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Historyand Memory
andthe
PublicHistory
StudyofMemory
DAVID GLASSBERG
8 a
on
andwritings
ofpublichistory
development
Despitethesimultaneous
little
has
connected
them.
Few
new
the
during pastdecade,
publicmemory
frompublichistorihaveincorporated
workson memory
insights
scholarly
and
historic
in museums,historic
ans' experiencesworking
sites,
preservain
historic
few
tionagencies;
sites,and
projects museums,
publichistory
agencieshavemadeuse oftheoriesdevelopedinthescholarly
preservation
researchon memory.'
on memory
becausethenewscholarship
The separationis unfortunate,
a commonintellectual
offersus a new wayto thinkaboutpublichistory,
forthediverseenterprises
foundation
taughtandpracticedunderitsname.
thevariouswaysinwhichsocietiesthinkaboutthepastand
Understanding
to understand
the instituuse it in thepresentcan help publichistorians
about
tionalcontextsin whichtheyoperateas well as thepresuppositions
historywithwhichthe public approachestheirwork.Moreover,public
The insights
tothisscholarship.
arewellpositionedto contribute
historians
with
the
in
a
ofsettings,
from
historians
gain
working
public
variety
public
ofhowhistorical
iscreated,institutionthefirst-hand
knowledge
knowledge
can helprevitalize
theentirehistoriandunderstood,
alized,disseminated,
and intellectually
in
as it redefinesitselfbothprofessionally
cal profession
theyearsahead.2
What do historianstalk about when theytalk about memory?The
ofterms-collectivememory,
popularmemory,
publicmemory,
profusion
thatmemoryrequiresfurther
definition
as a
countermemory-suggests
theimportance
ofthescholarship
fieldofstudy.Beforedemonstrating
on
and
to
historians
the
contributions
that
memory public
important
public
we firstneed to understandits
historianscan make to thisscholarship,
and intellectual
emergenceas a historical
phenomenon.
At firstglance the studyof memoryseems a new field,but in fact
historianshave long been interestedin tracinghow ideas about history
ofwhathistorians
changeovertime.Fordecades,we havetaughtthehistory
and called it historiography,
have thoughtabouthistory
makingitsstudy
At the same time,
ofprofessionals.
centralto trainingfuturegenerations
1. Amongthe best examplesof memoryscholarshipbased on personalexperiencein
on theCraftand Meaning
workare MichaelFrisch'sSharedAuthority:
Writing
publichistory
oftheCenterfor
ofOral and PublicHistory(Albany:SUNY Press,1990)andthepublications
on
See Lois Silverman,
inAmericaat IndianaUniversity.
ed.,A Bibliography
History-Making
ofMuseums,1993).ThisbibliograDC: AmericanAssociation
(Washington,
History-Making
listingmanymoreexamplesofthenew
programs,
phyis essentialforteachersinpublichistory
on memorythancan be mentionedin thisessay.
scholarship
ofAmericanHistorians
devotedan entireCouncilofChairs
2. The Organization
recently
Public History."Its fiveessaysaddress many
newsletterto the questionof "Rethinking
studies
andprofessional
butnottheroleofmemory
concernsofcurriculum
identity,
important
oran exampleofhowacademicandpublichistorical
as a componentofpublichistory
training
Publicand Academic
See Jannelle
Warren-Findley,
"Integrating
practicescan be integrated.
45 (June1995): 4-6.
History:Is it Possible?Is It Wise?"OAH CouncilofChairsNewsletter
to considerhowfamilystoriestoldaboutWorldWar II
offeropportunities
havebeen shapedbythelargerpoliticalcultureand massmediaand are not
This leads to a largerquestion,
merelyunmediatedpersonalreminiscence.
withallthe
on memory:
one thathasbeen atcoreofmuchrecentscholarship
possible versionsof the past thatcirculatein society,how do particular
accountsof the past get establishedand disseminatedas the public one?
How do thesepublichistorieschangeovertime?6
PublicHistoryas PoliticalCulture
One approachto thesequestionsis to analyzehowtheprevailing
images
ofthepastin a societyreflectitspoliticalculture.In thewakeofcontroverexhibiton theend ofWorldWar II orthecontent
sies overtheSmithsonian
standardsandtextbooks
forschoolchildren,
fewcan deny
ofnationalhistory
that the question of whose versionof historygets institutionalized
and
is a politicalone, and thatpublichistory
disseminatedas thepublichistory
embodiesnot onlyideas about history--the
relationof past,present,and
also
the
ideas
about
ofdiversegroups
public-the relationship
future--but
inpoliticalsociety.Contemporary
debatesoverthepoliticsofpublichistory
haveonlyincreasedtheimportance
ofpublichistorians
readingscholarship
in thepast,as reflectedin theestablishment
on thepoliticaluses ofhistory
ofwar memorials,civiccelebrations,
and publicinstitutions
such as museand
historic
sites.'
ums,archives,
For some scholars,public historicalimagerysuppliesthe mythsand
symbolsthatholddiversegroupsin politicalsocietytogether.In thewords
ofBenedictAnderson,a sharedhistory--elements
ofa pastrememberedin
commonas well as elementsforgotten
in common-is thecrucialelement
in the construction
of an "imaginedcommunity"
throughwhichdisparate
individualsand groupsenvisionthemselvesas membersofa collectivewith
6. The insightthatoralhistory
interviewees
usuallyplace themselvesat thecenterofthe
historicaleventstheyare describingappears in Linda Shopes, "PopularConsciousnessof
Local History:The EvidenceofOral HistoryInterviews,"
International
Oral HistoryAssociation,1994. The term"uchronicdreams"appearsin AlessandroPortelli,The Death of Luigi
Trastulliand OtherStories:Formand Meaningin Oral History(Albany:SUNY Press,1991),
book of essaysexploringhow individualsand communities
a fascinating
rememberthe past.
see RobertN. Butler,"The Life
On personalreminiscenceas a spontaneousindividualactivity,
ofReminiscencein theAged,"Psychiatry
26 (February1963): 65-76.
Review:Interpretation
ofindividualand collectivememoriesthroughgroupcommunicaOn thesocial construction
tion,see MauriceHalbwachs,TheCollectiveMemory(New York:Harperand Row,1980),and
the essays in David Thelen, ed., Memoryand AmericanHistory(Bloomington:Indiana
Press,1990) and David Middletonand DerekEdwards,eds.,CollectiveRememberUniversity
ing (NewburyPark,Calif.: Sage, 1990). See also the importantcollectionon gender and
memory,Sherna Gluck and Daphne Patai,eds., Women'sWords:The FeministPracticeof
Oral History(New York:Routledge,1991).
overtheSmithsonian
exhibiton theend ofWorldWar II prompted
7. The controversies
on thepoliticsofpublichistory;
ofwriting
a torrent
see, forexample,"Historyand thePublic:
What Can We Handle? A Round Table about Historyafterthe Enola Gay Controversy,"
JournalofAmericanHistory82 (December 1995): 1029-1144.
* 13
factions.
but
Theyareexamplesnotofcollectivememory,
satisfy
competing
ratherofwhatJamesYounghastermed"collectedmemory"-discrete
and
memoriesbroughtto convergein a commonspace,much
oftenconflicting
The taskofthepublic
liketheVietnamVeteransMemorialinWashington.
more
to
create
for
about
be
andforthe
historian
history
may
spaces dialogue
and toinsurethatvariousvoicesare heardin those
collectionofmemories,
of eventstranslating
the
spaces,thanto providea finishedinterpretation
for
a
audience."
latestprofessional
scholarship
popular
PublicHistoryas PopularCulture
The dialogicalnatureof public historyis especiallyevidentwhenwe
examinehistoricalimageryin commercialmassmediaand touristattractions,representations
shapedlessbypoliticsandthedesiretocommunicate
thanbythemarketplace
official
and
ideologyora senseofcollectiveidentity
the desire to appeal to large numbersof people in theirleisurehours.
historical
ventures;withthe
Popularappeal is thelifebloodofcommercial
and foundation
forhistory,
all butthemost
declineofgovernment
funding
institutions
areincreasing
ofhistorical
theirmarketing
scholarly
exclusively
to bringmorevisitors
theirdoorsortobroadenthe
andpromotion
through
fortheirwork.As public historiansseek largerand larger
constituency
willtheconventions
thatshape
audiencesandcatertopopularexpectations,
otherpopularmediaplaya greaterrolein shapingtheformand contentof
theirwork?Roy Rosenzweigdocumentedhow the popularjournalistic
conventionof the human-interest
storypermeatedthe presentationof
in
American
Heritagemagazinein the 1950s and 60s; can tabloid
history
far
in the 1990s? In the future,will everyhistorical
be
behind
history
or
exhibit
needa happyendingtocompeteformassaudience?
documentary
Willhistoricsitesand districts
moreand moreresemblethemeparkssuch
as the one Disney proposedin Virginia?Will mass culturein the next
in the
centuryproveto be a morepowerfulforcethanthe nation-state
the
standardization
of
historical
twentieth
for
century
public
imagery?12
11. JamesE. Young,The Textureof Memory:HolocaustMemorialsand Meaning(New
roleas a creatorofpublic
Haven: Yale University
Press,1993). For moreon thehistorian's
spaces fordialogueaboutthepast,see JohnKuo Wei Tchen,"Creatinga Dialogic Museum:
inMuseumsand Communities:
ThePoliticsof
The ChinatownHistoryMuseumExperiment,"
MullenKreamer,andStevenD. Lavine(Washington:
PublicCulture,ed. IvanKarp,Christine
Smithsonian
Press,1992),285-326.
thePast:AmericanHeritageand PopularHistoryin the
12. RoyRosenzweig,"Marketing
thePast: Essayson Historyand thePublic,ed. S. Benson,S.
UnitedStates,"in Presenting
Press,1986), 21-49. Susan G.
Brier,and R. Rosenzweig(Philadelphia:Temple University
how the dictatesof commercialtelevisionbroadcastshaped the comDavis demonstrated
bicentennialin "Set Your Mood to Patriotic:Historyas
memorationof the Constitution
TelevisedSpecialEvent,"RadicalHistoryReview42 (1988): 122-43.On theconvergenceof
and whatappearselsewhere,see RichardFrancaviglia,
"Main
the Disneyversionofhistory
ofStreetscapesin DisneylandandWaltDisneyWorld,"
StreetUSA: A Comparison/Contrast
overthe Smithsonian's
Enola Gay exhibit
thoughthe recentcontroversy
howfragilethattrustmightbe.'3
demonstrates
Public historians
can help thescholarship
on memoryadvancebeyond
a
text
to
the
of
merelyopeningup
range possiblereadingsencodedwithinit
to discoverwhatmeaningsactuallysurfacedin particularhistorical
situationsby addinga surveyor ethnographic
to
their
work.
More
component
thana decadeago,JaniceRadwaysurveyed
a groupofwomenreadersinthe
Midwestabouttheirreactionto different
romancenovels,andconstructed
outoftheirlikesanddislikesa portrait
oftheirmentality
concerning
gender
relations.Publichistorians
areinan idealpositiontoconductthesamekind
of fieldresearch.Day to day theysee historynotonlyas createdby the
and reinterauthor,but also as reshapedbytheinstitutional
bureaucracy
various
audience
If
members.
the
of
a
historical
factis
pretedby
meaning
notintrinsic
butchangeswithcontext,
thenpublichistorians
can investigate
thesuccessivecontexts
createdbytheauthor,byinstitutions
ofcommunicaand
the
social
of
tion,
byaudiences,tracing
organization knowledgeabout
thepastinparticular
Thiskindofaudienceresearchisdesignednot
settings.
morepopularto attractmorevisitors,
but
merelyto makeinterpretation
to
better
rather understand
the preconceptions
abouthistory
withwhich
audiencesapproachourwork.14
a NationalParkServicehistoric
Consider,forexample,a family
visiting
site.Whatatfirst
handeddownfrom
glanceseemsa historical
interpretation
a centralofficeinWashington,
Denver,or HarpersFerryturnsouttobe a
of nationaland regionaloffices,betweenpark
productof the interaction
personneland localinterest
groups,as wellas betweenNPS andthevisitor
in thefield.ParkServicepersonnelhavea lotofautonomy
intheselection
ofwhatinformation
to givevisitors,
and parkvisitors
continueto interpret
and reinterpret
thehistory
and other
theysee and hearin termsoffamily
Atthesametime,thetendency
inan eraofdecliningresourcesto
contexts.
justifypark operationsin termsof audience size generatespressureto
presenthistoryin a waythatappeals to the greatestnumberof visitors.
NPS hasnotyetputa rippedbodiceonanentrancesign,we might
Although
Park
Serviceinterpretation
moreand moreto resemblepopular
expect
In tracinghistorywithinthe NPS, each level of
historicalattractions.
offers
itsowncontext
communication
thatshapesthemeaningofthehistory
conventionsin guidingaudiencereception,see Robert
13. On the role of interpretive
in ChannelsofDiscourse:Televisionand Contemporary
Allen,"ReaderOrientedCriticism"
Criticism(Chapel Hill: University
of NorthCarolinaPress,1987),254-89; see also Celeste
MichelleCondit,'The RhetoricalLimitsofPolysemy,"
CriticalStudiesin Mass Communication6 (June1989): 103-22.
14. JaniceRadway,ReadingtheRomance:Women,Patriarchy,
and PopularLiterature
of NorthCarolinaPress,1984). Excellentexamplesof researchon
(Chapel Hill: University
howaudienceexpectations
affect
historical
interpretation
appearintwoanthologies
published
Institution
Press:JoBlatti,ed.,PastMeetsPresent:EssaysAboutHistoric
bytheSmithsonian
and PublicAudiences(1987), and Ivan Karp,ChristineMullenKreamer,and
Interpretation
StevenLavine,eds.,Museumsand Communities:
ThePoliticsofPublicCulture(1992).
whoworkforand withNPS
beingtold,meaningsthatthepublichistorians
and analysis.'"
mightrecoverthroughclose observation
Or considerthe responseto popularhistoricaldocumentariessuch as
Ken Burns'sThe Civil War. DuringMarch1991,I read the lettersBurns
receivedathishomeinNew Hampshireas a waytobegintocharacterize
not
the story(wherehe gothis information,
and
onlyhow Burnsconstructed
what contextshe placed it in) but also, to some extent,how audiences
constructedthe meaningofwhattheysaw and heard.Manyletter-writers
remarkedthattheseriesremindedthemofotherTV shows,or otherfilms
abouttheCivilWar.Manymorewerepromptedtodiscusshowtheylearned
about the war fromtheirfamilies.Nearlyone-thirdof the lettersBurns
receivedmentionedfamilymembers,suggesting
thattheseviewerssawthe
nationalhistorypresentedin the filmthroughthe lens of theirfamily
history.'6
PublicHistoryas Place Consciousness
Historyoffers
waysnotonlytocommunicate
politicalideologyandgroup
a
make
or
to
but
also
to
orient
in theenvironment.
oneself
identity,
profit,
Publichistoriesprovidemeaningto places.Whethera filmshowinga Civil
War battlefieldor the designationof a local historicsite or district,all
connectstoriesofpasteventsto a particular
Historipresentenvironment.
cal consciousnessand place consciousnessare inextricably
we
intertwined;
attachhistoriesto places,and theenvironmental
valuewe attachto a place
comes largelythroughthe memoriesand historicalassociationswe have
withit.Whatcognitivechangesoccurwhenan environment
is consideredas
either
or
historical,
bygovernment
designation popularpractice,orwhena
civicorganization
suchas thelocalchamberofcommercecreatesmapsand
historicalatlasesthatrecognizesomehistorical
placesbutnotothers?Ifthe
the
of
on
has
scholarship
politics publichistory specialrelevanceforhistorianswhocurateandpresentthepastin government
museumsand historic
sites,and the scholarshipanalyzingpublic historyas popularculturehas
whoworkinmassmediaorwhoincreasingly
specialrelevanceforhistorians
must relyon popular appeal to keep theirinstitutions
afloat,then the
scholarshipon how memoriesattachto places has special relevancefor
historians
whoworkin culturalresourcesmanagement,
helpingcommunities to defineand protecttheir"specialplaces" and "character"through
historicpreservation
strategies.
15. The local impacton NPS interpretation
is likelyto growas moreand moresitesenter
intojointmanagementagreements
withlocalhistorical
agenciesandvolunteergroups,suchas
at Lowell NationalHistoricalPark.
16. See my"Dear Ken Burns:Letterstoa Filmmaker,"
Mosaic:Newsletter
oftheCenterfor
in America1 (Fall 1991): 1, 8.
History-Making
18
sitesandsocialinteractions."
as a webofmemory
lookatthelandscape
* 21
As well as exploring
the changingrelationship
of grassroots
memories
historians
and inventednationalhistory,
mightexamineotherchangesin
overtime,suchas therelationship
between
representations
publichistorical
and discontinuity
withtheimmediatepast.In the
depictionsofcontinuity
theearlytwentieth
eventsfromtheimmedinineteenth
centuries,
through
inpublicorations,
atepastwereroutinely
represented
parades,andhistorisuccessionofpast,present,and future;
cal pageantsas partofa continuous
a singlehistorical
butbythelate1920s,itwasfarmorecommontorepresent
eventratherthana sequence ofevents,and to choosethateventfromthe
thepastbecameisolatedas
distantpast.In thewordsofDavid Lowenthal,
disconnectedfrompresentand futureconcerns.When
a foreigncountry,
did we begin referring
to something(or
and underwhatcircumstances
whenwe meantitwas overand done with,without
someone)as "history"
forthefuture?6
ongoingsignificance
overtime,historians
Besidescomparisons
mightcomparepublichistoricalpracticesacrosscultures.David Lowenthalobservesan essentialsimilartheworldhaveadoptedthewesternuse ofthe
ityinhownationsthroughout
term"heritage"-althoughthe contentof each nationalheritageis by
isconceivedas residing
inobjects,
definition
unique,thewaythat"heritage"
and
shared
not
with
those
national
outside
exclusive,
residing
unique
kind
is
the
same.
In
another
of
boundaries,
study,JamesYoung's The
Textureof Memory:HolocaustMemorialsand Meaning(1993) compares
of the Holocaustin Germany,Poland,Austria,the
the memorialization
and
howeach nation'sversionoftheHolocaust
Israel,demonstrating
U.S.,
intoitsnationalidentity.
wasshapedbyitspoliticalcultureandincorporated
in
national
differences
historical
Although
examining
practicesis important,
refers
to
the
nation.
notall publichistory
Studies
activity
mightcompare
urbanand ruralhistorical
practices,or thehistorical
practicesofdifferent
inpublichistory
workofferan especially
socialclasses.Genderdifferences
for
cross-cultural
Who
doeshistory,
andhow?
interesting
topic
comparison.
It seems thatin the U.S., men narratehistoryas a successionof events,
as a web ofobjectsandplaces. Butwe have
whereaswomencuratehistory
These areonlya fewofthe
no studiesofthisphenomenoncross-culturally.
forfutureinvestigation
as memory
becomesmore
manypossibledirections
establishedas a fieldofscholarship.21
on History,Melancholy,
and Denial,"Historyand Memory5 (Fall/Winter
Reflections
1993):
136-52.
26. I discussthisphenomenonas "therecedingpast"in AmericanHistoricalPageantry
(1990); CharlesMaiertiesitto thewaningpowerofnationalideologiesofprogressin thelate
on History,Melancholy,and
twentieth
century.Maier,"A Surfeitof Memory?Reflections
1993): 136-52.
Denial,"Historyand Memory5 (Fall/Winter
inCommemorations:
27. David Lowenthal,"Identity,
ThePolitics
Heritage,and History,"
ed. JohnGillis(Princeton:PrincetonUniversity
Press,1994),41-57. My
ofNationalIdentity,
is based on myreadingof
in memorialization
observationconcerninggenderdifferences
suchas JamesLindgren,
theOld Dominrecenthistoriesofhistoricpreservation,
Preserving
Press of
and VirginiaTraditionalism
ion: HistoricPreservation
(Charlottesville:
University
Virginia,1993).