Keplars Third law: T2 = [4 pi2]/[GM] x r3

o Gravitational constant: 6.67 x 10-11

o M = Total mass of two galaxies, T = period, r = distance between two
galaxies
Period of suns orbit: T = ds/vs
o ds = length of solar systems orbit around galactic center
Equating equation of law of universal gravitation to that of centripetal force:
[GM]/R2 = v2/R
o G = gravitational constant, M = mass within stars orbit, v = orbital
speed of star, R = distance of star from galactic center
Galaxy stars have absorption lines
o Light from quasars overwhelmingly dominated by emission lines of hot
gasses and synchrotron radiation (no absorption line)
Synchrotron radiation that is emitted is longer in length because: as particles
move outwards along jet, they lost energy and velocities decrease
Equation for time dilation: T = T0/sqroot(1-(v/c)2)
Maximum size of energy-emitting region constrained by how much distance
light can travel in time it takes blazars brightness to fluctuate
o Information can only travel at or below speed of light so maximum
size: D = ct
Eddington Limit governs maximum luminosity of accreting object:
o L = (4 pi GM mpcP)/(omegaT)
Newtons form of keplers Third law: (M* + MBH) = a3/P2
o a = AU, P = years, M (both) = solar masses
Schwarzschild radius for given mass: R Sch = (2GM)/c2
Emission lines come from hot plasma, such as gas accreting onto black hole
that is causing quasar and stars in the galaxy that has a quasar. Absorption
lines come from cool gas in between quasar and observer. Cool gas can exist
at various place along our line of sight without completely obstructing our
view of quasar so possible to have absorption lines from various gas clouds
at different distances from us and thus different redshifts.
Dusty torus is natural product of accretion process which powers the Active
Galactic Nucleus. Since gas accreting onto Black hole is ionized into a plasma,
it generates Magnetic field lines as it rotates around central Black hole.
Olbers paradox = idea that if universe was infinite with infinite stars, night
sky should be completely light with stars. Solved by fact that universe has
finite age. Also, starlight gets weaker at 1/d 2
Relation between redshift and wavelength: Wavelength/Wavelength 0 = 1 + z
Weins law: Wavelengthmax = 0.0029Km/T
o T = kelvin, Cosmic microwave background: T = 2.725K
E = hf = h (c/wavelength)
o E = energy, h = Plancks constant, f = frequency of light
v = H0D
o v = recessional velocity, H0 = Hubble constant, D = proper distance

Eddington Limit is maximum luminosity a body can achieve when there is

balance between the force of radiation acting outward and gravitational force
acting inward
o State of balance = hydrostatic equilibrium
o Sets lower limit on mass of an object if it emits radiation by balancing
radiation pressure with gravity
Luminosity can be generated through accretion disks
o Disk shaped by gravitational pull of black hold and centripetal force of
rotation
Principle of equivalence
o Two kinds of mass are samethign
o Objects in free-fall travel in straight lines. Planets orbit because space
time is curved. The cause of curvature is mass
To find age of Universe: t = d/v = 1/H0 Age of universe ~ 13.6 Gyr
Early Universe
o Very hot (around 10^13 K)
o At a very high temperature, thermal equilibrium obtained and number
density of particles was roughly equal to number density of photons
Process would keep going except as universe expanded and
cooled, radiation energy density dropped to a point where not
enough energy for pair production to continue
o Free neutrons only last about 13 minutes before they decay to proton
and electron
o By the time universe is 3 minutes old, it has cooled to 10^9; enough to
allow nuclei to form
o Before all neutrons could decay, they combine with protons to form
deuterium (2H)
Deuterium is fragile and easily destroyed by gamma radiation
it is destroyed by helium (bottleneck)
o Universe expands as it cools and it becomes too cool to destroy
deuterium (not enough energy for gamma photons to destroy
deuterium)
Remaining neutrons combine with protons to form deuterium
which rapidly forms helium (hence why we have a lot of helium)
Recombination: Universe goes from being plasma to neutral atoms
o Nuclear reactions are frozen out when universe is 3 minutes old and
ratio of light elements are fixed
As universe expands, energy density of matter decreases
o As universe expands, energy density of radiation increases
Photon density decreases but wavelength of each photon
increases as expansion progresses
Nucleosynthesis = how helium in sun and other stars generated in early
universe