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http://www.sarasuati.com

TEMA10:
Lxico.Formacin
delaspalabrasen
ingls:Prefijacin,
sufijaciny
composicin.

MadhatterWylder
29/01/2009

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

Table of contents

1. Introduction. _______________________________________________________ 3

2. Prefixation _________________________________________________________ 6
2.1. Groups of prefixes. _____________________________________________________ 6
2.1.1. Negative Prefixes. __________________________________________________________
2.1.2. Reversative or Privative Prefixes. ______________________________________________
2.1.3. Pejorative Prefixes. _________________________________________________________
2.1.4. Prefixes of degree or size. ____________________________________________________
2.1.5. Prefixes of Attitude. ________________________________________________________
2.1.6. Locative Prefixes. __________________________________________________________
2.1.7. Prefixes of time and order. ___________________________________________________
2.1.8. Number prefixes. __________________________________________________________
2.1.9. Conversion prefixes. ________________________________________________________
2.1.10. Other prefixes. ___________________________________________________________

6
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8

3. Suffixation. _________________________________________________________ 8
3.1. Noun Suffixes _________________________________________________________ 9

3.1.1. Denominal Ns: Abstract _____________________________________________________ 9

3.1.2. Denominal Ns: Concrete ____________________________________________________ 10
3.1.3. Deverbal Ns: Abstract. _____________________________________________________ 10
3.1.4. Deverbal Ns: Concrete _____________________________________________________ 10
3.1.5. Noun/Adjective Suffixes____________________________________________________ 10
3.1.6. De-adjectival Ns. _________________________________________________________ 11
Form abstract Ns expressing state or quality. _____________________________________ 11

3.2. Verb Suffixes. ________________________________________________________ 11

3.3. Adjective suffixes _____________________________________________________ 11

3.3.1. Denominal Adjs. __________________________________________________________ 11

3.3.2. Denominal Adjs: borrowed and neo-classical in origin suffixes. _____________________ 11
3.3.3. Deverbal Adjs. ___________________________________________________________ 11

3.4. Adverb suffixes _______________________________________________________ 12

4. Compound words ___________________________________________________ 12

4.1. Kinds of composition in the Noun. _______________________________________ 13
4.1.1. Subject + Verb ___________________________________________________________
4.1.2. Verb + Object. ___________________________________________________________
4.1.3. Verb and Adverbial Compounds______________________________________________
4.1.4. Verbless compounds: N + N Compounds. ______________________________________
4.1.5. Bahubrihi Compounds. _____________________________________________________

13
13
13
14
15

4.2. Kinds of composition in the verb. ________________________________________ 15

4.2.1. Back-formation. __________________________________________________________ 15

4.2.2. Verb + Adverb ___________________________________________________________ 15

4.3. Adjective compounds. _________________________________________________ 15

4.3.1. Verb and Object compounds _________________________________________________ 15
4.3.2. Verb and Adverbial Compounds. _____________________________________________ 15
4.3.3. Verbless compounds. ______________________________________________________ 16

4.4. Reduplicative or repetition compounds. __________________________________ 16

5. Brief Summary. ____________________________________________________ 17

Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

1. Introduction.

It is common for speakers of a Language to define a word as an

element in the language that conveys1 meaning. This basic common insight is
essential to establish the basic unit of morphological analysis. Its important to

bear in mind that, although words play an important role in linguistic analysis,

they do not correspond to the essential morphological unit. The reason for it is
that words may largely vary across languages (Humbolds typologyi) and

Word is not the

most basic
meaningful unit

within one same language and a definition of an essential unit of linguistic

analysis based on an element that varies is not adequate. It is necessary to
find a more basic unit.

Consider the words pencil, impossible and women. Only the first one can

be considered a unit of meaning. In the other two we can identify two

independent meanings: im (not) and possible, woman and plural. The fact that

words may be made up of independent bits of meaning implies that we may

identify other smaller units of analysis. Precisely, these independent bits of

Morpheme:
Minimal
meaningful unit

meaning are what we take to be the basic units of word analysis, called
morphemes. Bloomfield defined the morpheme as the minimal meaningful

element in a language.

To understand further the notion of morpheme consider the following

set of words: laugh, laughs, laughed, laughing. Its clear that the four words

are different, but also that each one shares an essential part of its meaning
with the rest. The all share the essential morpheme {LAUGH}.

As just implied, we may distinguish between more and less essential

morphemes. The essential morpheme in a word, the one that carries the
lexical meaning, is known as the lexeme or lexical morpheme. In books,

nicer, cooking the corresponding lexical morphemes are {BOOK}, {NICE} and

{COOK}. The bits of meaning in these words which correspond to grammatical

notions such as {PLURA}, {COMPARATIVE} and {PRESENT PARTICIPLE} are
known as grammatical morphemes.

So far we have only analyzed words in terms of the bits of meaning that

they contained their identifiable independent morphemes. We will now

1

transporta

Ivn Matellanes Notes

Lexical and
grammatical
morphemes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

introduce another aspect or level of word analysis, the level of realization of

meaning. An abstract analysis of words provides morphemes and a less

abstract analysis, the one which directly considers which parts of words

correspond to the independent bits of meaning, will provide different units

called

morphs.

Therefore,

morphs

are

the

actual

realization

Morphs are the

actual
realization of
morphemes

of

morphemes. It is important to take a step further and refine the notion of

morph into its possible allomorphs (Different realizations of the same
morpheme). For example:

MORPHEMES
Books = {BOOK} + {PLURAL}
Pens = {PEN} + { PLURAL }
Matches = {MATCH} + { PLURAL }

One morph can

have several
allomorphs

ALLOMORPHS
Books = book + /s/
Pens = pen + /z/
Matches = match + /Iz/

As with morphemes, we can also distinguish morphs of different

importance in a word: The root or Stem2 is the morph that realizes the

essential meaning and the affixes are morphs which are added before or after
the root. There is also a term to refer to the root plus all the derivational affixes

Different kind of
morphs:
Root, Base and
affixes.

in the word: Base. For example, the word writers is formed from the word

writer, thus the base of writers is writer even though when writer is a complex
morphological word ({write3} + {-er}). Roots are usually found alone4, whereas

affixes are never found in isolation.

Word-formation processes (WFP) are a set of grammatical rules

which are used in order to create new English words. Even though there are
many processes which enrich the English language, as for instance loans from
other languages and historical transfers, the Word formation rules are the most
active and common structures used in order to create new words.

Before getting into more detail with the WFR, I think that we must first

discuss some basic concepts which might be of interest to this paper. We need

to make a distinction between open and close classes of words. The first

group are classes to which new members can be added, for examples nouns,
2
3
4

The part of the word remaining alter every part has been removed.
Root or Stem
There is a number of roots that always occur with affixes, we call them bound roots: -ceice,

-vene Ex.: Conceive, Intervene,

Ivn Matellanes Notes

Open and close

classes of words.

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Closed classes are those whose members are

relatively fixed in number, for example articles, pronouns and prepositions.

Obviously, word-formation processes affect to open classes of words in a
language. We can create new words without changing the grammatical class.

Word formation processes (WFP) of this type are known as class-

maintaining. In all other cases, the processes are known as class-changing.

Class-changing &
class-maintaining

The process by which the word is formed from another is called wordformation rule.

<Adjective> + <-en> <Verb>

Normally, rules such as this are aid to have an input, on the left side of the
arrow, and an output on the right.

Input and output

in a WFR

There are several processes employed in English to form new words.

These processes can be divided in two groups: The

MAJOR PROCESSES,

which

are the most frequently employed and account for the greater part of the

Major processes:
-Affixation
-Compounding
-Conversion

English lexicon, and the minor processes which are of more limited
application. The Major processes are Affixation, compounding and

Conversion. Affixation is a WFP which adds an affix to the base, with or

without changing the word class. Prefixes are usually class-maintaining (author

co-author), whereas suffixes are usually class-changing (drive driver).

Assigning the base to a different word-class without changing its form

is known as conversion (drive V- drive N-). The most common WFP of

all is the compounding, which adds one base to another in order to create a
new word. (tea + pot teapot). The

MINOR PROCESSES

of WF are:

Reduplication tick-tack
Clipping ad (from Advertisement)
Blending brunch (from breakfast and lunch)
Acronyms NATO (From North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

Once a base has undergone a rule of WF, the derived word itself may become
the base for another derivation:

(friend) ........noun
(friend)-ly.....noun Adj
Un-[(friend)-ly].....Adj Adj
un-[(friend)-ly]-ness......Adj Noun

Ivn Matellanes Notes

Minor processes:
-Reduplication
-Clipping
-Blending
- Acronyms

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

2. Prefixation

Prefixes are such particles as can be added before full words but they

are not words with an independence existence (bound morphemes) [Marchand]

Most prefixes in English are of foreign origin (Latin, Greek or French), except

a-, be- fore-, mis- & un-, which are German in origin.
Some characteristics of the English prefixes are:

a. All prefixes have some stress, though light, in the first syllable, with
the exception of a-. However, the main stress of the word falls on the base.

b. Prefixes do not normally alter the stress pattern of the word.

c. Prefixes do not generally alter word class of the base (class-maintaining).

d. English prefixes, following Quirk et al., can be grouped according to their

meaning

2.1. Groups of prefixes.

2.1.1. Negative Prefixes.
UN-

NONIN-

-IL/ __i
-IM/labils
-IR/__r

Meaning

Added to

-Not, the opposite.

-Most common negative pref
-Used with Native UK words
-Not
-Can be derived from a
negative clause
-Not, the opposite.
-Preferred to UN in words of
Latin or French origin.

Adjs & advs

-ed/-ing particles

Unfair, unexpected,

Adjs, Ns of action
V-stem

Non-aggression, Non-stop

Adjs

Insane, illegible, irrelevant,

impolite

Adjs, Vs
Abstract Ns
Adjs, Ns

Disloyal, dislike,

DIS-

-Not, the opposite.

A(N)-

-Denotes absence of a quality

-Found in borrowed
neoclassical words

Examples

Amoral, anarchy

2.1.2. Reversative or Privative Prefixes.

Meaning

UNDE-

Reverse action + V
Deprived of + N
To reverse action, to undo

/di:/ /dI/

DIS-

Reverse action, Deprived of

Added to

V & Ns

Vs
Abstract Ns
Vs & Ns
Participles

Examples

Undo
Unhorse
Defrost, deforestation

Disconnect, discolored

Ivn Matellanes Notes

Prefixes:
Particles that can
be added before
full words but
which cannot
occur in isolation.

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

2.1.3. Pejorative Prefixes.

Meaning

MIS-

MAL-

PSEUDO-

Added to

Wrongly, bad
Normally unstressed
Bad
2nd element is usually a non
Germanic origin word
False, imitation

Examples

Vs, Abstract Ns
Participles
Abstract Ns

Misinform, misconduct,

Ns & Adjs

Pseudo-intellectual,

Malfunction,

2.1.4. Prefixes of degree or size.

Meaning

ARCHSUPEROUTSURSUB-

OVERVs.

UNDERHYPERULTRA-

Supreme, highest
Better, more than
To do something better,
faster, longer,
Over, above
Under, lower than
Too much

Too little

MINIMICRO-

MACRO-

On a large scale

Examples

Archduke, arch-enemy
Superman, supernatural
Outrun, outgrow

Ns
Adjs

Surcharge (=sobrecargar)
Substandard, subhuman
(=infrahumano)
Overconfident

Vs, ed-participles,
Adjs

Extremely, extra specially.

Extremely, beyond
excessively
Little
Recent prefix (MINI-)

Vs.

Added to

Ns [+Human]
Ns & Adjs
Vs [-Transitive]

underprivileged

Hypercritical.
Ultra-violet, ultra-modern.

Adjs
Adjs

Mini-skirt

Ns

Macro-symbiotics

2.1.5. Prefixes of Attitude.

Meaning

CO*COUNTER*ANTIVs.

PRO-

Implies accompanying
In opposition, against
Against, enemy of
For

Added to

Vs, Ns & Adjs

Vs, Abstract Ns
Ns, Adjs, Advs.
Vs (rare)
Ns and Adjs

Examples

Cooperate, co-pilot
Counteract
Antichrist, anti-social,
Pro-communist

*ANTI- suggests simply a state of mind, an attitude of opposition, while COUNTER- suggests action in
opposition, an activity. A counterattack can only take place if there has already been an attack.

2.1.6. Locative Prefixes.

Meaning

SUPERSUBINTERTRANS-

Over
Under
Between
across

Added to

Ns
Ns, Adjs, Vs
Denominal Adjs, Vs, Ns
Denominal Adjs, Vs

Examples

Superstructure
Subway
International, interwar
Transatlantic,

Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

2.1.7. Prefixes of time and order.

Meaning

Added to

Examples

FOREPRE-

Before
Before

Vs & Abstract Ns
Attributive Ns, Adjs, V

Foretell, foreword.
Pre-war, pre-marital,

POSTEXRE-

After

Attributive Ns, Adj, Vs (rare)

Post-war, post-classical

Former
Again

Ns [+HUMAN]
Vs, Abstract Ns

Ex-husband
Rebuilt, recollect

Vs.

2.1.8. Number prefixes.

Meaning

UNI- or MONOBI- or DITRIMULTI- or POLY-

One
Two
Three
Many

Examples

Unilateral, monorail
Bilingual, dichotomy.
Trident
Multiracial, polygamy,

2.1.9. Conversion prefixes.

In contrast with other prefixes, their main function is to convert the

base into a different grammatical class. Thus, they are class-changing
prefixes.
Added to
To form
Examples
BE-

a) Ns
b) Vs, Adjs & Ns
Ns
Vs

ENA-

a) Participle Adjs
b) Transitive Vs
Vs
Predicative Adjs

a) Bewigged (=empelucado)
b) bewitch (=embrujar)
Endanger (=comprometer)
Afloat (=flotante)

2.1.10. Other prefixes.

Meaning

AUTONEOPANPROTOSEMIVICE-

Self
Now, Revived
World.-wide
First, original.
Half
Delegate

Examples

Autobiography
Neo-gothic
Pan-American
Proto-type.
Semicircle
vice-president

3. Suffixation.

A suffix is a derivate final element which is productive in forming new

words [Marchand]. We must distinguish between suffixes with semantic value

(derivational suffixes) and inflections with grammatical value (Inflectional
suffixes).

Suffix:
Final element
which is
productive in
forming new
words.

Unlike prefixes, suffixes are usually class-changing elements.

Prefixes, though not used as separate words, mostly have distinct meaning of
their own. Suffixes rarely have meaning if their own and, as a rule, they only

Ivn Matellanes Notes

Inflectional and
derivational
suffixes.

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

serve to modify the meaning of the main element (red reddish) or to

change its category (clean cleanness).

There are certain words which are half way between a full word and a

suffix: Semi-suffixes [Marchand]. They are basically free forms, which are
almost used as suffixes (same position and semantically empty) as in craft in

Suffixes rarely
have meaning of
their own and, as
a rule, they only
serve to modify
the meaning of
the main element
or to change its
category

witchcraft, statecraft, -proof in fireproof, waterproof, -wise in lengthwise, monger in ironmonger, fishmonger, scandalmonger, - wright in playwright, like in childlike, -man in walkman, -burger in cheeseburger, fish burger etc.

Native suffixes combine only with a native base, and there is no

change of stress: hopeful, goodness. Foreign suffixes, however, can combine

with a foreign base as in utterance or with a native base as in eatable,

beautiful. These are called hybrids.

Here, following Quirk, I shall group suffixes not only by the class of

the word they form, but also by the class of the base they are added
(de-nominal, i.e. from nouns, de-adjectival, i.e. from adjectives, )

3.1. Noun Suffixes

3.1.1. Denominal Ns: Abstract

-AGE

Added to
Ns

-DOM

Ns

-ERY

Ns

-FUL

Ns

-HOOD

Ns

-ISM

Ns

-OCRACY

Ns

-SHIP

Ns

To form Ns
Noncount
abstract Ns
Noncount
abstract Ns
Noncount
abstract Ns

Noncount
abstract Ns
Noncount
abstract Ns
Noncount
abstract Ns
Noncount
abstract Ns
Noncount
abstract Ns

Meaning
Measure of, collection of

Baggage, frontage

Perjorative overtones

Kingdom

(i) condition or behavior

associated with
(ii) Location of
The amount N contains

Slavery, druggery

Status

Brotherhood,

Doctrine of

Calvinism,
impresionalism
Democracy

System of government
Status condition

Examples

Nursery, rookery
Mouthful, spoonful
(=cucharada)

Friendship,
dictatorship,

Ivn Matellanes Notes

Semi-suffixes
are basically
free forms,
which are
almost used
as suffixes

Words with a
native base &
a foreign suffix
is called
hybrid.

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

10

3.1.2. Denominal Ns: Concrete

-EER
-ESS
-ETTE*

-LET
-LING
-STER
-ER

Added to
Ns
Ns[+ANIMATED]
Ns

Count Ns
Ns[+ANIMATED]
Ns
Ns

To form Ns
Concrete Ns
Ns[+ANIMATED]
Diminutive Ns

Concrete Ns
Ns
Concrete Ns
Concrete Ns

Meaning
Skilled in
Female people
(i) small, compact

Examples

(ii) Imitation
(iii) female

Pamphleteer,
Waitress
Cigarette
Flannelette (=imitacion franela)
Usherette (=acomodadora)

Small, unimportant
Minor, offspring of
Involved in
(i) Person of a profession
(ii) Maker of
(iii) Inhabitant

booklet
Duckling, princeling, ...
Gangster
Banker,
Hatter,
Londoner,

* Stressed on the last syllable

3.1.3. Deverbal Ns: Abstract.

-ANT
-ATION
-MENT
-AL
-ING
-AGE

To form NS
(im-) personal Ns
Abstract/collective Ns
Abstract Ns
Abstract Ns
Abstract Ns
Non-count abstract Ns

Meaning
Agentive and instrumental
Process or state of
Result of
Action of, result of
Activity / state
Action of, instance of

Examples

Inhabitant,
Exploration, starvation
Amazement, arrangement
Trial, refusal,
Building, opening
Drainage (=desague), coverage

3.1.4. Deverbal Ns: Concrete

-ANT

Added to
Vs

-EE*

Vs

-ER,
-OR

Vs

To form Ns
Concrete
count Ns
Concrete
count Ns
Concrete
count Ns

Meaning

Examples

Participant, lubricant

passive

Appointee, payee

(i) personal
(ii) Non personal

Singer, writer
Computer, thriller

* Stressed on the last syllable

3.1.5. Noun/Adjective Suffixes

A number of suffixes yield tems that can be used both a Ns and as

nongradable Adjs.
Added to

-ITE

Ns

-(I)AN

Ns

(names)

-ESE

Foreign countries

-IST

Ns, Adj, some Vs

To form Ns/Adjs
Ns and nongradable adjs
Ns and nongradable adjs
Ns and nongradable adjs
Ns and nongradable adjs

Meaning
Member of: a community,
tribe, sect
(i) Relating to
(ii) Citizen of
Member of, the Lg of

Skilled in

Examples

Israelite, socialite,

Republican, lutheran
Indonesian
Chinese, Portuguese, ...
Violinist, socialist, ...

Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

11

3.1.6. De-adjectival Ns.

Form abstract Ns expressing state or quality.

-NESS*
-ITY

Added to
Neoclassical Adjs
Adjs

To form Ns
Abstract Ns
Abstract Ns

Meaning
State / quality
State / quality

Examples

Happiness
sanity

* Very productive suffix.

3.2. Verb Suffixes.

There are very few in English:

-(I)FY
-IZE

Added to
Ns & Adjs
Ns & Adjs

To form Vs
Vs mainly trans
Vs mainly trans

Meaning
Causative
Causative

Simplify
Popularize

Ns
Adjs

Vs
Vs (in-)Trans

Causative

Orchestrate
Deafen (=ensordecer),

(-ISE)*

-ATE
-EN

Examples

quicken

* British English

3.3. Adjective suffixes

Adjectives forming suffixes may be divided into three groups:

3.3.1. Denominal Adjs.

-FUL

Added to
Abstract Ns

To form Adjs
Gradable Adjs

Gradable Adjs
Adjs
Gradable Adjs

Meaning
Providing:
Full of:
Without
Not giving
Having the quality of
Having the quality of
Like

Helpful
Forgetful
Childless
Penniless
Cowardly, daily,
Ladylike
Creamy, hairy,

-LESS

Ns

Adjs

-LY
-LIKE
-Y
-ISH

Personal Ns
Concrete Ns
Concrete
non-count Ns
Count Ns

-IAN

Proper Ns

Examples

(non) gradable
Adjs
Adjs

(i) Somewhat like

(ii) Names of peoples
In the tradition of

Monkeyish, foolish
Turkish, Swedish
Darwinian

3.3.2. Denominal Adjs: borrowed and neo-classical in origin suffixes.

-AL, -IAL, -CAL
-IC
-ESQUE
-OUS, -EOUS, -IOUS

To form Adjs
Primarily non-gradable Adjs
Gradable / non gradable Adjs
Adjs
Primarily gradable Adjs

Examples

Criminal, editorial, musical,

Heroic, Arabic
Burlesque, arabesque ...
Virtuous, courteous, ambitious

3.3.3. Deverbal Adjs.

-ABLE
-IVE

Added to
Vs
Vs

To form Adjs
Adjs
Adjs

Meaning
Passive

Examples

Readable, forcible
Attractive, possessive

Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

12

3.4. Adverb suffixes

-LY
-WARDS
-WISE

Added to
Adjs
Advs & Ns
Ns

To form Advs
Advs
Advs
Advs

Meaning
In a manner
Manner & direction
In the manner of,
as far as concerned

Examples

Happily
Backwards
weather-wise

4. Compound words

A compound may be defined as a combination of two words so as

to function as a word, as a unit [Jespersen]. English has a great number of

examples of lexical items which, though felt and used as simple words, are
made up of two or more elements each of which may also be used as a

separate word. Such items are called compounds. Quirk also gives us another

Compound:
-A combination of
2 words so as to
function as a unit
-A unit consisting
of 2 or more
bases.

definition of compounds as a unit consisting of 2 or more bases.

Compounds

may

be

written

in

three

ways:

firstly,

as

two

independent words, as in washing machine. Secondly, joined by a hyphen,

as in tax-free. Finally, as one word, as in toothache. There is no rule about

Diff ways of writing

a compound:
-2 independnt words
-Joined by a hyphen
-As one word

how compounds should be spelt.

Compounds usually have main stress on the first element and

secondary stress on the second element. For example: black,bird

(compound: species of birds) and ,blackbird (a bird that is black).

Stress:

Black,bird

The meaning of a compound cannot always be deduced from the

separate meaning of its individual elements. For instance, the compound

hotdog is not a dog which is hot, but a sausage in a sandwich [Quirk].

Following Quirk, we are going to concentrate our classification on the

productive types of compounding and will indicate the syntactic relation of

the compounding element by paraphrases.

The categorization of the different compounds has been done following

the Quirk et al clause-structure functions of the compound elements. As an

example of this approach, I will take two compounds daydreaming &

sightseeing, which are superficially similar (N + -ing), yet the relations of their
constituents, & the grammatical meanings of the two compounds are different:
X dreams during the night VERB + ADVBL
X sees sights VERB + OBJ

Ivn Matellanes Notes

classification of
compounds:
Syntactic relation of
the compounding
element by
paraphrases

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

13

4.1. Kinds of composition in the Noun.

4.1.1. Subject + Verb

a) Subject + Deverbal N. This is a very frequent kind of compound.

sunrise (The sun rises). Other examples: headache, rainfall, daybreak.

b) Verb + Subject. This is a weakly productive type.

Playboy (the boy plays)

c) Verbal noun ing + Subject.

Washing machine (the machine washes). Other examples: firing squad

4.1.2. Verb + Object.

a) Object + Deverbal Noun.

Blood test (X tests blood)

This kind of compounds may be formed by count Ns and mass Ns:

Count Ns

Mass Ns (Primarly)

Crime report

Birth-control

Haircut

Steel-production

Book review

Dress-design

b) Verb + Object.

Pushbutton (X pushes the buton).

c) Verbal N in ing + Object.

Chewing gum (John chews gum). Others: drinking-water, reading-materials.

d) Object + Verbal N in ing. This type is VERY productive

Story-telling (John tells stories). Others: book-keeping, oath-taking,

e) Object + Agential N in er. This is also VERY productive and refers to

concrete (usually human) agents.

Cigar-smoker (John smokes cigars). Others: songwriter, radio-operator.

4.1.3. Verb and Adverbial Compounds

a) Verbal N in ing + Adverbial. This is a VERY productive type of

compound.

Swimming-pool (Mary swims in the pool). Others: typing paper, walking stick.

Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

14

b) Adverbial + Abstract Verbal N in ing. Moderate productivity. This

group consist of:

TIME: Sleepwalking, daydreaming (Mary dreams during the day).

c) Adverbial + Agential N in er. Fairly productive.

Baby-sitter (Mary sits with the baby)

d) Adverbial + Deverbal N. moderately productive.

PLACE: home-work (Mary works at home), boat-ride

e) Verb + Adverbial.

Dance-hall (Mary dances in a hall). Others: Springboard, workbench,

4.1.4. Verbless compounds: N + N Compounds.

- SUBJ AND OBJ

a) N1 operates N2.

Windmill (The wind operates the mill), motorcycle,

b) N2 produces/yields N1

Toy factory (The factory produces toyd), water pistol

c) N1 produces/yields N2

Gas Light (The gas produces light), sawdust (=suciedad de sierra - serrn)

d) N1 has N2.

Window-pane (=mirror), arrowhead

- SUBJ AND COMPLEMENT

a) N2 is N1. This group contains animate and inanimate Ns.

Animate Ns: drummer boy, woman writer, girl friend (The friend is a girl)

Inanimate Ns: Rose bush, pine tree

b) Adj + N:

Darkroom

(the room is dark),

blackboard,

c) N2 is like N1. VERY productive

Frogman, goldfish (The fish is like gold)

d) N2 consists of N1.

Apple pie (A pie that consist of apple), rice pudding

e) N2 is for N1.

Hand-towel (Towel for the hands), fire engine, coffee time, tearoom

Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

15

4.1.5. Bahubrihi Compounds.

These compounds names an entire thing by specifying some features of

it, as for instance paperback (A book which has a paper back). They may be formed

in two ways: NOUN+NOUN, as in birdbrain (=cabeza de chorlito) and

butterfingers (=torpe); ADJ + NOUN, as in paleface (=rostro palido) and

heavyweight (=persona de influencia).

4.2. Kinds of composition in the verb.

4.2.1. Back-formation.

Back-formation is said to occur when a compound Verbal N is shortened

to form a V, as in housekeeper housekeep. There are two types of syntactic

relation in these verb compounds:

a) Object + Verb.

Fire watch, house-hunt, lip-read (X reads the lips), brain-wash

b) Adverbial + Verb.

Bottle-feed, spring-clean, sleep-walk, baby-sit

4.2.2. Verb + Adverb

The principal advs used in these compounds are: out, over and under.

For example: outrun, overcome, underestimate

4.3. Adjective compounds.

4.3.1. Verb and Object compounds

a) Object + -ing Participle.

Man-eating (Peter eats men), breathtaking, self-governing

4.3.2. Verb and Adverbial Compounds.

a) Adverbial + -ing particle.

Ocean-going (Laura goes across oceans), lip-sucking, mouth-watering

b) Adverbial + -ed participle.

Home-made (Laura makes it at home), self-employed

Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Tema 10:
Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

16

c) Adjective / Adverb + ing participle.

Hard-working (Laura works hard), everlasting, good-looking

d) Adjective / Adverb + Past Participle.

New-laid, widespread, quick-frozen (X is quickly frozen)

4.3.3. Verbless compounds.

a) Noun + Adjective. VERY productive.

Tax-free

(free with respect to taxes),

air-tight, homesick, waterproof

b) Other Noun + Adjective. Other compounds of this kind have tow

meaning:

- AS + Adj + AS + N bottle-green (as green as a bottle)

- Adj + LIKE + N snow-white (white like snow).

c) Contacts: (adj 1 + Adj 2). Many compounds of this type have a first

element ending in -o which does not form an independent word, as for

instance socio-economic, Anglo-American

4.4. Reduplicative or repetition compounds.

These compounds are formed by two elements which are either

identical or slightly different. They are very common in very informal

speech and some derive from the nursery. The most common ones are:
a) To imitate sounds (onomatopoeia).

Tick-tock, drip-drip

b) Alternating movements.

Ping-pong, flip-flop

c) Vacillation, insincerity

Riff-raff, wishy-washy, tittle-tattle (=chafardear)

d) Intensification.

Tip-top, teeny-weeny

- CEDE publications (Madrid)

- Jespersen, O. 1993, The essentials of English grammar. London.
- Marchand, H. The categories and types of present day English word formation. Wiesbaden, 1960.
- Reeves, A & Llins, M, 1995 English grammar: An introductory description. Serveis de publicacions UAB:
Cerdanyola; Chapter 2.

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Summary 10: Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

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5. Brief Summary.
1.Introduction:

-Word is not the most basic meaningful unit (pencil, impossible, women) (laugh, laughs, laughing )
-Morpheme: Minimal meaningful unit Lexical and grammatical morphemes
-Morphs are the actual realization of morphemes One morph can have several allomorphs.
-Different kind of morphs: Root (free), Base and affixes (bound).

- Word-formation processes (WFP) are a set of grammatical rules which are used in order to
create new English words.
-Basic concepts: Open & closed words classes; Class-changing & class-maintaining; Input & output in WFR.
-Major WF processes: AFFIXATION, COMPOUNDING, CONVERSION.
-Minor WF processes: REDUPLICATION, CLIPPING, BLENDING, ACRONYMS.

2.1.Prefixes are particles that can be added before full words but which cannot occur in isolation.

Characteristics:
- Foreign origin (except a-, be- fore-, mis- & un- [German origin]) & Class-maintaining
- Light stress; no change of overall stress pattern; Prefixes grouped according meaning.

2. Affixation

Groups of prefixes: SEMANTICAL ORGANIZATION [Quirk]

NE
RE
PE
DE

-Negative: In an anarchy, unexpected non-stop parties dislike just to insane men.

-Reversative: I disconnected the defrost mechanism to undo the problem.
-Pejorative: We realized that the pseudo-intelligent robot was mal-functioning because of his misconduct.
-Degree/Size: arch-, super-, out-, sur-, sub-, over- vs. under-, hyper-, ultra-, mini- & micro- vs. macro-

A
LO
TI
CO
NU
O

-Attitude: Antichrist and pro-communists citizens cooperated to counteract the Pope.

-Locative: I got the supersonic subway to catch the international transatlantic on time.
-Time/order: My ex-husband foretold that he will rebuild his house both in the pre and post-war.
-Conversion: Bewitched, endanger.
-Number: mono-, uni-; bi-,di-,tri-; multi-,poly-Others: The vice-president of Pan-America described in his autobiography t last neo-gothic prototypes.

2.2. Suffixes: Final element which is productive in forming new words Inflectional & Derivational.

Characteristics:
- Suffixes rarely have meaning of their own and, as a rule, they only serve to modify the meaning of
the main element or to change its category.
- Native suffixes combine only w/native base; Hybrid: Words w/a native base & a foreign suffix.

Classification: GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION [Quirk]

- NOUN SUFFIXES:
- Denominal Ns (abstract): In a democracy, friendship, a spoonful of Calvinism and brotherhood are essential in a
kingdom, not slavery.
- Denominal Ns (concrete): An engineer weakling waitress burnt a Londoner banker booklet with a cigarette.
- Deverbal Ns (abstract): The driving inhabitant refusal of the anal exploration was an amazement to my gay friend.
- Deverbal Ns (concrete): The participants to the writers contest were appointee in NY.
- Noun/Adjective suffixes: Israelite and Chinese violinists are Lutheran.
- De-adjectival Ns: Happiness and sanity: all I want..

- VERB SUFFIXES: To deafen and popularize at some time simplifies your life.
- ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES:

- Denominal Adjs: The most cowardly & childless un-forgetful event that I have ever seen was when a diny foolish
ladylike doc tried to contradict the darwian theory.
- Denominal Adjs (foreign origin suffs): The ambitious criminal had an grotesque Arabic air.
- Deverbal Adjs: attractive, readable.

- ADV SUFFIXES: Weatherwise, we will happily move backwards in time.

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Summary 10: Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

18

3. Compound Words: Two different definitions: a) A combination of 2 words so as to function as

a unit [Jespersen] b) A unit consisting of 2 or more bases [Quirk].

Characteristics:
- Diff ways of writing a compound: 1) Two independent words, 2) Joined by a hyphen & 3) As one word.
-Stress: black,bird (main stress on the first element and secondary stress on the second element)
-In a NP it moves, as in ,blackbird (a bird that is black).
-Meaning: It cannot always be deduced from its different elements.

Classification: Syntactic relation of the compounding element by paraphrases.

Kinds of composition in the Noun

Verb Compounds

Adjective Compounds

a) Subject + Verb:
- Subject + Deverbal N

Sunrise

- Verb + Subject

Playboy

THE SUN

RISES
THE BOY
PLAYS
THE MACHINE
WASHES

Washing machine

- Verbal N in ing + Subj

b) Verb + Object:

Story-telling

- Obj + Agential N in er

Cigar-smoker
Blood test

- Obj + Deverbal N

Push button

- Verb + Object

Chewing-gum

- Verbal N in ing + Obj

STORY
JOHN SMOKES A
CIGAR
JOHN TESTS
BLOOD
JOHN PUSHES
THE BUTTON
JOHN CHEWS
GUM

c) Verb + Adverbial (Advl) compounds

- Verbal N in ing +
Advl

Swimming pool

- Advl + Agential
noun in er

Baby-sitter

- Advl + Abstract
verbal N in -ing

Daydreaming

- Advl + Deverbal

home-work

- Verb + Advl

Dance-hall

d) Bahuvrihi Compounds
N+N

Adj + N

Birdbrain
Paleface

b) Verb + Object > Obj +

-ing Particle: man-eating

JOHN TELLS A

- Obj + verbal N in ing

MARY SWIMS IN THE

POOL

MARY SITS WITH THE

BABY

MARY DREAMS

(PETER EATS MEN)

c) Verb + Adv
(out,
over,
under, up)
Underestimate

DURING THE DAY

MARY WORKS AT
WORK
MARY DANCES IN
THE HALL

d) Back Formation:
- Object +
brain-wash
Noun
- Advl + V

baby-sit

c) Verb and Adverbial compounds

OceanLAURA GOES
Advl +
-ing
ACROSS THE OCEAN
going
HomeLAURA MAKES IT AT
Advl +
-ed
HOME
made
HardLAURA WORKS
Adj/Adv
+ -ing
working HARD
QuickCHICKEN WAS
Adj +
-ed
FROZEN QUICKLY
frozen

d) Vless compounds
N + Adj
Tax-free
As [adj] as
[N]
[adj] like [N]
Contacts:
Adj1 + Adj2

Subj & Obj

THE WIND OPERATES THE MILL

THE FACTORY PRODUCES TOYS
THE GAS PRODUCES LIGHT
THE DOOR HAS A KNOB

Subj & Compl

e) Noun + Noun compounds

- N1 operates N2
Windmill
- N2 produces N1
Toyfactory
- N1 produces N2
Gaslight
- N1 has N2
doorknob
- N2 is N1
Girl friend
- Adj + N
Darkroom
- N2 is like N1
Goldfish
- N2 consists of N1
Apple pie
- N2 is for N1
Hand-towel

THE FRIEND IS A GIRL

THE ROOM IS DARK
THE FISH IS LIKE GOLD
A PIE THAT CONSITIS OF APPLE
A TOWEL FOR THE HAND

bottlegreen
snowwhite
AngloAmerican

FREE IN RESPECT
TO TAXES
AS GREEN AS A
BOTTLE

WHITE LIKE SNOW

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Summary 10: Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.

19

Having mentioned the essential units in word analysis, we can now introduce a language typology which
is widely referred to as Humboldts language typology. Humboldt established three types of
languages: Firstly, isolating languages are those with only morphologically simple words (Chinese),
secondly agglutinating languages are those with morphologically complex words in which morphemes
and morphs can be easily identified (Turkish), thirdly inflecting languages are those with
morphologically complex words in which constituent morphs cannot be easily identified (Latin, Spanish).
It is important to bear in mind that most languages are a mixture of two or three of this types.

Ivn Matellanes Notes