUISHED THE CREATIVE SCIENTISTS FROM LESS CREATIVE SCIENTISTS
WERE % AND / 3IMILAR TO THE RESULTS FROM THE COMPARISON OF SCIENTISTS VERSUS
NONSCIENTISTS THE CONFIDENCEnDOMINANCE SUBCOMPONENT OF % CONTRIBUTED TO THE
EFFECT SIZE WITH NO EFFECT DERIVED FROM THE SOCIABILITY SUBCOMPONENT ! MODER
ATE EFFECT SIZE WAS NOTED FOR THE DIRECT EXPRESSION OF NEEDS AND PSYCHOPATHIC DE
VIANCE SUBCOMPONENTS OF # &OR THE ARTISTS VERSUS NONARTISTS SAMPLES STUDIES
WERE SCRUTINIZED 4HE TRAITS THAT MOST CLEARLY DIFFERENTIATED ARTISTS FROM NONARTISTS
WERE # AND / WHERE ARTISTS WERE ROUGHLY HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION LOWER ON #
AND HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION HIGHER ON /
&EIST SUMMARIZED RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY ON CREATIVE
ACHIEVEMENT IN THE ARTS AND IN SCIENCE (E FOUND THAT SOME PERSONALITY VARIABLES
OCCURRED IN BOTH GROUPS (E FOUND CREATIVE SCIENTISTS AND ARTISTS TO BE OPEN TO
NEW EXPERIENCES LESS CONVENTIONAL AND CONSCIENTIOUS AND MORE SELF CONFIDENT
SELF ACCEPTING DRIVEN AMBITIOUS DOMINANTnHOSTILE AND IMPULSIVE !RTISTS WERE
MORE AFFECTIVE MORE EMOTIONALLY UNSTABLE LESS SOCIALIZED AND LESS ACCEPTING
OF GROUP NORMS THAN SCIENTISTS 3CIENTISTS WERE MORE CONSCIENTIOUS THAN ARTISTS
4HESE FINDINGS SUGGEST WHY IT IS HAS PROVEN DIFFICULT TO PRODUCE A COMPREHENSIVE
LIST OF THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE
3OLDZ AND 6AILLANT REPORTED THE RESULTS OF A YEAR STUDY OF MEN
4HE RESEARCHERS REGULARLY ASSESSED PARTICIPANTS TO MEASURE FACTORS AS DIVERSE AS
HEALTH CAREER FUNCTIONING SOCIAL RELATIONS MENTAL HEALTH POLITICAL ATTITUDES
CHILDHOOD CHARACTERISTICS AND CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT 0ARTICIPANTS WERE GIVEN THE
.%/ 0) AT A MEAN AGE OF YEARS .%/ SCORES WERE THEN CALCULATED FOR THE MEN
AT THE END OF THEIR COLLEGE CAREERS 4HE RESULTS OF THE STUDY CONFIRMED THAT / WAS
SIGNIFICANTLY POSITIVELY RELATED TO THE RATINGS OF CREATIVITY / ALSO DEMONSTRATED A
SIGNIFICANT RELATION TO PSYCHIATRIC THERAPY AND DEPRESSION 7E ADVISE CAUTION IN
THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE RESULTS BECAUSE THE PERSONALITY SCORES FOR THE COLLEGE
YEARS WERE ESTIMATED AND THE PARTICIPANTS WERE MEN ONLY
&EIST AND "ARRON REPORTED THE RESULTS OF A YEAR LONGITUDINAL STUDY
4HE SAMPLE CONSISTED OF MALE GRADUATES FROM ACADEMIC DEPARTMENTS $ATA
WERE COLLECTED FOR THE PARTICIPANTS AT AGE YEARS IN AND AT AGE YEARS IN
4HE NATURE OF THE LONGITUDINAL DATA COLLATION PROCEDURES MEANT THAT COM
PLETE SETS OF DATA FOR ALL OF THE DIFFERENT MEASURES WERE UNAVAILABLE 4HE PRIMARY
"ATEY &URNHAM
INTEREST OF THE STUDY WAS TO REPORT ON THE PREDICTION OF CREATIVITY FROM EARLY TO LATE
ADULTHOOD BY USING MEASURES OF INTELLECT POTENTIAL AND PERSONALITY !T AGE
YEARS INTELLECT WAS MEASURED BY OBSERVER RATING AND MEASURES FROM 4HURSTONES
0RIMARY -ENTAL !BILITIES TEST /BSERVER RATINGS OF POTENTIAL WERE TAKEN
FROM AT LEAST NINE RATERS AND THE PARTICIPANTS PROVIDED A SELF RATING /BSERVER
RATINGS OF PERSONALITY WERE TAKEN BY USING EARLY VERSIONS OF THE !#, AND TRAIT
RATINGS OF THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS ROLE FLEXIBILITY DOMINANCE POISE AND
BALANCE INGENUITY POSITIVE CHARACTER INTEGRATION AND DECEITFULNESS AND VITALITY
0ARTICIPANTS ALSO COMPLETED PARTS OF THE #0) TOLERANCE AND CAPACITY FOR STATUS
.INE OTHER #0) SCALES WERE RETROACTIVELY PRORATED IN 4HE RESEARCHERS AD
MINISTERED THE --0) AND TOOK SELF RATINGS OF PERSONALITY BY USING THE !#,
$ATA OF YEAR OLD PARTICIPANTS WERE COLLECTED FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT AND
PERSONALITY #REATIVITY DATA WERE DRAWN FROM THE BOOK SERIES !MERICAN -EN AND
7OMEN OF 3CIENCE OR FROM THE PARTICIPANTS CURRICULUM VITAE &EIST "ARRON
4O ALLOW COMPARISONS ACROSS ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES AWARDS AND ACHIEVE
MENTS FOR THE SAMPLE WERE SENT TO FULL PROFESSORS N AT MAJOR RESEARCH
UNIVERSITIES 4HE PROFESSORS RATED THE MAGNITUDE OF ACHIEVEMENT ON A POINT
SCALE &EIST AND "ARRON TOOK THE MEAN VALUE FOR THE MOST PRESTIGIOUS HONOR THAT
THE PARTICIPANT RECEIVED AND THE TOTAL NUMBER OF FELLOWSHIPS HONORS AND AWARDS
THAT THE PARTICIPANT RECEIVED Z SCORED THEM AND SUMMED THEM 4HIS PROCESS PRO
DUCED THE !WARDS SCORE 0ERSONALITY MEASURES WERE ALSO TAKEN AT AGE YEARS
4HESE WERE THE #0) THE --0) (ATHAWAY -C+INLEY AND THE !#,
/BSERVER RATED INTELLECT AT YEARS WAS RELATED TO ORIGINALITY AT YEARS AND
ALSO TO LIFETIME CREATIVITY AT YEARS &EIST "ARRON 4ESTED INTELLIGENCE
WAS NOT SO PREDICTIVE WITH ONLY THE SPATIAL ELEMENT DEMONSTRATING A SIGNIFICANT
CORRELATION WITH CREATIVITY IN THIS CASE WITH CREATIVITY AT YEARS 4HE MEASURES
OF POTENTIAL AT YEARS STRONGLY COVARIED WITH ORIGINALITY AT YEARS AND WERE
MODERATELY PREDICTIVE OF LIFETIME CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT (IERARCHICAL REGRESSION
ANALYSES REVEALED THAT ONCE INTELLECT AND POTENTIAL HAD BEEN ACCOUNTED FOR AND
HELD CONSTANT PERSONALITY WAS ABLE TO ADD PREDICTIVE POWER !T YEARS PERSON
ALITY VARIABLES PREDICTED AN ADDITIONAL OF THE VARIANCE IN CONCURRENT CREATIVITY
OVER THAT CONTRIBUTED BY INTELLECT AND POTENTIAL !T YEARS MEASURES OF PERSON
ALITY PREDICTED AN ADDITIONAL OF THE VARIANCE IN LIFETIME CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT
OVER THAT CONTRIBUTED BY INTELLECT AND POTENTIAL
#ONCLUSION 2EGARDING 0ERSONALITY
7OODMAN AND 3CHOENFELDT HAVE POINTED OUT THAT STUDIES OF THE
PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH CREATIVITY HAVE WAXED AND WANED IN
POPULARITY 3TERNBERG AND ,UBART SUGGESTED THAT THIS IS BECAUSE CONCEN
TRATION HAS BEGUN TO FOCUS ON CONFLUENCE APPROACHES !TTEMPTS HAVE BEEN MADE
TO DELINEATE THE CORE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY 9ET DESPITE THE
CONVERGENCE OF RESULTS IT HAS PROVEN DIFFICULT TO GENERALIZE THE FINDINGS ACROSS

VARIOUS FIELDS OF CREATIVE ENDEAVOR 4HE EMERGENCE OF THE &&- AS AN ACCEPTED

CLASSIFICATORY SYSTEM WITH CROSS CULTURALLY VALIDATED MEASURES DOES HOWEVER
MEAN THAT OVER THE PAST FEW YEARS THE SCATTERED STUDIES HAVE BEGUN TO GROW INTO
A MORE COHESIVE AND CONSISTENT BODY OF WORK 4HIS ACCOUNTS FOR ONLY ONE SIDE
OF THE RELATION BECAUSE THE SAME IS NOT YET TRUE FOR MEASURES OF CREATIVITY 3TILL
THE CONTINUED ADOPTION OF THE &&- AS A WIDELY ACCEPTED PERSONALITY FRAMEWORK
SUGGESTS THAT FUTURE STUDIES OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY SHOULD SHED CONSIDERABLE
LIGHT ON THE CONSTRUCT
)T IS DIFFICULT TO PROVIDE A PARSIMONIOUS SUMMARY OF THE RELATIONS BETWEEN
CREATIVITY AND PERSONALITY $IFFERENT PERSONALITY MEASURES HAVE BEEN USED ALONG
SIDE VARIOUS CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF CREATIVITY 4HEREFORE WE FIRST EXAMINE THE
EVIDENCE FOR CREATIVITY AS $4 AND THEN EXAMINE THAT FOR CREATIVITY AS A PRODUCT
TO SHED LIGHT ON THE UNDERLYING PROCESSES THAT LEAD TO CREATIVITY WITH REGARD TO
THESE CRITERIA
7HEN THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY USED IS A $4 TEST THE RESULTS TEND TO SUG
GEST THAT % IS A CONSISTENT AND SIGNIFICANT CORRELATE EG !GUILAR !LONSO
+ING ET AL 3EN (AGTVET 7UTHRICH "ATES 4HIS FINDING
IS TRUE WHETHER THE INSTRUMENT IS FROM THE 'IGANTIC OR THE "IG -ARTINDALE
$AILEY 4HIS PERSISTENCE SUGGESTS THAT % CONFERS AN ADVANTAGE IN $4
TESTS 0OSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS FOR THIS ARE THAT $4 TESTS ARE OFTEN ADMINISTERED IN
GROUP SETTINGS WHICH ARE MORE CONDUCIVE FOR AN EXTROVERT 3ECOND EXTROVERTS
MAY PERFORM BETTER AT $4 TESTS BECAUSE THEY SEEK STIMULATION ( * %YSENCK
%YSENCK AND AN OPPORTUNITY TO TAKE RISKS 4HE $4 TEST ENVIRONMENT PRO
VIDES AN OPPORTUNITY TO DO THAT %FFECTIVELY THE FINDING THAT % IS RELATED TO TRAIT
CREATIVITY SUGGESTS THAT THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF EXTROVERTS PREDISPOSES THEM TO ACTIVE
PARTICIPATION IN THE $4 TEST PROCESS
3OME INVESTIGATORS HAVE DEMONSTRATED RELATIONS BETWEEN $4 AND THE 0 SCALE
OF THE %01 !GUILAR !LONSO -ERTEN &ISCHER 7OODY #LARIDGE
BUT OTHERS HAVE NOT NOTED SUCH A CORRELATION +LINE #OOPER
-ARTINDALE $AILEY 2AWLINGS 2ESEARCHERS WHO HAVE EXAMINED
$4 AND THE "IG HAVE FOUND EVIDENCE FOR THE ROLE OF / +ING ET AL
-C#RAE 7UTHRICH "ATES 4HE DATA ALSO SUGGEST THAT THE STRENGTH
OF CORRELATION BETWEEN 0 AND / IS INCREASED WHEN THE MEASURE OF $4 INVOLVES
SOME MEASURE OF ORIGINALITY RATHER THAN FLUENCY ALONE EG +ING ET AL 7OODY
#LARIDGE
2ECENT RESEARCH INDICATES THAT THE FINDINGS OF THE RELATIONS OF 0 AND / TO VARI
OUS MEASURES OF CREATIVITY ARE MEDIATED BY THE SAME OR SIMILAR ATTENTIONAL PRO
CESSES 0 HAS BEEN CONSISTENTLY RELATED TO REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION "ARUCH
ET AL B "ULLEN (EMSLEY ,UBOW ET AL AND NEW RESEARCH
INDICATES THAT / IS ALSO RELATED TO REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION 0ETERSON #AR
SON 0ETERSON 3MITH #ARSON
7ITH REGARD TO 0 THIS CIRCUMSTANCE INDICATES THAT PART OF WHY HIGH 0 SCORERS
PERFORM WELL IN $4 TESTS ESPECIALLY WHEN ASSESSED FOR ORIGINALITY IS THAT THEY
"ATEY &URNHAM
HAVE DEFECTIVE FILTERS FOR IRRELEVANT STIMULI ALTHOUGH IMPULSIVE NONCONFORMITY IS

ALSO IMPLICATED 4HEREFORE MORE IDEAS ENTER CONSCIOUSNESS AND ARE THEREBY MORE
LIKELY TO BE COMBINED IN INTERESTING WAYS TO FORM CREATIVE IDEAS IN ACCORDANCE
WITH -EDNICK AND +OESTLER 4HE SAME MAY BE POSTULATED FOR /
(OWEVER FINDING A LINK BETWEEN / AND ATTENTIONAL MECHANISMS RAISES SERI
OUS QUESTIONS ABOUT THE RELATION OF / TO CREATIVITY 7E POSTULATE THAT / CONSISTS
OF TWO SUBFACTORS ONE FACTOR REPRESENTING AN ATTITUDINAL OPENNESS TO NEW EXPERI
ENCES AND THE SECOND FACTOR BEING RATHER THAN A CHOICE AN INABILITY TO INHIBIT
IRRELEVANT INFORMATION A PERCEPTUAL OPENNESS 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT TO A CERTAIN
EXTENT OPEN PEOPLE ARE MORE OPEN TO NEW IDEAS BECAUSE THEY CANNOT EFFECTIVELY
FILTER OUT IRRELEVANT INFORMATION
0ERHAPS THE GREATEST LIMITING FACTOR IN ASSESSING THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE AND
INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT PERSONALITY VARIABLES ON CREATIVITY HAS BEEN THE FAILURE TO
CONSIDER THE DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR OR THE NATURE OF THE PRODUCTS BEING RATED
4HERE ARE THREE SEPARATE ISSUES HERE 4HE FIRST CONCERNS THE DIFFICULTY OF PRODUC
ING CATEGORIES OF DOMAINS EG ART VS SCIENCE 2ARELY ARE OCCUPATIONS SOLELY
FOCUSED ON ONE DOMAIN EG 7HAT DOMAIN DOES A SCIENTIST RUNNING A RESEARCH
PROGRAM INHABIT 4HE SECOND ISSUE CONCERNS THE IDEA OF DOMAIN SPECIFICITY
ITSELF 7ITHIN ONE DOMAIN THERE MAY BE SEVERAL LEVELS &OR EXAMPLE WITHIN THE
DOMAIN OF THE ARTS IS IT SENSIBLE TO CONSIDER AN ABSTRACT SCULPTOR THE SAME AS A
POET OR CHOREOGRAPHER 4HE THIRD ISSUE CONCERNS THE ALLOCATION OF STUDENTS TO
SPECIFIC DOMAINS WHEN THEY HAVE YET TO START A PROFESSION 7HEN ASSESSING AN
ADOLESCENT OR CHILD WHO HAS YET TO ACHIEVE HOW IS IT POSSIBLE TO ASCERTAIN WHICH
CATEGORICAL DISTINCTION TO USE ! FURTHER ISSUE MAY BE THAT ALTHOUGH CREATIVITY
IS NOT A DOMAIN TRANSCENDING PHENOMENON PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE SOUGHT A GENERAL
MODEL FOR CREATIVITY BECAUSE LARGE ALL ENCOMPASSING MODELS PROVE MORE SATISFY
ING "AER
7HEN THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY HAS BEEN EXPERT RATINGS OF A PRODUCT EG
STORY WRITING OR QUALITY OF WORK THE RELATION BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND CRE
ATIVITY IS LESS CLEAR THAN WHEN THE CRITERION HAS BEEN $4 TESTS 3OME STUDIES HAVE
FOUND CREATIVES TO SCORE HIGHER ON THE . SCALE %01 'OTZ 'OTZ AND
.%/ $OLLINGER #LANCY 4HE 0 SCALE OF THE %01 HAS BEEN SHOWN TO DIF
FERENTIATE BETWEEN SUCCESSFUL AND LESS SUCCESSFUL ARTISTS 'OTZ 'OTZ B
!LTHOUGH THE 0 SCALE OF THE 'IGANTIC HAS BEEN A RELATIVELY CONSISTENT STRONG
CORRELATE IN STUDIES OF CREATIVITY DOUBT REMAINS ABOUT WHETHER THIS CIRCUMSTANCE
IS BECAUSE THE SCALE ASSESSES PREDISPOSITION TO DISORDERED THOUGHT ENABLING EASE
OF ASSOCIATION PREDISPOSITION TO SOCIAL DOMINANCE AND ANHEDONIA OR BOTH
%QUALLY UNCLEAR FINDINGS HAVE COME FROM STUDIES THAT HAVE USED THE .%/ IN
CONJUNCTION WITH CREATIVITY MEASURES THAT USE RATINGS WHERE THE QUALITY OF RATED
PRODUCTS OR WORK HAS BEEN PREDICTED BY / $OLLINGER #LANCY &URNHAM
3OLDZ 6AILLANT 7OLFRADT 0RETZ ! POTENTIAL EXPLANATION
OF WHY / IS IMPLICATED IN RATED PRODUCTS BUT NOT $4 TESTS ESPECIALLY WHEN
THE $4 TESTS ARE SCORED FOR FLUENCY EXISTS 4HE PRODUCTS OF $4 TESTS ARE RARELY

QUALITATIVELY JUDGED )T IS MOST COMMON TO TAKE MEASURES OF FLUENCY NUMBER

OF RESPONSES "ECAUSE THERE IS NO JUDGMENT OF QUALITY IN THAT MEASURE AN INDI
VIDUAL HIGH IN / WILL NOT BE DISCERNIBLE FROM AN INDIVIDUAL WHO IS NOT 2ATHER
THE TEST WILL SELECT AN INDIVIDUAL WITH HIGH IDEATIONAL FLUENCY WHICH IS LARGELY
AN ASPECT OF INTELLECT &OR THAT REASON % IS USUALLY MORE PREDICTIVE
7HEN THE QUALITY OR INGENUITY OF A PRODUCT IS RATED AND TO A LESSER EXTENT
WHEN $4 TESTS ARE SCORED FOR ORIGINALITY QUALITATIVE JUDGMENTS ARE PERFORMED
REGARDING THE NOVELTY OR UTILITY OF THE PRODUCT )N THIS SCENARIO A PREFERENCE FOR
THE EXPLORATION OF NEW IDEAS AND FOR SURPRISING BEHAVIORS AS MEASURED BY /
WILL BE RATED FAVORABLY BY JUDGES LEADING TO AN ATTRIBUTION OF THE LABEL CREATIVE
(OWEVER THE RELATION BETWEEN / AND RATED CREATIVITY MAY HAVE MORE TO DO WITH
REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION THAN WITH OPEN MINDEDNESS )F CREATIVITY INVOLVES
ASSOCIATIONAL PROCESSES EG -EDNICK THEN REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION
WOULD INCREASE THE CHANCES THAT IDEAS ARE COMBINED IN INTERESTING AND NOVEL WAYS
TO THEREFORE BE REGARDED AS CREATIVE
!CROSS ALL TYPES OF PERSONALITY TESTS % SEEMS TO BE PREDICTIVE OF CREATIVITY
(OWEVER IN THE ROLE OF 0 AND / THERE APPEAR TO BE SUBFACTORS AT WORK IN THE
CASE OF 0 ANTISOCIAL TRAITS AND REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION AND / OPEN MINDED
AND REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION THE SUBFACTORS OF % MAY BE INDEPENDENTLY PRE
DICTIVE )T MAY BE THAT THE SOCIABILITY COMPONENT OF % HAS DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS ON
CREATIVE PERFORMANCE FROM THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE %SSENTIALLY SOCIABLE
EXTROVERTS MAY ENGAGE IN CORROBORATIVE WORK AND BE MORE READY TO SHARE THEIR
IDEAS AND WORK -C#RAE BUT THE IMPULSIVE RISK TAKING ASPECTS OF % MAY
EQUALLY MAKE EXTROVERTS MORE CREATIVE
,AST THE ROLE OF . INDICATES THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERING THE DOMAIN OF
ENDEAVOR . IS PROBABLY INHIBITIVE OF CREATIVITY IN SCIENCE BUT ESSENTIAL FOR ARTISTIC
ACHIEVEMENT &EIST 'OTZ 'OTZ B 4HIS PROVIDES ANOTHER CLUE TO
SOME OF THE UNDERLYING PROCESSES OF CREATIVE PRODUCTION )F . RELATES TO HEIGHTENED
SENSITIVITY TO EMOTIONAL STIMULI 7ATSON #LARK AND ART LARGELY RELATES TO
THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS THEN INDIVIDUALS WITH HEIGHTENED SENSITIVITY ARE MORE
LIKELY IF THEY HAVE ADEQUATE TRAINING AND SKILL TO BOTH NOTICE AND COMMUNICATE
THOSE EMOTIONAL IDEAS IN A WORK OF ART WHICH IN TURN WILL BE RATED AS CREATIVE
%MOTIONAL STABILITY MAY PROVE A DESIRABLE TRAIT FOR SCIENTISTS FIRST BECAUSE DISPAS
SIONATE INQUIRY IS ENCOURAGED AND SECOND BECAUSE MANY ASPECTS OF SCIENCE ACA
DEMIA IN PARTICULAR INVOLVE CONSTANT CRITICISM IN THE FORM OF PEER REVIEW
4HEREFORE IT SEEMS CERTAIN THAT PARTICULAR PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE IMPORTANT
FOR EXPLAINING AND PREDICTING CREATIVITY 4HIS CIRCUMSTANCE MAY ACCOUNT FOR ONE
QUARTER TO ONE THIRD OF THE VARIANCE IN THE CAUSES OF CREATIVE WORK (OWEVER
MOST PERSONALITY RESEARCHERS HAVE ASSUMED THAT UNDERLYING PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE
DOMAIN GENERAL 4HIS APPROACH HAS RESULTED IN MIXED EVIDENCE CONCERNING WHICH
PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE IMPORTANT IN WHICH CIRCUMSTANCES !S WE SUGGESTED EARLIER
IN THIS ARTICLE POSSESSING CERTAIN TRAITS SUCH AS / OR TOUGH MINDEDNESS 0 IS
PROBABLY NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVITY AS ACHIEVEMENT 4O ENSURE THAT
"ATEY &URNHAM
A PERSON FULFILLS HIS OR HER POTENTIAL OTHER REQUISITE COGNITIVE AND SITUATIONAL VARI
ABLES NEED TO BE PRESENT AND THEY MUST FIT THE DOMAIN IN WHICH THE IDEAS ARE TO
BE PRODUCED AND JUDGED $4 IS NOT A SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR CREATIVITY AS ACHIEVE
MENT SEE 4ABLE AND DIFFERENT PERSONALITY TRAITS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO RELATE TO
CREATIVITY DEPENDENT ON THE DOMAIN OF THE ENDEAVOR SEE 4ABLES n
$ISCUSSION
$ESPITE RESEARCHERS EFFORTS TO UNDERSTAND CREATIVITY FIRST IN TERMS OF )1 AND
THEN IN TERMS OF PERSONALITY VARIABLES A FULL UNDERSTANDING OF CREATIVITY REMAINS A
COMPLEX BUT HOPEFULLY NOT ELUSIVE GOAL )N PART THE DIFFICULTY HAS ARISEN NOT ONLY
BECAUSE OF THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE CONSTRUCT BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF DIFFICUL
TIES OF MEASUREMENT (OWEVER GROWING CONSENSUS WITH REGARD TO DEFINITIONS OF
CREATIVITY THE MOVEMENT AWAY FROM THE USE OF $4 TESTS AS ABSOLUTE CRITERIA OF
CREATIVITY AND THE TENDENCY OF RESEARCHERS TO CONSIDER THE DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR
AND ALSO TO USE MULTITRAIT MULTIMETHOD RESEARCH ALL POINT TOWARD A POSITIVE FUTURE
FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCH
4HE MOST TROUBLING ASPECTS FOR MODERN RESEARCHERS CONCERN DIFFICULTY WITH
DEFINITIONS OR CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF THE KEY COMPONENTS 4HE DEFINITIONS OF CRE
ATIVITY INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY ARE NOT IMMUTABLE NOR ARE THEY UNIVERSALLY
ACCEPTED 7ITH REGARD TO THE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY AUTHORS HAVE TRIED TO IMPOSE
QUALIFICATIONS BUT WITHOUT THE SUPPORT OF THE FIELD SUCH RECOMMENDATIONS MAT
TER LITTLE )N ADDITION TO DEFINITIONAL PROBLEMS THE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY HAS BEEN
APPLIED TO PEOPLE PRODUCTS PROCESSES AND SITUATIONS )T WOULD NOT BE FAR FROM
THE TRUTH TO SUGGEST THAT CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS USE THEIR OWN IDIOSYNCRATIC DEFINI
TION AND METHODOLOGIES 7HEREAS THIS MAKES THE STUDENTS OF CREATIVITY RELATIVELY
CREATIVE BECAUSE THEY PRODUCE WORK THAT IS NOVEL AND POTENTIALLY USEFUL IT HAS
BEEN DIFFICULT FOR RESEARCHERS TO ADVANCE THE FIELD VIA THE SYNTHESIS OF DIFFERENT
RESEARCH EFFORTS )NDEED THERE MAY BE A VICIOUS CIRCLE IN OPERATION SO THAT LACK OF
PROGRESS INHIBITS BOTH FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENT OF CORE RESEARCH
GROUPS WHICH IN TURN LIMITS ADVANCEMENT
%ARLY RESEARCHERS WERE CONCERNED PRIMARILY WITH THE RELATION OF INTELLIGENCE
TO CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND SOUGHT TO ASCERTAIN AT WHAT LEVEL OF )1 A GENIUS
SHOULD EMERGE 4HEY WERE SORELY DISAPPOINTED )1 WAS FOUND TO BE A NECESSARY
BUT INSUFFICIENT FACTOR FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVITY AS LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT
)NTELLECT SEEMED TO ACCOUNT FOR ONLY A PORTION OF THE VARIANCE ALTHOUGH DIFFER
ENCES WERE FOUND TO BE DEPENDENT ON THE DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR &OLLOWING THE
ADVENT OF THE $4 TEST RESEARCH IN CREATIVITY BECAME POPULAR (OWEVER IT WAS
NOT LONG BEFORE THE $4 TEST WAS CONFUSED WITH CREATIVITY ITSELF 4HIS CONFUSION
ENCUMBERED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIELD AND FORCED FAR TOO NARROW A CONCEPTION
OF WHAT CREATIVITY ENTAILS 4HE WORK OF THE )0!2 GROUP EXPANDED ON SOME OF THE
EARLIER NARROW $4 AS CREATIVITY RESEARCH BY REPLACING $4 TESTS AS A CRITERION OF
CREATIVITY WITH ECOLOGICALLY VALID RATINGS OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL AND ACHIEVEMENT
#0)
#INEMATOGRAPHERS
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4!",% #REATIVITY AND THE #ALIFORNIA 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY #0)
)N COMPARISON WITH NORMAL ARCHITECTS CREATIVE

ARCHITECTS WERE
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AUTONOMOUS
B LESS DEFERENT AND TEAM ORIENTED AND
C LESS SOCIALIZED
)N COMPARISON WITH MATCHED CONTROLS
CINEMATOGRAPHERS WERE
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AND CHANGE
B MORE SELF ACCEPTING AND
C LESS DEFERENT AND LESS CONCERNED WITH
ORDER
+EY FINDINGS

"ATEY &URNHAM
4HE META ANALYTICAL WORK OF #ARROLL SHED CONSIDERABLE LIGHT ON A SCATTERED
FIELD OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHING THAT THERE ARE EFFECTIVELY TWO MAIN TYPES OF CREATIV
ITY FLUENCY NUMERATE PRODUCTION OF IDEAS AND ORIGINALITY NOVEL AND UNUSUAL
RESPONSES THAT FULFILL GIVEN CRITERIA
2ESEARCHERS OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY HAVE TRIED TO ASCERTAIN WHICH PER
SONALITY VARIABLES PREDICTED CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT OR TO CHART THE PERSONALITY
CHARACTERISTICS OF EMINENT CREATORS ,ATER ADHERENTS TO THE &&- HAVE TRIED TO DO
THE SAME )T APPEARS THAT ACROSS THE DIFFERENT PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY MEASURES
USED THE MOST COMMON PERSONALITY TRAITS RELATED TO CREATIVITY ARE CONFIDENCE OR
DOMINANCE TRAITS AUTONOMY OR INDEPENDENCE TRAITS AND OPENNESS TO NEW IDEAS
AND EXPERIENCES -ETA ANALYTICAL REVIEWS HAVE INDICATED THAT CERTAIN PERSONALITY
TRAITS ARE MORE IMPORTANT FOR CERTAIN DOMAINS 4O FULLY ACCOUNT FOR PERSONALITY
VARIABLES IN CREATIVITY WE SUGGEST THAT FUTURE RESEARCHERS CONSIDER NOT ONLY THE
DOMAIN OF WORK BUT ALSO THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY USED
4HE FAILURE TO AGREE ON DEFINITIONS OPERATIONALIZATIONS CRITERIA AND MEASURES
OF INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY HAS LEFT THE FIELD OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH IN A RELATIVELY
CONFUSED STATE /FTEN RESEARCHERS TALK OF CREATIVITY WITHOUT REGARD TO THE EMINENCE
OF THE SAMPLE INVOLVED OR THE VALIDITY OF THE MEASURE OF CREATIVITY 3OMETIMES THEY
COMBINE DIFFUSE CRITERIA WITHOUT EXPLANATION 4HEREFORE EQUIVOCAL CONCLUSIONS
BASED ON LESS THAN SECURE FOUNDATIONS MUST BE DEEMED TENTATIVE
%SSENTIALLY #ARROLLS ANALYSIS ENABLES CONCLUSIONS TO BE DRAWN IN ACCOR
DANCE WITH A PERSPECTIVE THAT VIEWS CREATIVITY AS BOTH FLUENCY AND ORIGINALITY WITH
INTELLECTUAL FACTORS MORE CLOSELY ALLIED WITH THE FIRST AND WITH PERSONALITY PROCESSES
MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO THE SECOND %FFECTIVELY WE ARGUE THAT CREATIVITY AS NUMERATE
PRODUCTION OF IDEAS IS RELATED TO INTELLIGENCE BUT ALSO % (ERE THE PRODUCTION OF A
HOST OF IDEAS IS LARGELY BASED ON GF ITSELF PRESUMABLY A COROLLARY OF EFFICIENT NEURAL
PATHWAYS ( * %YSENCK "ARRETT *ENSEN AND GC FROM WHICH IDEAS
ARE DRAWN (OWEVER CREATIVITY AS ORIGINALITY RESTS LARGELY ON PERSONALITY FACTORS PRE
DOMINANTLY / AND 0 WHICH THROUGH THEIR RELATION TO ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES ALLOW
INDIVIDUALS WHO SCORE HIGHLY ON THESE TESTS TO COMBINE IDEAS IN NOVEL AND INTERESTING
WAYS USING INFORMATION THAT WOULD BE CONSIDERED IRRELEVANT BY NONCREATIVE INDI
VIDUALS 4HESE TRAITS MAY BE VIEWED AS FUNDAMENTAL TO THE CREATIVE INDIVIDUAL 4HE
RELATION OF THE OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS EG . % ! AND # TO / AND 0 IS IMPORTANT
FOR CREATIVITY AS WELL BUT LARGELY INSOFAR AS THOSE TRAITS HELP AN INDIVIDUAL TO FIT A SPE
CIFIC DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR SEE 4ABLE &OR EXAMPLE THE CREATIVE SALESPERSON MOST
LIKELY NEEDS TO BE EXTROVERTED THE ARTIST MOST LIKELY NEEDS TO BE SOMEWHAT NEUROTIC
AND THE SCIENTIST MOST LIKELY NEEDS TO BE CONSCIENTIOUS &URTHER ALTHOUGH IT MAY BE
POSSIBLE TO DESCRIBE THE PROFILE OF THE CREATIVE INDIVIDUAL IN TERMS OF PERSONALITY AND
INTELLIGENCE THESE FACTORS RARELY ACCOUNT FOR THE MOTIVATION TO PERFORM CREATIVE ACTS
THAT LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVE PRODUCTS !S .ICHOLLS SUGGESTED h)F
RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON EMINENT CREATORS IS TAKEN AS A GUIDE THERE IS MORE JUSTIFICATION
FOR CALLING THE TENDENCY TO BECOME INTRINSICALLY INVOLVED IN TASKS CREATIVITY THAN THERE
IS FOR LABELLING DIVERGENT THINKING CREATIVITYv P
%01
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CREATIVITY AND ON / THAN STUDENTS STUDYING
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3TORY CREATIVITY PREDICTED BY HIGH / AND LOW #
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2ESEARCHERS
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B CREATIVE VS
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%STIMATED .%
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+EY FINDINGS

"ATEY &URNHAM
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nn

nn
nn

nn
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.OTE . NEUROTICISM % EXTRAVERSION / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE ! AGREEABLENESS

# CONSCIENTIOUSNESS 0 PSYCHOTICISM 0OSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SIGNS INDICATE THE STRENGTH
AND DIRECTION BETWEEN THE VARIABLES AND RANGE FROM n n n TO
4HE AREAS OF CONFLUENCE MODELS META ANALYTICAL STUDIES AND LONGITUDINAL

STUDIES HOLD THE KEY TO DISCOVERING MORE ABOUT THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX WITH REGARD
TO DOMAINS )T IS NECESSARY FOR RESEARCHERS TO EXAMINE HOW PERSONALITY AND INTEL
LIGENCE RELATE TO BOTH OTHER INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE FACTORS IE PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
OR MOTIVATION AND CRUCIALLY SITUATIONAL FACTORS
#REATIVITY IS AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE FOR BOTH INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY AS A
WHOLE SO THOROUGH STUDY SHOULD BE PARAMOUNT !T THE APPLIED LEVEL HOW CAN
CREATIVE PEOPLE BE IDENTIFIED RECRUITED AND DEVELOPED ! GREAT DEAL OF REAL
WORLD RESEARCH SIMILAR TO THE STUDIES OF THE )0!2 GROUP IS REQUIRED TO AUGMENT
AND CONFIRM THE AFOREMENTIONED ACADEMIC STUDIES
7E MAKE A NUMBER OF RECOMMENDATIONS TO HELP FUTURE RESEARCHERS CONDUCT
MORE FRUITFUL INVESTIGATIONS )N GENERAL WE SUGGEST THESE RECOMMENDATIONS TO
ENSURE THAT THE FRAGMENTED FIELD OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH CAN BE MORE EASILY SYN
THESIZED 4HE DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY THAT RESEARCHERS USE IN A STUDY SHOULD BE
CLEARLY PRESENTED &OLLOWING THE STATING OF DEFINITION THE ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVITY
SHOULD RELATE TO THAT DEFINITION (ENCE IF RESEARCHERS HAVE TAKEN THE PERSPECTIVE
THAT CREATIVITY IS THE PRODUCTION OF SOCIALLY VALUABLE PRODUCTS THAT POSSESS THE
CHARACTERISTICS OF NOVELTY AND UTILITY THEN THEY SHOULD OPERATIONALIZE CREATIVITY
IN TERMS OF RATINGS OF A CREATIVE PRODUCT
4HE FIELD REQUIRES CLASSIFICATION 4HERE HAVE BEEN RECENT IMPORTANT EFFORTS
TO TAXONOMIZE CREATIVE PRODUCTS 3TERNBERG ET AL 4HE SAME IS REQUIRED
FOR PERSPECTIVES REGARDING THE CREATIVE PERSON PROCESS AND ENVIRONMENT )N PAR
TICULAR THE FIELD WOULD BENEFIT FROM A COMPREHENSIVE TAXONOMIZATION THAT INCOR
PORATES THE FOUR 0S 2HODES 7ITH SUCH A TAXONOMY AS A REFERENCE

POINT RESEARCHERS COULD SYNTHESIZE STUDIES WITH REFERENCE TO THAT MODEL &ROM
DEFINITIONAL CONSENSUS PSYCHOMETRICALLY ROBUST MEASURES OF CREATIVITY COULD BE
DEVELOPED #LEARLY THE FIELD REQUIRES A BATTERY OF TESTS SIMILAR TO THOSE OFFERED IN
THE FIELD OF INTELLIGENCE 4HUS RESEARCHERS MAY NEED TESTS OF VERBAL SPATIAL AND
NUMERICAL CREATIVITY AND HAVE FLUID CREATIVITY VERSUS CRYSTALLIZED CREATIVITY 4HIS
CIRCUMSTANCE IS IMPORTANT
%VEN WITHIN THE RELATIVELY EXTENSIVELY EXAMINED FIELD OF $4 DIFFERENT TESTS
OF $4 ARE USED WITH RESEARCHERS OFTEN ASSUMING THAT THEY ARE MEASURING THE
SAME CONSTRUCT &URTHER RESEARCH IS REQUIRED TO INVESTIGATE THE RELATIONS OF DIFFER
ENT CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY &OR EXAMPLE #ARROLL FOUND THAT TESTS OF CREATIVITY
COULD BE PARSED INTO MEASURES THAT ASSESS FLUENCY ASPECTS AND ORIGINALITY !T A
BROADER LEVEL #LAPHAM FOUND THAT MEASURES OF $4 BORE LITTLE RELATION TO
MEASURES OF CREATIVE INTEREST INVENTORIES 3HE ALSO REPLICATED A FINDING BY #ARROLL
THAT THERE IS LITTLE RELATION BETWEEN VERBAL AND FIGURAL $4 ABILITIES 4HESE FIND
INGS INDICATE THAT GREATER RESEARCH EFFORTS ARE REQUIRED TO EXAMINE INTERRELATIONS
BETWEEN PUTATIVE MEASURES OF CREATIVITY
#REATIVITY CANNOT BE ASSESSED BY A SINGLE MEASUREMENT AND MOST AUTHORS
AGREE THAT CREATIVITY RELIES ON THE CONFLUENCE OF SEVERAL FACTORS EG INTELLECT
PERSONALITY THINKING STYLE ENVIRONMENT 4HEREFORE STUDIES OF CREATIVITY SHOULD
TAKE A MULTIPLE COMPONENTS PERSPECTIVE AND EXAMINE THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE
OF THE DIFFERENT CONSTITUENTS !T THE OUTSET WE SUGGEST THAT RESEARCHERS TRY TO
ASSESS CREATIVITY IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS IDENTIFIED BY 2HODES
4HUS A STUDY OF CREATIVITY IN CHILDREN COULD INCORPORATE MEASURES
OF INTELLECT AND PERSONALITY PERSON $4 PROCESS AND THE CLASSROOM ENVIRON
MENT OR TEACHING STYLE IN ADDITION TO A RATING OF THE ARTIFACTS CREATED BY THE
CHILDREN PRODUCT 7HEREAS THIS GOLD STANDARD APPROACH MAY NOT BE POSSIBLE IN
MANY CASES RESEARCHERS SHOULD ACKNOWLEDGE THAT THESE DIFFERENT AREAS SHOULD
NORMALLY BE CONSIDERED IN CREATIVITY STUDIES (OWEVER WE RECOGNIZE THAT THIS
SUGGESTION THAT MULTIPLE MEASURES OF THE CREATIVITY CONSTRUCT BE USED SHOULD
FOLLOW RESEARCH EXAMINING THE CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF DIFFERENT
MEASURES OF CREATIVITY AS WE SUGGESTED IN THE PREVIOUS PARAGRAPH
2ESEARCHERS SHOULD CONSIDER THE ROLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
IN TRYING TO GENERALIZE ACROSS STUDIES 1UESTIONS STILL ABOUND WITH REGARD TO THE NA
TURE OF CREATIVITY IN MEN AND WOMEN IN YOUNGER AND OLDER INDIVIDUALS AND IN DIF
FERENT CULTURES 4HE STUDY OF INTELLECT AND PERSONALITY WITH RESPECT TO DEMOGRAPHIC
AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES HAS BEEN UNDERTAKEN OFTEN WITH CONTROVERSIAL RESULTS
(OWEVER SYSTEMATIC STUDIES OF CREATIVITY IN THIS LIGHT HAVE YET TO BE INITIATED
&UTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD CONSIDER WHETHER THE CREATIVITY TO BE OBSERVED IS
THAT OF EMINENT ACHIEVERS OR EVERYDAY INDIVIDUALS 4HERE HAVE BEEN INFLUENTIAL
EFFORTS TO INDICATE THAT CREATIVITY MAY BE STUDIED THROUGHOUT THE SPECTRUM FROM
EMINENT TO EVERYDAY 2ICHARDS 7HEN PRODUCTS OR ACHIEVEMENTS ARE TO BE
RATED THE EXPERTS CHOSEN SHOULD BE LISTED 7HEN POSSIBLE THE CRITERIA OF CREATIV
ITY SHOULD BE RELATED TO REAL WORLD ACHIEVEMENT TO PROVIDE ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
"ATEY &URNHAM
)DEALLY THE INVESTIGATION OF CREATIVITY SHOULD BE MULTIDISCIPLINARY %XCITING

CONTRIBUTIONS CAN BE MADE THROUGH IMAGING STUDIES EG &OLLEY 0ARK
*AUSOVEC ON THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL END OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SPECTRUM
%XCITING INPUTS CAN BE TAKEN FROM EDUCATIONAL INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDIES ON THE APPLIED END 7E ALSO SUGGEST THAT ATTEMPTS BE MADE
TO TRIANGULATE THE DATA FROM HISTORIOMETRIC PSYCHOMETRIC LONGITUDINAL META
ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
4HE DOMAIN SHOULD BE CLEARLY SPECIFIED 7HEN POSSIBLE INTRADOMAIN ANALY
SES SHOULD COMPARE THE SCORES OF HIGHLY CREATIVE PARTICIPANTS WITH THOSE OF LESS
CREATIVE PARTICIPANTS )NTERDOMAIN ANALYSES WILL ENABLE RESEARCHERS TO OBSERVE
DIFFERENCES IN CREATIVITY 4HIS CIRCUMSTANCE PRESENTS PERHAPS THE MOST DIFFICULT
ISSUE TO ADDRESS ADEQUATELY !T PRESENT CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT APPEARS TO HAVE
BEEN STUDIED IN THE GENERAL BOUNDS OF THE ARTS SCIENCE AND LEADERSHIP &UTURE
RESEARCHERS MAY CONSIDER THE EXTENT TO WHICH THESE DOMAINS CAN BE FURTHER SUBDI
VIDED AND CLASSIFIED 7E MAKE THIS RECOMMENDATION BECAUSE WITHOUT A HEURISTIC
TO FOLLOW WITH REGARD TO UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE OF DOMAINS IT WILL REMAIN
DIFFICULT FOR RESEARCHERS TO EXAMINE CREATIVITY IN THOSE DOMAINS
,AST MORE LONGITUDINAL STUDIES OF THE PREDICTORS OF CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT
ARE NECESSARY 4HE VAST BULK OF CREATIVITY STUDIES HAVE CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS
!LTHOUGH THIS METHODOLOGY IS UNDERSTANDABLE BECAUSE OF THE DIFFICULTIES OF
LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH ADDITIONAL LONGITUDINAL STUDIES WILL YIELD A GREATER UN
DERSTANDING OF THE CAUSAL INFLUENCE OF INTELLECTUAL AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES ON
CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT
)T WOULD BE FOOLHARDY TO ASSERT THAT IF FUTURE RESEARCHERS IMPLEMENT THESE
RECOMMENDATIONS FULLY THROUGHOUT THE FIELD OF CREATIVITY THEN THE METHODOLOGI
CAL AND CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS THAT PLAGUE THE FIELD WILL DISAPPEAR (OWEVER WE
ASSERT STRONGLY THAT IF FUTURE RESEARCHERS DO NOT APPRECIATE THE COMPLEXITY OF CRE
ATIVITY RESEARCH THEY WILL RETRACE SOME OF THEIR PREDECESSORS FALTERING STEPS
./4%3
4HIS IS A PREDOMINANTLY %UROPEAN PERSPECTIVE
4HERE HAS BEEN INTERESTING RESEARCH ON OTHER PERSONALITY CONSTRUCTS IN RELATION TO
CREATIVITY EG ON NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT ;-C#LELLAND !TKINSON #LARK ,OWELL =
ON INTRINSIC MOTIVATION ;!MABILE = AND ON NEED FOR COGNITION ;#ACIOPPO 0ETTY
= 4O SEEK PARSIMONY WE FOCUS ON THE DOMINANT MODELS OF PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
THE %YSENCKIAN 0SYCHOTICISM %XTRAVERSION AND .EUROTICISM AND FIVE FACTOR MODELS
4HERE IS A RICH HISTORY OF PSYCHOANALYTICAL RESEARCH IN CREATIVITY EG &REUD
FOR WHICH THERE IS NEITHER TIME NOR SPACE IN THIS REVIEW TO EXPLORE
!MABILE SUGGESTED A SOCIALLY ANCHORED DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY h#REATIVITY CAN
BE REGARDED AS THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS OR RESPONSES JUDGED TO BE CREATIVE BY APPROPRIATE OB
SERVERS AND IT CAN ALSO BE REGARDED AS THE PROCESS BY WHICH SOMETHING SO JUDGED IS PRODUCEDv
P 4HIS DEFINITION ACKNOWLEDGES THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL EVALUATION ! PRODUCT MUST BE
APPRAISED WITH REGARD TO ORIGINALITY AND UTILITY TO BE ASCRIBED THE STATUS OF CREATIVE (OWEVER
THE DEFINITION DOES NOT ESCAPE THE DIFFICULTY IN ACCURATELY PINNING DOWN THE ELUSIVE CREATIVITY
CONSTRUCT 7HO DECIDES WHO MAKES AN APPROPRIATE OBSERVER (ISTORY IS FULL OF ACCOUNTS OF

FORGOTTEN AND NEGLECTED CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS ENOUGH TO SUGGEST THAT SEEMINGLY APPROPRIATE
OBSERVERS MAY NOT ALWAYS BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE CREATIVITY
4HE CONTENTION THAT A CULTURE MUST AGREE THAT A PRODUCT IS CREATIVE HAS TWO SERI
OUS IMPLICATIONS FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCH &IRST INDIVIDUALS NOT RECOGNIZED IN THEIR OWN
LIFETIME IF AT ALL COULD NOT BE DEEMED CREATIVE 3ECOND THE VAST MAJORITY OF INDIVIDUALS
EG CHILDREN COULD NOT BE STUDIED BECAUSE THEY WOULD FAIL TO HAVE ACHIEVED CULTURALLY
ACCEPTED EMINENCE 4HUS THE EXTENT TO WHICH A SOCIETY VALUES CREATIVITY IS IMPORTANT )N
MANY AUTHORITARIAN STATES ARTISTIC CREATIVITY HAS BEEN CENSURED AND DISCOURAGED
(OWEVER IF THE PURPOSE OF ART IS TO EVOKE EMOTION THEN THOSE WORKS THAT ARE
DEEMED AS MOST CREATIVE MAY BE THOSE THAT INVOKE THE GREATEST AFFECTIVE RESPONSE
7E NOTE THAT IN WITHIN GROUPS ANALYSIS THE MOST CREATIVE SCIENTISTS WERE LESS
CONSCIENTIOUS
7ILLIAM 3HOCKLEY INVENTED THE TRANSISTOR RADIO AND ,UIS !LVAREZ MADE IMPORTANT
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF PARTICLE PHYSICS .OBEL &OUNDATION
$4 TESTS ARE PRIMARILY MEASURES OF IDEATIONAL FLUENCY )N NORMAL SAMPLES THE RAPID
PRODUCTION OF IDEAS MAY DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THOSE CONSIDERED CREATIVE AND THOSE RATED
AS UNCREATIVE )N EMINENT SAMPLES FLUENCY ALONE IS NOT SUFFICIENT FOR A PARTICIPANT TO BE
CONSIDERED CREATIVE
! CAVEAT TO THIS SUPPOSITION WOULD INVOLVE AN EXAMINATION OF THE )1S OF THE
GROUPS STUDIED 4HE STUDENT AND OCCUPATIONAL SAMPLES WOULD HAVE BEEN MORE LIKELY TO
POSSESS )1 SCORES IN THE MEDIAN RANGE THAN WOULD THE CREATIVE ARCHITECTS AND SCIENTISTS
4HUS THIS FINDING REFERS TO THE THRESHOLD THEORY OF CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
0RODUCTIVITY IS CONSIDERED ORIGINALITY AND FLUENCY
4HESE INCLUDED PERFORMANCE AND VERBAL SUBSETS OF THE 7ECHSLER )NTELLIGENCE
3CALE FOR #HILDREN AND THE 3CHOOL AND #OLLEGE !BILITY 4EST 7ECHSLER
&OR A THOROUGH REVIEW OF THE RELATION BETWEEN $4 TESTS AND INTELLIGENCE SEE "AR
RON AND (ARRINGTON
4HE )0!2 PROCEDURE WAS EXHAUSTIVE AND REQUIRED THAT THE PARTICIPANTS LIVE AND
WORK WITH THE RATERS FOR SEVERAL DAYS AT A TIME (OWEVER THIS PROCEDURE MAY HAVE BEEN
A SOURCE OF BIAS
4HERE HAVE BEEN IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO CREATIVITY RESEARCH MADE BY BIOGRAPH
ICAL AND HISTORIOMETRIC INVESTIGATORS (OWEVER A DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF THIS RESEARCH
LIES OUTSIDE THE MEANS OF THIS REVIEW
/NCE A CERTAIN LEVEL OF INTELLECTUAL COMPETENCE HAS BEEN ATTAINED THERE IS LITTLE OR
NO RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY
4HIS IS SIMILAR TO #ATTELLS CONCEPTION OF FLUID INTELLIGENCE
#REATIVITY IS CONSIDERED A RESULT OF NORMAL COGNITIVE PROCESSES (OWEVER
STUDIES OF %INSTEINS BRAIN HAVE INDICATED THAT HE MAY HAVE POSSESSED EXTRAORDINARY
BRAIN ARCHITECTURE 7ITELSON +IGAR (ARVEY 4HE CONTINUING MARRIAGE OF
NEUROSCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES AND TRADITIONAL CREATIVITY RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES *AUS
OVEC MAY YET PROVE THAT IN SOME CASES OF CREATIVITY THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IN
STYLE AS WELL AS LEVEL
*ENSEN SUGGESTED THAT GF G
4HE 4ERMAN #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST IS A MEASURE THAT INCLUDES WORD
KNOWLEDGE GENERAL INFORMATION AND REASONING ABILITY ITEMS !S SUCH IT IS PREDOMINANTLY
A VERBAL INTELLIGENCE TEST
7E NOTE THAT TEST TAKING STRATEGY MAY HAVE HAD A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON THESE
SCORES BECAUSE INCORRECT ANSWERS INCURRED A PENALTY
4HE NUMBER OF CITATIONS DID NOT INCLUDE SELF CITATIONS FROM EITHER INDEPENDENT
STUDIES OR STUDIES WHOSE REFERENT WAS THE FIRST AUTHOR
.EITHER THE NUMBER OF WORKS PUBLISHED NOR RESEARCH EFFECTIVENESS CONFORMS TO
"ATEY &URNHAM
THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY )T SEEMS TO BE MORE OF A MEASURE OF PRODUCTIV
ITY THAN ONE OF CREATIVITY
7E ARGUE THAT THESE MEASURES DO NOT CONSTITUTE AN ACCURATE ASSESSMENT OF LEADER
SHIP PERFORMANCE OR POTENTIAL
! GROWING BODY OF EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PSY
CHOPATHOLOGY CF SPECIAL ISSUE OF THE #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL )T IS OUTSIDE THE
CAPACITY OF THIS REVIEW TO PRESENT THAT EVIDENCE HERE
( * %YSENCKS 0 SCALE %01 0 ( * %YSENCK %YSENCK %01 0 2
3 " ' %YSENCK ET AL WAS ENVISIONED AS A GENERAL PERSONALITY TRAIT THAT DETERMINES
PRONENESS TO PSYCHOSIS (OWEVER STUDIES HAVE SHOWEN THAT HIGH 0 SCORERS DO NOT EXPERIENCE
HIGHER RATES OF PSYCHOSIS * 0 #HAPMAN #HAPMAN +WAPIL AND THAT THE SCORES OF
INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA CANNOT BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM THOSE OF UNIVERSITY ART STUDENTS
3 " ' %YSENCK ET AL -ODERN CONCEPTIONS OF THE PERSONALITY TRAITS UNDERLYING PSYCHO
PATHOLOGY TAKE A DIMENSIONAL APPROACH -ASON #LARIDGE *ACKSON 4HE 0 SCALE IS
FOUND TO GENERALLY CORRESPOND TO AN ASOCIAL OR IMPULSIVE NONCONFORMITY DIMENSION "ENTALL
#LARIDGE 3LADE , * #HAPMAN #HAPMAN -ILLER 'REEN 7ILLIAMS
RATHER THAN TO A REPRESENTATIVE MEASURE OF PRONENESS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
4HE DISTINCTION BETWEEN SCHIZOPHRENIC AND BIPOLAR PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES MAY
BE ARTIFICIAL
3CHIZOTYPY IS THE ONE OF THE TERMS PREFERRED FOR DESCRIBING PRONENESS TO PSYCHOSIS
#LARIDGE
%FFECTIVELY ( * %YSENCK PRESENTED A TWO LEVEL THEORY 4HE SUPERFACTOR 0 IS HY
POTHESIZED AS CONTAINING TWO SUBORDINATE LEVEL FACTORS A CONFIDENCE OR DOMINANCE AND
B DISORDERED THINKING "OTH OF THESE FACTORS ARE POSTULATED TO CONTRIBUTE TO TRAIT CREATIVITY
AND RELATE TO THE DIMENSIONAL VIEW OF SCHIZOTYPY
-C#RAES INTERACTIONAL ACCOUNT OF PERSONALITY VARIABLES AND CREATIVITY IS
HIGHLY USEFUL BUT DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT WHETHER DOMAIN SPECIFICITY INFLUENCES THE
WAYS IN WHICH CREATIVITY IS EXPRESSED
4HE CRITICISMS OF -ERTEN AND &ISCHERS STUDY ALSO APPLY HERE
(OWEVER (ATTIE SUGGESTED THAT THE CONDITIONS OF TESTING DO NOT AFFECT THE
EXPRESSION OF CREATIVITY
$4 TESTS ARE REFERRED TO HERE AS IF THEY WERE COMPARABLE )N PRACTICE $4 TESTS CAN
DIFFER GREATLY EG FIGURAL VS VERBAL
)NDIVIDUAL PRECOCITY IN MATHEMATICS DURING CHILDHOOD MAY INDICATE THAT SUCH AN
INDIVIDUAL BE CONSIDERED A SCIENTIST BUT THE SAME INDIVIDUAL MAY ULTIMATELY EITHER MAKE
A CREATIVE CONTRIBUTION TO THE ARTS OR MORE LIKELY MAKE NONE AT ALL 9ET WERE PSYCHOLO
GISTS TO STUDY THIS INDIVIDUAL THEY WOULD UNDOUBTEDLY CONSIDER HIM OR HER AN EXAMPLE OF
A MATHEMATICAL CREATOR )T IS CLEAR THAT THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY IN CHILDREN CANNOT BE TRULY
VALID WITHOUT REFERENCE TO ADULT ACHIEVEMENT
(OWEVER IN PART THE EXPLORATIVE OPEN MINDED APPROACH OF HIGH / SCORERS PREDIS
POSES THEM TO SEE A $4 TEST AS THE PERFECT OPPORTUNITY TO EXPLORE AN IDEA OR A PROPOSITION
4HIS IN TURN HAS AN EFFECT ON FLUENCY SCORES AND THEREFORE A GREATER CHANCE OF STATISTICAL
INFREQUENCY OF RESPONSE
4HE CRITERIA USED DEPEND ON THE SAMPLE STUDIED &OR EXAMPLE IT IS UNHELPFUL TO
EXAMINE PROFESSIONAL AWARDS DATA IN ASSESSING THE CREATIVITY OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
!54(/2 ./4%3
-ARK "ATEY IS A LECTURER IN ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AT -ANCHESTER "USINESS
3CHOOL (IS RESEARCH INTERESTS INCLUDE CREATIVITY INNOVATION SUBCLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES IN RELATION TO WORK PERFORMANCE PSYCHOMETRICS LEADERSHIP AND

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT !DRIAN &URNHAM IS A PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY AT 5NIVERSITY

#OLLEGE ,ONDON (IS RESEARCH INTERESTS INCLUDE ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOMET
RICS COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE CROSS CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ECONOMIC SOCIALIZATION
2%&%2%.#%3
!GUILAR !LONSO ! 0ERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFER
ENCES n
!LBERT 2 3 2UNCO - ! ! HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERN
BERG %D (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY PP n #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE
5NIVERSITY 0RESS
!LLPORT ' 7 6ERNON 0 % ,INDZEY ' ! STUDY OF VALUES RD ED "OSTON
(OUGHTON -IFFLIN
!MABILE 4 - 3OCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CREATIVITY ! CONSENSUAL ASSESSMENT TECH
NIQUE *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
!MABILE 4 - 4HE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CREATIVITY ! COMPONENTIAL CONCEPTUAL
IZATION *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
!MABILE 4 - #REATIVITY IN CONTEXT .EW 9ORK 7ESTVIEW
!MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION $IAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL
DISORDERS RD ED 7ASHINGTON $# !UTHOR
!MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION $IAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL
DISORDERS TH ED 7ASHINGTON $# !UTHOR
!NDREASEN . 0OWERS 0 #REATIVITY AND PSYCHOSIS !N EXAMINATION OF CONCEP
TUAL STYLE !RCHIVES OF 'ENERAL 0SYCHIATRY n
!NDREWS % ' 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGINATION IN THE PRE SCHOOL CHILD 5NIVER
SITY OF )OWA 3TUDIES IN #HARACTER
"AER * 4HE CASE FOR DOMAIN SPECIFICITY OF CREATIVITY #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL
n
"AER * +AUFMAN * # 'ENTILE # ! %XTENSION OF THE CONSENSUAL ASSESSMENT
TECHNIQUE TO NONPARALLEL CREATIVE PRODUCTS #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL n
"ARRICK - 2 -OUNT - + 4HE "IG &IVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND JOB
PERFORMANCE ! META ANALYSIS 0ERSONNEL 0SYCHOLOGY n
"ARRON & 8 4HE DISPOSITION TOWARD ORIGINALITY *OURNAL OF !BNORMAL 3OCIAL
0SYCHOLOGY n
"ARRON & 8 #REATIVITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH /RIGINS OF PERSONALITY AND
CREATIVE FREEDOM 0RINCETON .* 6AN .OSTRAND
"ARRON & 8 (ARRINGTON $ - #REATIVITY INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY !NNUAL
2EVIEW OF 0SYCHOLOGY n
"ARUCH ) (EMSLEY $ 2 'RAY * ! A $IFFERENTIAL PERFORMANCE OF ACUTE AND
CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENICS IN A LATENT INHIBITION TASK *OURNAL OF .ERVOUS AND -ENTAL
$ISEASE n
"ARUCH ) (EMSLEY $ 2 'RAY * ! B ,ATENT INHIBITION AND hPSYCHOTIC PRONE
NESSv IN NORMAL SUBJECTS 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
"ASADUR - /RGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS FOR ENHANCING CREATIVITY IN
THE WORKPLACE *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR n
"EECH ! "AYLIS # 3MITHSON 0 #LARIDGE ' )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
SCHIZOTYPY AS REFLECTED IN MEASURES OF COGNITIVE INHIBITION "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL
0SYCHOLOGY n
"EECH ! -C-ANUS $ "AYLIS ' 4IPPER 3 !GAR + )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
IN COGNITIVE PROCESSES 4OWARDS AN EXPLANATION OF SCHIZOPHRENIC SYMPTOMATOLOGY
"RITISH *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY n
"ATEY &URNHAM
"EECH ! 0OWELL 4 -C7ILLIAM * #LARIDGE ' %VIDENCE OF REDUCED

hCOGNITIVE INHIBITIONv IN SCHIZOPHRENIA "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY
n
"ENTALL 2 0 #LARIDGE ' 3LADE 0 $ 4HE MULTIDIMENSIONAL NATURE OF SCHIZO
TYPAL TRAITS ! FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDY WITH NORMAL SUBJECTS "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL
0SYCHOLOGY n
"ODEN - ! 4HE CREATIVE MIND -YTHS AND MECHANISMS ND ED ,ONDON
2OUTLEDGE
"OORSTIN $ * 4HE CREATORS ! HISTORY OF HEROES OF THE IMAGINATION .EW 9ORK
2ANDOM (OUSE
"ORKENAU 0 /STENDORF & 4HE "IG &IVE AS STATES (OW USEFUL IS THE FIVE
FACTOR MODEL TO DESCRIBE INTRAINDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS OVER TIME *OURNAL OF 2ESEARCH IN
0ERSONALITY n
"ROADBENT $ % 0ERCEPTION AND COMMUNICATION ,ONDON 0ERGAMON
"ULLEN * (EMSLEY $ 0SYCHOTICISM AND VISUAL RECOGNITION THRESHOLD 0ERSON
ALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
#ACIOPPO * 4 0ETTY 2 % 4HE NEED FOR COGNITION *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND
3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
#ARROLL * " (UMAN COGNITIVE ABILITIES ! SURVEY OF FACTOR ANALYTICAL STUDIES
.EW 9ORK #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
#ARSON 3 ( 0ETERSON * " (IGGINS $ - $ECREASED LATENT INHIBITION IS AS
SOCIATED WITH INCREASED CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT IN HIGH FUNCTIONING INDIVIDUALS *OURNAL
OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
#ATTELL 2 " ! CULTURE FREE INTELLIGENCE TEST *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY
n
#ATTELL 2 " 4HE MEASUREMENT OF ADULT INTELLIGENCE 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN
n
#ATTELL 2 " !BILITIES 4HEIR STRUCTURE GROWTH AND ACTION "OSTON (OUGHTON
-IFFLIN
#ATTELL 2 " "UTCHER ( * 4HE PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT AND CREATIVITY
)NDIANAPOLIS ). "OBBS -ERRILL
#ATTELL 2 " $REVDAHL * % ! COMPARISON OF THE PERSONALITY PROFILE
0 & OF EMINENT RESEARCHERS WITH THAT OF EMINENT TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS AND OF
THE GENERAL POPULATION "RITISH *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY n
#HAPMAN * 0 #HAPMAN , * +WAPIL 4 2 $OES THE %YSENCK 0SYCHOTICISM
DIMENSION PREDICT PSYCHOSIS ! TEN YEAR LONGITUDINAL STUDY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDI
VIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
#HAPMAN , * #HAPMAN * 0 -ILLER % . 2ELIABILITIES AND INTERCORRELATIONS
OF EIGHT MEASURES OF PRONENESS TO PSYCHOSIS *OURNAL OF #ONSULTING 0SYCHOLOGY
n
#HASSEL , - 4EST FOR ORIGINALITY *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY
n
#LAPHAM - - 4HE CONVERGENT VALIDITY OF THE 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING
AND CREATIVITY INTEREST INVENTORIES %DUCATIONAL AND 0SYCHOLOGICAL -EASUREMENT
n
#LARIDGE ' 3CHIZOTYPY )MPLICATIONS FOR ILLNESS AND HEALTH /XFORD %NGLAND
/XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
#OHEN * 3TATISTICAL POWER ANALYSIS FOR THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES ND ED (ILLS
DALE .* %RLBAUM
#OLVIN 3 3 )NVENTION VERSUS FORM IN %NGLISH COMPOSITION 0EDAGOGICAL 3EMINAR
n

#OLVIN 3 3 -EYER ) & )MAGINATIVE ELEMENTS IN THE WRITTEN WORK OF SCHOOL
CHILDREN 0EDAGOGICAL 3EMINAR
#OSTA 0 4 -C#RAE 2 2 4HE .%/ PERSONALITY INVENTORY MANUAL /DESSA
&, 0SYCHOLOGICAL !SSESSMENT 2ESOURCES
#OSTA 0 4 -C#RAE 2 2 .%/ 0)&&) MANUAL SUPPLEMENT /DESSA &,
0SYCHOLOGICAL !SSESSMENT 2ESOURCES
#OSTA 0 4 -C#RAE 2 2 A &OUR WAYS FIVE FACTORS ARE BASIC 0ERSONALITY AND
)NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
#OSTA 0 4 -C#RAE 2 2 B 2EVISED .%/ PERSONALITY INVENTORY AND .%/ FIVE
FACTOR INVENTORY PROFESSIONAL MANUAL /DESSA &, 0SYCHOLOGICAL !SSESSMENT 2ESOURCES
#OX # - 'ENETIC STUDIES OF GENIUS )) 4HE EARLY MENTAL TRAITS OF THREE HUNDRED
GENIUSES 3TANFORD #! 3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
#ROPLEY ! * ! NOTE ON THE 7ALLACH +OGAN TEST OF CREATIVITY "RITISH *OURNAL OF
%DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
#SIKSZENTMIHALYI - 3OCIETY CULTURE PERSON ! SYSTEMS VIEW OF CREATIVITY )N
2 * 3TERNBERG %D 4HE NATURE OF CREATIVITY PP n #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND
#AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
#SIKSZENTMIHALYI - )MPLICATIONS OF A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE FOR THE STUDY OF
CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D #REATIVITY RESEARCH HANDBOOK PP n #AM
BRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
$EARBORN ' 6 ! STUDY OF IMAGINATION !MERICAN *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
n
$EARY ) * ,OOKING DOWN ON HUMAN INTELLIGENCE &ROM PSYCHOMETRICS TO THE
BRAIN /XFORD %NGLAND /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
$ELLAS - 'AIER % , )DENTIFICATION OF CREATIVITY 4HE INDIVIDUAL 0SYCHOLOGI
CAL "ULLETIN n
$ODDS 2 ! 3MITH 3 - 7ARD 4 " 4HE USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CLUES DURING
INCUBATION #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL n
$OLLINGER 3 * #LANCY 3 - )DENTITY SELF AND PERSONALITY )) 'LIMPSES
THROUGH THE AUTOPHOTOGRAPHIC EYE *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY
n
$OMINO ' )DENTIFICATION OF POTENTIALLY CREATIVE PERSONS FROM THE !DJECTIVE
#HECK ,IST *OURNAL OF #ONSULTING AND #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
$OMINO ' !SSESSMENT OF CINEMATOGRAPHIC CREATIVITY *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND
3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
$REVDAHL * % &ACTORS OF IMPORTANCE FOR CREATIVITY *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOL
OGY n
$YKES - -C'HIE ! ! COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ATTENTIONAL STRATEGIES OF SCHIZO
PHRENIC AND HIGHLY CREATIVE NORMAL SUBJECTS "RITISH *OURNAL OF 0SYCHIATRY n
%LLIOT * - -EASURING CREATIVE ABILITIES IN PUBLIC RELATIONS AND IN ADVERTISING WORK
)N # 7 4AYLOR %D 7IDENING HORIZONS IN CREATIVITY PP n .EW 9ORK 7ILEY
%YSENCK ( * $IMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY ,ONDON 2OUTLEDGE
%YSENCK ( * -AUDSLEY 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY ,ONDON -AUDSLEY (OSPITAL
%YSENCK ( * $IMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY OR #RITERIA FOR A TAXONOMIC
PARADIGM 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
%YSENCK ( * A &OUR WAYS FIVE FACTORS ARE NOT BASIC 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL
$IFFERENCES n
%YSENCK ( * B ! REPLY TO #OSTA AND -C#RAE 0 OR ! AND # 4HE ROLE OF THEORY
0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
%YSENCK ( * #REATIVITY AND PERSONALITY 3UGGESTIONS FOR A THEORY 0SYCHOLOGICAL
)NQUIRY n
"ATEY &URNHAM
%YSENCK ( * 'ENIUS 4HE NATURAL HISTORY OF CREATIVITY .EW 9ORK #AMBRIDGE
5NIVERSITY 0RESS
%YSENCK ( * "ARRETT 0 0SYCHOPHYSIOLOGY AND THE MEASUREMENT OF INTEL
LIGENCE )N # 2 2EYNOLDS 0 # 7ILLSON %DS -ETHODOLOGICAL AND STATISTICAL
ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PP n .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS
%YSENCK ( * %YSENCK - 7 0ERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ! NATU
RAL SCIENCE APPROACH .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS
%YSENCK ( * %YSENCK 3 " ' -ANUAL OF THE %YSENCK 0ERSONALITY 1UESTION
NAIRE ,ONDON (ODDER 3TOUGHTON
%YSENCK ( * %YSENCK 3 " ' 0SYCHOTICISM AS A DIMENSION OF PERSONALITY
,ONDON (ODDER AND 3TOUGHTON
%YSENCK ( * &URNHAM ! 0ERSONALITY AND THE "ARRON 7ELSH !RT 3CALE 0ER
CEPTUAL AND -OTOR 3KILLS n
%YSENCK - 7 'RAYDON * 3USCEPTIBILITY TO DISTRACTION AS A FUNCTION OF PER
SONALITY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
%YSENCK 3 " ' %YSENCK ( * "ARRETT 0 2EVISED VERSION OF THE 0SYCHOTI
CISM 3CALE 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES n
&EIST ' * ! META ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF PERSONALITY ON SCIENTIFIC AND ARTISTIC
CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGICAL 2EVIEW n
&EIST ' * )NFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY ON ARTISTIC AND SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERN
BERG %D (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
&EIST ' * "ARRON & 8 0REDICTING CREATIVITY FROM EARLY TO LATE ADULTHOOD
)NTELLECT POTENTIAL AND PERSONALITY *OURNAL OF 2ESEARCH IN 0ERSONALITY n
&ELDMAN $ ( ! FOLLOW UP OF SUBJECTS SCORING ABOVE )1 IN 4ERMANS h'E
NETIC 3TUDIES OF 'ENIUSv %XCEPTIONAL #HILDREN n
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DIGMS )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D #REATIVITY RESEARCH HANDBOOK PP n #AMBRIDGE
%NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
3TROOP * 3TUDIES OF INTERFERENCE IN SERIAL VERBAL REACTIONS *OURNAL OF %XPERIMEN
TAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
4ERMAN , - 4HE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE !N EXPLANATION OF AND A COMPLETE
GUIDE FOR THE USE OF THE 3TANFORD REVISION AND EXTENSION OF THE "INET 3IMON )NTELLIGENCE
3CALE "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN
4ERMAN , - %D n 'ENETIC STUDIES OF GENIUS 6OLS n 3TANFORD #!
3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
4ERMAN , - #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST MANUAL .EW 9ORK 0SYCHOLOGICAL #ORPORATION
4ERMAN , - /DEN - 4HE SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVIATES ))) #ORRELATES OF ADULT
ACHIEVEMENT IN THE #ALIFORNIA GIFTED GROUP 9EARBOOK OF THE .ATIONAL 3OCIETY FOR THE
3TUDY OF %DUCATION n
4HURSTONE , , 0RIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES #HICAGO 5NIVERSITY OF #HICAGO 0RESS
4HURSTONE , , 4HE NATURE OF CREATIVE THINKING .EW 9ORK .EW 9ORK 5NIVERSITY
0RESS
4IERNEY 0 &ARMER 3 - #REATIVE SELF EFFICACY )TS POTENTIAL ANTECEDENTS
AND RELATIONSHIP TO CREATIVE PERFORMANCE !CADEMY OF -ANAGEMENT *OURNAL
n
4IPPER 0 4HE NEGATIVE PRIMARY EFFECT )NHIBITORY PRIMING BY IGNORED OBJECTS
1UARTERLY *OURNAL OF %XPERIMENTAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
4ORRANCE % 0 'UIDING CREATIVE TALENT %NGELWOOD #LIFFS .* 0RENTICE (ALL
4ORRANCE % 0 %XPLORATIONS IN CREATIVE THINKING IN THE EARLY SCHOOL YEARS ! PROG
RESS REPORT )N # 7 4AYLOR & "ARRON %DS 3CIENTIFIC CREATIVITY )TS RECOGNITION AND
DEVELOPMENT PP n .EW 9ORK 7ILEY
4ORRANCE % 0 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING $IRECTIONS MANUAL AND SCORING
GUIDE 0RINCETON .* 0ERSONNEL 0RESS
4ORRANCE % 0 4HE -INNESOTA STUDIES OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR .ATIONAL AND INTERNA
TIONAL EXTENSIONS *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR n
4ORRANCE % 0 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING $IRECTIONS GUIDE AND SCORING
MANUAL 0RINCETON .* 0ERSONNEL 0RESS
4ORRANCE % 0 4HE 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING NORMSTECHNICAL MANUAL
FIGURAL STREAMLINED FORMS ! " "ENSENVILLE ), 3CHOLASTIC 4ESTING 3ERVICE
4ORRANCE % 0 "ALL / % 4HE 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING STREAMLINED
SCORING GUIDE FIGURAL ! AND " "ENSENVILLE ), 3CHOLASTIC 4ESTING 3ERVICE
4OYNBEE ! )S !MERICA NEGLECTING HER CREATIVE MINORITY )N # 7 4AYLOR %D
7IDENING HORIZONS IN CREATIVITY 4HE PROCEEDINGS OF THE &IFTH 5TAH #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH
#ONFERENCE PP n .EW 9ORK 7ILEY
5PMANYU 6 6 "HARDWAJ 3 3INGH 3 7ORD ASSOCIATION EMOTIONAL INDICA
TORS !SSOCIATIONS WITH ANXIETY PSYCHOTICISM NEUROTICISM EXTRAVERSION AND CREATIV
ITY 4HE *OURNAL OF 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
6INCENT ! 3 $ECKER " 0 -UMFORD - $ $IVERGENT THINKING INTELLI
GENCE AND EXPERTISE ! TEST OF ALTERNATIVE MODELS #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL
n
"ATEY &URNHAM
7ADE 3 $IFFERENCES BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 3OME SPECULATIONS ON

THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR n
7ALLACE ( 2 #REATIVE THINKING ! FACTOR IN SALES PRODUCTIVITY 6OCATIONAL 'UID
ANCE 1UARTERLY n
7ALLACH - ! #REATIVITY )N 0 ( -USSEN %D #ARMICHAELS MANUAL OF CHILD
PSYCHOLOGY 6OL PP n .EW 9ORK 7ILEY
7ALLACH - ! +OGAN . -ODES OF THINKING IN YOUNG CHILDREN .EW 9ORK
(OLT 2INEHART 7INSTON
7ATSON $ #LARK , ! .EGATIVE AFFECTIVITY 4HE DISPOSITION TO EXPERIENCE
AVERSIVE NEGATIVE STATES 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN n
7ECHSLER $ 7ECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN 2EVISED 3AN !NTONIO 48
0SYCHOLOGICAL #ORPORATION
7EHNER , #SIKSZENTMIHALYI - -AGYARI "ECK ) #URRENT APPROACHES USED
IN STUDYING CREATIVITY !N EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL
n
7ELSH ' 3 "ARRON & "ARRON 7ELSH ART SCALE 0ALO !LTO #! #ONSULTING
0SYCHOLOGISTS 0RESS
7ILSON 2 # 'UILFORD * 0 #HRISTENSEN 0 2 ,EWIS $ * ! FACTOR ANALYTIC
STUDY OF CREATIVE THINKING ABILITIES 0SYCHOMETRIKA n
7ITELSON 3 & +IGAR $ , (ARVEY 4 4HE EXCEPTIONAL BRAIN OF !LBERT %IN
STEIN ,ANCET n
7OLFRADT 5 0RETZ * )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY STORY
WRITING AND HOBBIES %UROPEAN *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY n
7OODMAN 2 7 3CHOENFELDT , & )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CREATIVITY !N
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE )N * ! 'LOVER 2 2 2ONNING # 2 2EYNOLDS %DS
(ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY 0ERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PP n .EW 9ORK
0LENUM 0RESS
7OODY % #LARIDGE ' 0SYCHOTICISM AND THINKING "RITISH *OURNAL OF 3OCIAL
AND #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
7UTHRICH 6 "ATES 4 # 3CHIZOTYPY AND LATENT INHIBITION .ONLINEAR LINKAGE
BETWEEN PSYCHOMETRIC AND COGNITIVE MARKERS 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES
n
9AMAMOTO + 4HRESHOLD OF INTELLIGENCE IN ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF HIGHLY CRE
ATIVE STUDENTS *OURNAL OF %XPERIMENTAL %DUCATION n
:ILLER 2 # 0HOTOGRAPHING THE SELF /BSERVING SELF SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ORIENTA
TIONS 3AN &RANCISCO #! 3AGE

!00%.$)8
3ELECTED $EFINITIONS OF #REATIVITY
!UTHORS
$EFINITION
.EW AND USEFUL
- ! "ODEN
- $ -UMFORD
2 * 3TERNBERG
AND 4 ) ,UBART
$ + 3IMONTON
' * &EIST
- #SIKSZENTMIHALYI
2 /CHSE
& 8 "ARRON
h#REATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO COME UP WITH IDEAS OR

ARTEFACTS THAT ARE NEW SURPRISING AND VALUABLE @)DEAS
HERE INCLUDE CONCEPTS POEMS MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS
SCIENTIFIC THEORIES COOKERY RECIPES CHOREOGRAPHY
JOKESAND SO ON @!RTEFACTS INCLUDE PAINTINGS
SCULPTURES STEAM ENGINES VACUUM CLEANERS POTTERY
ORIGAMI PENNY WHISTLESAND MANY OTHER THINGS YOU
CAN NAMEv P
h/VER THE COURSE OF THE LAST DECADE HOWEVER WE SEEM
TO HAVE REACHED A GENERAL AGREEMENT THAT CREATIVITY
INVOLVES THE PRODUCTION OF NOVEL USEFUL PRODUCTSv
A P
h#REATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE WORK THAT IS BOTH
NOVEL IE ORIGINAL UNEXPECTED AND APPROPRIATE IE
USEFUL ADAPTIVE CONCERNING TASK CONSTRAINTS v P
h0SYCHOLOGISTS HAVE REACHED THE CONCLUSION THAT
CREATIVITY MUST ENTAIL THE FOLLOWING TWO SEPARATE
COMPONENTS &IRST A CREATIVE IDEA OR PRODUCT MUST BE
ORIGINAL (OWEVER TO PROVIDE A MEANINGFUL
CRITERION ORIGINALITY MUST BE DEFINED WITH RESPECT TO
A PARTICULAR SOCIOCULTURAL GROUP 7HAT MAY BE ORIGINAL
WITH RESPECT TO ONE CULTURE MAY BE OLD NEWS TO THE
MEMBERS OF SOME OTHER CULTURE 3ECOND THE
ORIGINAL IDEA OR PRODUCT MUST PROVE ADAPTIVE IN SOME
SENSE 4HE EXACT NATURE OF THIS CRITERION DEPENDS ON
THE TYPE OF CREATIVITY BEING DISPLAYEDv PP n
h#REATIVE THOUGHT OR BEHAVIOUR MUST BE BOTH NOVEL
ORIGINAL AND USEFUL ADAPTIVEv P
h#REATIVITY IS ANY ACT IDEA OR PRODUCT THAT CHANGES AN
EXISTING DOMAIN OR THAT TRANSFORMS AN EXISTING
DOMAIN INTO A NEW ONE 7HAT COUNTS IS WHETHER
THE NOVELTY HE OR SHE PRODUCES IS ACCEPTED FOR
INCLUSION IN THE DOMAINv P
h#REATIVITY INVOLVES BRINGING SOMETHING INTO BEING THAT IS
ORIGINAL NEW UNUSUAL NOVEL UNEXPECTED AND ALSO
VALUABLE USEFUL GOOD ADAPTIVE APPROPRIATE v
P
h)F A RESPONSE IS TO BE CALLED ORIGINAL IT MUST BE TO SOME
EXTENT ADAPTIVE TO REALITYv P
APPENDIX CONTINUES
"ATEY &URNHAM
!00%.$)8 CONTINUED
!UTHORS
$EFINITION
0RODUCT ORIENTED
4 - !MABILE
# 2 2OGERS
h#REATIVITY CAN BE REGARDED AS THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS

OR RESPONSES JUDGED TO BE CREATIVE BY APPROPRIATE
OBSERVERS AND IT CAN ALSO BE REGARDED AS THE
PROCESS BY WHICH SOMETHING SO JUDGED IS PRODUCEDv
P
h4HERE MUST BE SOMETHING OBSERVABLE SOME PRODUCT
OF CREATION 4HOUGH MY FANTASIES MAY BE EXTREMELY
NOVEL THEY CANNOT BE USEFULLY DEFINED AS CREATIVE
UNLESS THEY EVENTUATE IN SOME OBSERVABLE PRODUCT
4HESE PRODUCTS MUST BE NOVEL CONSTRUCTIONS
4HE CREATIVITY HAS THE STAMP OF THE INDIVIDUAL UPON
ITS PRODUCT BUT THE PRODUCT IS NOT THE INDIVIDUAL NOR
HIS MATERIALS BUT PARTAKES OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE TWOv P
h4HE ACTION OF THE CHILD INVENTING A NEW GAME WITH
HIS PLAYMATES %INSTEIN FORMULATING A THEORY OF
RELATIVITY A HOUSEWIFE DEVISING A NEW SAUCE FOR THE
MEAT A YOUNG AUTHOR WRITING HIS FIRST NOVEL ALL OF
THESE ARE IN TERMS OF OUR DEFINITION CREATIVE AND
THERE IS NO ATTEMPT TO SET THEM IN SOME ORDER OF
MORE OR LESS CREATIVEv P
0ART OF A PROCESS
- ! 2UNCO
' * &EIST AND

& 8 "ARRON
2 ! &INKE
4 " 7ARD AND
3 - 3MITH
h#REATIVITY IS A USEFUL AND EFFECTIVE RESPONSE TO

EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES )N ADDITION TO WHAT MAY BE
ITS MOST OBVIOUS FUNCTION NAMELY AS PART OF THE
PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESSv P
h#REATIVITY IS A SPECIFIC CAPACITY TO NOT ONLY SOLVE
PROBLEMS BUT TO SOLVE THEM ORIGINALLY AND ADAPTIVELYv
P
h7E CONCEIVE OF CREATIVITY NOT AS A SINGLE UNITARY
PROCESS BUT AS A PRODUCT OF MANY TYPES
AND OF MENTAL PROCESSES EACH OF WHICH HELPS TO SET
THE STAGE FOR CREATIVE INSIGHT AND DISCOVERY
)N PARTICULAR WE DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
PROCESSES USED IN THE GENERATION OF COGNITIVE
STRUCTURES AND THOSE USED TO EXPLORE THE CREATIVE
IMPLICATIONS OF THOSE STRUCTURESv P
APPENDIX CONTINUES

!00%.$)8 CONTINUED
!UTHORS
3 ! -EDNICK
$EFINITION
h7E MAY PROCEED TO DEFINE THE CREATIVE THINKING PROCESS
AS THE FORMING OF ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS INTO NEW
COMBINATIONS WHICH EITHER MEET SPECIFIED REQUIREMENTS
OR ARE IN SOME WAY USEFULv P
#OMPONENTIAL CONCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY
- #SIKSZENTMIHALYI
( * %YSENCK
- $ -UMFORD
AND 3 " 'USTAFSON
h#REATIVITY CAN BE OBSERVED ONLY IN THE INTERRELATIONS

OF A SYSTEM MADE UP OF THREE MAIN PARTS 4HE FIRST OF
THESE IS THE DOMAIN WHICH CONSISTS OF A SET OF
SYMBOLIC RULES AND PROCEDURES 4HE SECOND
COMPONENT OF CREATIVITY IS THE FIELD WHICH INCLUDES
ALL THE INDIVIDUALS WHO ACT AS GATEKEEPERS TO THE
DOMAIN )T IS THEIR JOB TO DECIDE WHETHER A NEW IDEA
OR PRODUCT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE DOMAIN
&INALLY THE THIRD COMPONENT OF THE CREATIVE SYSTEM IS
THE INDIVIDUAL PERSONv PP n
h) ARGUE THAT CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT IN ANY SPHERE
DEPENDS ON MANY DIFFERENT FACTORS A COGNITIVE
ABILITIES EG INTELLIGENCE ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE
TECHNICAL SKILLS AND SPECIAL TALENTS ;EG MUSICAL
VERBAL NUMERICAL= B ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
SUCH AS POLITICAL RELIGIOUS CULTURAL SOCIOECONOMIC
AND EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND C PERSONALITY TRAITS
SUCH AS INTERNAL MOTIVATION CONFIDENCE NONCONFORMITY
AND ORIGINALITY !LL OR MOST OF THESE IN GREATER OR
LESSER DEGREE ARE NEEDED TO PRODUCE A TRULY CREATIVE
ACHIEVEMENT AND MANY OF THESE VARIABLES ARE LIKELY
TO ACT IN A MULTIPLICATIVE SYNERGISTIC RATHER THAN
ADDITIVE MANNERv P
h#REATIVITY APPEARS TO BE BEST CONCEPTUALISED AS A
SYNDROME INVOLVING A NUMBER OF ELEMENTS
A THE PROCESSES UNDERLYING THE INDIVIDUALS
CAPACITY TO GENERATE NEW IDEAS OR UNDERSTANDINGS
B THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL FACILITATING
PROCESS OPERATION C THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
INDIVIDUAL FACILITATING THE TRANSLATION OF THOSE IDEAS
INTO ACTION D THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATION
CONDITIONING THE INDIVIDUALS WILLINGNESS TO ENGAGE IN
CREATIVE BEHAVIOUR AND E THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE
SITUATION INFLUENCING EVALUATION OF THE INDIVIDUALS
PRODUCTIVE EFFORTSv P
APPENDIX CONTINUES
"ATEY &URNHAM
!00%.$)8 CONTINUED
!UTHORS
% 0 4ORRANCE
* 0 'UILFORD
$EFINITION
h) DEFINED CREATIVITY AS A PROCESS OF BECOMING SENSITIVE
TO PROBLEMS DEFICIENCIES GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE MISSING
ELEMENTS DISHARMONIES AND SO ON IDENTIFYING THE
DIFFICULTY SEARCHING FOR SOLUTIONS MAKING GUESSES OR
FORMULATING HYPOTHESES AND POSSIBLY MODIFYING AND
RETESTING THEM AND FINALLY COMMUNICATING THE RESULTSv
PP n
h)N ITS NARROW SENSE CREATIVITY REFERS TO THE ABILITIES
THAT ARE MOST CHARACTERISTIC OF CREATIVE PEOPLE
#REATIVE ABILITIES DETERMINE WHETHER THE INDIVIDUAL
HAS THE POWER TO EXHIBIT CREATIVE BEHAVIOUR TO A
NOTEWORTHY DEGREE 7HETHER OR NOT THE INDIVIDUAL
WHO HAS THE REQUISITE ABILITIES WILL ACTUALLY PRODUCE
RESULTS OF A CREATIVE NATURE WILL DEPEND UPON HIS
MOTIVATIONAL AND TEMPERAMENTAL TRAITSv P
/RIGINAL MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED *UNE

&INAL REVISION ACCEPTED !PRIL
-LVLi/`>
>`VVi
i"it
4HE *OURNAL OF 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY PUBLISHES ORIGINAL EMPIRICAL RESEARCH IN ALL AREAS OF BASIC AND APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 0REFERENCE IS GIVEN TO LABORATORY OR FIELD RESEARCH IN CORE AREAS OF SOCIAL AND
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE SELF ATTRIBUTION THEORY ATTITUDES SOCIAL
INFLUENCE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR DECISIONMAKING GROUPS AND TEAMS STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR AGGRESSION ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR LEADERSHIP AND
CROSS CULTURAL STUDIES 2ECENTLY PUBLISHED STUDIES HAVE ADDRESSED THE FOLLOWING TOPICS
s 4HE SOCIOLOGICAL IMPACT OF ATTITUDES TOWARD SMOKING SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE DEMARKETING
OF SMOKING
s !TTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS OF WORKERS TO SEXUAL HARASSMENT
s 3ELF DISCLOSURE IN ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS AND FRIENDSHIPS AMONG !MERICAN AND *APANESE
COLLEGE STUDENTS
s 2EACTIONS TO AS A FUNCTION OF TERROR MANAGEMENT AND PERSPECTIVE TAKING
s )NTERRACIAL INTERACTIONS AT RACIALLY DIVERSE UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES
"IMONTHLY )33.
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Creativity, Intelligence and Personality: A Critical Review of The Scattered Literature

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Creativity, Intelligence and Personality: A Critical Review of The Scattered Literature

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'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS  

#REATIVITY )NTELLIGENCE AND 0ERSONALITY !

4(% #5,452!, 6!,5% 0,!#%$ /. #2%!4)6)49 IN THE ARTS SCIENCES

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

OF CREATIVITY (OWEVER GROWTH IN AGREEMENT ON DEFINITIONS WIDELY ACCEPTED

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

NOVELTY IS ESSENTIAL IN SCIENCE WHERE ADVANCEMENT IS PREDOMINANTLY NORMAL AS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

&OR A LONG TIME PSYCHOMETRICIANS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE PSYCHOLOGISTS

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

4HE #RITERION 0ROBLEM

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY USED THROUGHOUT THE LITERATURE HAS YIELDED

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

OF SPONTANEOUS AND ADAPTIVE FLEXIBILITY C ORIGINALITY D SENSITIVITY TO PROB

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

OF THE ASSESSOR C 2ATINGS MAY BE MADE WITH REFERENCE TO PEOPLE PRODUCTS OR

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

DEPENDENT ON INTELLECTUAL ENDOWMENT 4HIS IMPLICATION CALLS INTO QUESTION THE

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

6INCENT ET AL  FOUND INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERTISE TO BE CORRELATED R 

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

REGARDED AS INTELLIGENCE AS MEASURED BY STANDARD TESTSv P   (E FOUND FACTORS

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

2EAL LIFE CREATIVE

MEASURE OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE WHEREAS IN OTHERS RESEARCHERS USED $4 SCORES

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

RELATED )T APPEARS THAT CREATIVITY AS FLUENCY IS MORE STRONGLY RELATED TO )1 THAN IS

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

OF PERSONALITY ( * %YSENCKS 'IGANTIC  AND #OSTA AND -C#RAES "IG  7E THEN

!RT AND SCIENCE STUDENTS

!GGREGATED )0!2 FINDINGS

!IR &ORCE OFFICERS

&IFTH GRADE SCHOOLCHILDREN

( ' 'OUGH 

& 8 "ARRON 

%MINENT CREATIVE GENIUSES

R BETWEEN - CREATIVITY SCORES AND - )1

R BETWEEN )1 AND RANKED EMINENCE  

4!",%  ! 3AMPLE OF 2EPRESENTATIVE #ORRELATIONS "ETWEEN #REATIVITY AND )NTELLIGENCE

'IFTED CHILDREN VS MATCHED

.OTE )1  INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT $4  'UILFORD DIVERGENT THINKING TESTS

R BETWEEN - CREATIVITY AND - )1 SCORE

- R BETWEEN )1 AND A VERBAL $4  

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

%YSENCKIAN )NSPIRED 2ESEARCH

"ATEY  &URNHAM 

'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

#REATIVITY )NTELLIGENCE AND 0ERSONALITY !

OF CREATIVITY (OWEVER GROWTH IN AGREEMENT ON DEFINITIONS WIDELY ACCEPTED

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

OF SPONTANEOUS AND ADAPTIVE FLEXIBILITY C ORIGINALITY D SENSITIVITY TO PROB

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

OF THE ASSESSOR C 2ATINGS MAY BE MADE WITH REFERENCE TO PEOPLE PRODUCTS OR

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

DEPENDENT ON INTELLECTUAL ENDOWMENT 4HIS IMPLICATION CALLS INTO QUESTION THE

6INCENT ET AL FOUND INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERTISE TO BE CORRELATED R

"ATEY &URNHAM

REGARDED AS INTELLIGENCE AS MEASURED BY STANDARD TESTSv P (E FOUND FACTORS

"ATEY &URNHAM

RELATED )T APPEARS THAT CREATIVITY AS FLUENCY IS MORE STRONGLY RELATED TO )1 THAN IS

"ATEY &URNHAM

OF PERSONALITY ( * %YSENCKS 'IGANTIC AND #OSTA AND -C#RAES "IG 7E THEN

( ' 'OUGH

& 8 "ARRON

R BETWEEN )1 AND RANKED EMINENCE

4!",% ! 3AMPLE OF 2EPRESENTATIVE #ORRELATIONS "ETWEEN #REATIVITY AND )NTELLIGENCE

'IFTED CHILDREN VS MATCHED

.OTE )1 INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT $4 'UILFORD DIVERGENT THINKING TESTS

- R BETWEEN )1 AND A VERBAL $4

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

3TAVRIDOU AND &URNHAM TESTED A SAMPLE OF UNDERGRADUATE PARTICI

"ATEY &URNHAM

MEASURE OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT /F THE PERSONALITY VARIABLES ONLY % CORRE

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

3UBSEQUENT ANALYSES WERE CONDUCTED BY INVESTIGATING THREE MAIN COM

"ATEY &URNHAM

VARIOUS FIELDS OF CREATIVE ENDEAVOR 4HE EMERGENCE OF THE &&- AS AN ACCEPTED

"ATEY &URNHAM

HAVE DEFECTIVE FILTERS FOR IRRELEVANT STIMULI ALTHOUGH IMPULSIVE NONCONFORMITY IS

QUALITATIVELY JUDGED )T IS MOST COMMON TO TAKE MEASURES OF FLUENCY NUMBER

"ATEY &URNHAM

4!",% #REATIVITY AND THE #ALIFORNIA 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY #0)

"ATEY &URNHAM

4!",% #REATIVITY AND THE 'IGANTIC

R FOUND BETWEEN CREATIVITY MEASURES AND %

R FOUND BETWEEN CREATIVITY SCORES AND % AND 0

"ATEY &URNHAM

.OTE $4 'UILFORD DIVERGENT THINKING TESTS

"ATEY &URNHAM

4!",% #REATIVITY AND -ETA !NALYTICAL AND ,ONGITUDINAL 2ESEARCH

A (IGH ON OPENNESS / EXTRAVERSION %

"ATEY &URNHAM

4!",% 2EPRESENTATION OF 4YPICAL 0ROFILES FOR #REATIVITY IN $IFFERENT $OMAINS

.OTE . NEUROTICISM % EXTRAVERSION / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE ! AGREEABLENESS

"ATEY &URNHAM

)DEALLY THE INVESTIGATION OF CREATIVITY SHOULD BE MULTIDISCIPLINARY %XCITING

"ATEY &URNHAM

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT !DRIAN &URNHAM IS A PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY AT 5NIVERSITY

"ATEY &URNHAM

"EECH ! 0OWELL 4 -C7ILLIAM * #LARIDGE ' %VIDENCE OF REDUCED

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THREE ALTERNATIVE CONDITIONS *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY

+UHN 4 3 4HE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS #HICAGO 5NIVERSITY OF #HICAGO

"ATEY &URNHAM

"ATEY &URNHAM

2OGERS # 2 4OWARD A THEORY OF CREATIVITY %4# 2EVIEW OF 'ENERAL 3EMANTICS

3TERNBERG 2 +AUFMAN # 0RETZ * % 4HE CREATIVITY CONUNDRUM ! PRO