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F Net =F A + F R
F A + F R=0
E= F dr
o
o
o
o
o
o
A
r
EA=
E AR=
B
n
r
A = constant
B = constant
Bonding Energies and Melting Temp The higher the bonding energy,
the higher the melting temperature.
Covalent Bonding(Polymers) Found in materials whose atoms
have small differences in electronegativity that is, that lie near one
another in the periodic table. Stable electron configurations are
assumed by the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms. Two
covalently bonded atoms will each contribute at least one electron to
the bond, and the shared electrons may be considered to belong to
both atoms. Good electrical insulators and semi-conductors. CH 4, H2O,
HNO3, HF, elemental solids such as diamond, silicon,, and germanium.
Metallic Bonding Found in metals and their alloys. Valence
electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are
more or less free to drift throughout the entire metal. They may be
thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole or forming a sea of
electrons or an electron cloud. The remaining non-valence electron
and atomic nuclei form what are called ion cores, which possess a net
positive charge equal in magnitude to the total valence electron
charge per atom. Bonding may be weak or strong. Metallic bonding is
found in the periodic table for group IA and IIA elements and, in fact,
for all elemental metals. Metals are good conductors of both electricity
and heat as a consequence of their free electrons.
Van der Waals Bonding (Molecular Solids) Are weak in
comparison to primary or chemical bonds. Secondary bonding may
exist between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its presence may be
overshadowed if any of the three primary bonds are present.
Secondary bonds are possible between atoms or groups of atoms
which are already bonded otherwise.
Dipole (electric) A pair of equal and opposite electrical charges
separated by a small distance. For secondary bonds.
Hydrogen Bonding Is found to exist between some molecules that
have hydrogen as one of the constituents.
Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds A dipole may be created or
induced in an atom or molecule that is normally electrically
symmetric that is the overall spatial distribution of the
electrons is symmetric with respect to the positively charged
nucleus. All atoms experience constant vibrational motion that
o
o
N=N interior +
6 8
N=0+ + =4
2 8
N face N corner
+
2
8
For FCC, APF is 0.74, the max packing for all spheres having the
same diameter.
Given the atomic radius and atomic weight of an atom that forms into a
common cubic structure, compute its density.
Explain what is meant by coordination number and packing factor. Cite what
they are for FCC, BCC, and HCP unit cells.
Given a unit cell and three point coordinates, locate the point represented by
these indices with the unit cell.
Given a unit cell and three direction indices, draw the direction represented
by
NA
Aw
For some material, given the number of atomic sites per cubic meter, the
energy required for vacancy formation, and the value for the gas constant,
compute the number of vacancies at some specified temperature.
o
N=
N v =Nexp(
Qv
)
kT
15 .
Chapter 5 Diffusion
Compare and contrast the two atomic mechanisms of diffusion. Indicate which
occurs more rapidly and why.
o
J=
M
At
For steady-state diffusion through a metal sheet, determine the diffusion flux for
given values for diffusion coefficient, sheet thickness, and concentrations of
diffusing species.
dC
J= D dx
dC
=concentration gradient
dx
dC C C A C B
=
=
dx x x A x B
For diffusion into a semi-infinite solid when the concentration of diffusing species
at the surface is held constant, compute the concentration at some position
after a specified time, given the pre-diffusion concentration in the solid, the
surface composition, and the diffusion coefficient of the diffusing species.
o
C
C
2 C
= D
=D
t x
x
x2
x
2 ( DT )
)
C x C0
=1erf
C sC 0
Compute the value of the diffusion coefficient, given the pre-exponential, D 0, the
activation energy, the absolute temperature, and the gas constant.
o
D=D o e
QD
RT
Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformations, both by definition and in terms of behavior on a
stress-strain plot.
o Stress The instantaneous load applied to a specimen is divided by its cross-sectional area before
any deformation.
o
Strain The change in gauge length of a specimen (in the direction of an applied stress) divided
by its original length.
F
A
l il 0 l
=
l0
l0
Shear Stress The instantaneous applied shear load divided by the original cross-sectional area
across which it is applied.
F
=G
A ,
=E
Elastic Deformation deformation that is non-permanent that is totally recovered upon release
of a mechanical stress.
For non-linear behavior, the tangent or secant modulus is used.
E (
dF
)
dr r
separation curve.
Plastic Deformation Deformation that is permanent or non-recoverable after the release of the
applied load. It is accompanied by permanent atomic displacements.
Understand Poissons ratio and the concept of engineering stress/strain vs. true stress/strain.
o
x y
= z
z
True Stress (
True Strain (
T = (1+ )
E=2G(1+ )
T =ln ( 1+ )
T =K nT
From a tensile stress-strain plot, determine elastic modulus; yield strength, tensile strength, percent
elongation, modulus of resilience, and toughness.
o Proportional Limit The point on a stress-strain curve at which the straight-line proportionality
between stress and strain ceases.
o
o
o
Yield Strength (
y
2y
1
1
U R = y y= y
=
2
2
E
2E
( )
Toughness A mechanical characteristic that may be expressed in three contexts: (1) the measure
of a materials resistance to fracture when a crack is present; (2) the ability of a material to absorb
energy and plastically deform before fracturing; and (3) the total area under the materials tensile
engineering stress-strain curve.
o
Cite three reasons why hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test on
metals.
1. They are simple and inexpensive-typically, no special specimen need be prepared, and the
testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive.
2. The test is nondestructive the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively deformed; a
small indentation is the only deformation.
3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated form hardness data, such as tensile
strength.
Given the electrical resistance, as well as length and cross-sectional area of a specimen, compute its
resistivity and conductivity.
o
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical Conductivity
Ohms Law
RA
VA
=
l ,
Il
J = E , J= current density
E=
V
l
Describe the four possible electron band structures for solid materials.
o Four different types of band structures are possible at 0 K. In the first (Figure 12.4a), one outermost band is only partially filled
with electrons. The energy corre- sponding to the highest filled state at 0 K is called the Fermi energy Ef , as indicated. This
energy band structure is typified by some metals, in particular those that have a single s valence electron (e.g., copper). Each
copper atom has one 4s electron; however, for a solid comprised of N atoms, the 4s band is capable of accommodating 2N
electrons. Thus only half the available electron positions within this 4s band are filled.
For the second band structure, also found in metals (Figure 12.4b), there is an overlap of an empty band and a filled band.
Magnesium has this band structure. Each isolated Mg atom has two 3s electrons. However, when a solid is formed, the 3s and 3p
bands overlap. In this instance and at 0 K, the Fermi energy is taken as that energy below which, for N atoms, N states are filled,
two electrons per state.
The final two band structures are similar; one band (the valence band) that is completely filled with electrons is separated from
an empty conduction band; and an energy band gap lies between them. For very pure materials, electrons may not have
energies within this gap. The difference between the two band structures lies in the magnitude of the energy gap; for materials
that are insulators, the band gap is relatively wide whereas for semiconductors it is narrow.
o
Calculate the mobility of an electron, given its drift velocity and the magnitude of the electric field.
o Mobility The proportionality constant between the carrier drift velocity and applied electric
field; also the measure of the ease of charge carrier motion.
Drift Velocity (
=n|e| e
Intrinsic Conductivity
h=holemobility
n=p=ni
( e+ h)
o Intrinsic Carrier Concentration ( h+ e )=ni|e|
( e+ h)+ p|e|
n|e|
Chapter 19 Thermal Properties
Determine the linear coefficient of thermal expansion given the length alteration that accompanies a
specified temperature change.
o Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
l f l 0
= l ( T f T 0 )
l0
l
= l T
l0
V
= V T
V0
C=
dQ
J /mol K , cal/mol K
dT ,
J /kg K , cal/ g K
Btu /lb m F
Note the primary means by which thermal energy is assimilated by solid materials.
Define phonon.
o Phonon A quantum unit of electromagnetic energy
Make a qualitative comparison of the coefficients of thermal expansion for metals, ceramics, and
polymers.
o Values of coefficients of thermal expansion for polymers are typically greater than those for
metals, which in turn are greater than those for ceramic materials.
Define thermal conductivity.
o Thermal Conductivity (k) For steady-state heat flow, the proportionality constant between the
heat flux and the temperature gradient. Also, a parameter characterizing the ability of a material to
conduct heat.
For an isotropic solid material with its ends restrained by rigid supports, calculate the thermal stress that
results from a specified temperature change, given values of the elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal
expansion.
o
=E l ( T 0T f ) =E l T