Bandura

Social Learning Theory - emphasizes modeling or observational

learning as a powerful source of development and behavior
modification.

Bruner
Theory of "Discovery Learning" Constructivist. Children solve
problems using prior examples, reflection activities.
Believed that the education and instruction of children should
include four separate features.
1)Children should be encouraged to explore and learn about their
world, and teachers should seek out how to foster that curiosity.
2)Information should be easily accessible and comprehensible,
so teachers should research the most effective way to present
new information.
3)The order or sequence should be logical and orderly, so that
children can follow along with the development of an idea or way
of thinking.
4)A method of reward should be installed, so that children can be
encouraged and feel that their participation and responses are
good. Verbal praise is an extrinsic reward, while the child's pride
in figuring out the concept is an intrinsic reward.

Dewey
"Learning Through Experience", Project based, free activity,
cooperative learning, teach students how to think for themselves,
social success, hands-on activities, United States pragmatic
philosopher who advocated progressive education (1859-1952)

Piaget
Swiss psychologist remembered for his studies of cognitive
development in children (1896-1980), sensorimotor- 0-2 years
coordinating visual sensations with motorskills
preoperational- 2-7 years able to internally represent images in
own mind. EGOCENTRISM, concrete operational- 7-12 years
understand conservation volume, length, colour etc in objects,
formal operational- 12+ abstract thinking and logical thinking.
forming own beliefs and morality.

Vygotsky
Socialcultural Theory - views cognitive development as a socially
mediated process where adult support (called scaffolding) helps
children master skills they can't do on their own.

Kolhberg
Studied into moral development stages: Pre-Conventional
(punishment/obedience), Conventional (peer influence primary),
and Post Conventional (moral conduct/ human rights),
hierarchical scale for measuring moral maturity.Moral maturity
is evidenced by belief that there are universal rights and duties.

Bloom's Taxonomy
Higher order thinking, engaging students in critical thinking,
There are six categories of cognitive objectives organized by
complexity: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis,
Synthesis, Evaluation.

Metacognition
"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive
task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor
and adjust one's performance on that task.

Schema
A concept or framework that organizes and interprets
information.

Transfer learning theory

Transfer of learning-- connection or application of learned
material to future skill or knowledge acquisition. transferring
one's knowledge and skills from one problem solving situation to
another.
If teachers structure their lessons in ways that allow the transfer
of information, it pushes students to think it more broadly by
synthesizing: using old ideas to create new ones, creating
generalizations, making predictions and drawing conclusions.

Self-efficacy
Refers to one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviors
that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for
a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low
levels. (Bandura)

Self-Regulation
The process by which an organism effortfully controls behavior
in order to pursue important objectives.

Zone of Proximal Development

in Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level
of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive
proper guidance and instruction.

Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate
stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned
stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and
prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or
respondent conditioning.

Operant Conditioning
Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished,
resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence.

Cognitive Development
Development of processes of knowing, including imagining,
perceiving, reasoning, and problem solving.

Social Development
Development, with age, of increasingly sophisticated
understandings of other people and of society as a whole, as well
as increasingly effective interpersonal skills and more
internalized standards for behavior.

Moral Development
Growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses,
and act ethically.

Learning Style
A mode of learning; an individual's preferred or best manner(s)
in which to think, process information, and demonstrate
learning.

Americans With Disabilities Act

Passed by Congress in 1991, this act banned discrimination
against the disabled in employment and mandated easy access to
all public and commericial buildings.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA) ensures rights of nondiscriminatory treatment in all
aspect of disabled individuals lives; fair and appropriate
education, appropriate evaluation, individualized education
program, least restrictive environment, parent and student
participation in decision making, procedural safeguards.

Section 504 Rehabilitation Act

A federal law that protects the civil rights of individuals with
disabilities. This law is closely intertwined with IDEA. Children
with disabilities who are not eligible for special education may
qualify for accommodations under Section 504.

Intellectually Gifted
The 2 to 4 percent of the population who have IQ scores greater
than 130.

English Language Learners

Students whose first language is not English and who need help
in learning to speak, read, and write in English.

Thorndike
Law of Effect - behavior is strengthened with reinforcements.

Watson
Called the father of behaviorism, he claimed that a psychologist's
only interest should be in observable behavior.

Maslow
Humanist psychologist who developed a pyramid representing
heirarchy of human needs., Needs organized in hierarchal form.
Lower needs satisfied before we can attend to higher level needs.
Physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem,
self actualization.

B F Skinner
Behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based
on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons.

Erikson
Proposed that individuals go through 8 distinct, universal stages
of development. Each stage consists of a developmental task that
confronts individuals with a crisis.-- trust v mistrust - autonomy
v shame - initiative v guilt - industry v inferiority - identity v role
confusion - intimacy v isolation - generativity v stagnation integrity v despair.

Self-Determination
The ability of a government to determine their own course of
their own free will.

Attribution
The process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of
others.

Extrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or
threats of punishment.

Intrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Cognitive Dissonance
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two
of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our
awareness of our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce
the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Positive Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a
response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli,
such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when
removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note:
negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Motivation Theory
Individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if
they believe that:
1. There is a positive link between effort and performance
2. Favourable performance will result in a desirable reward
3. The reward will satisfy an important need
4. The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the
work effort worthwhile.

Standards of Conduct
Practice behaviors that are defined by members of a profession.

Positive Learning Environment

The teacher provides a well-managed, safe, and orderly
environment that is conducive to learning and encourages
respect for all. , an environment that promotes emotional and
intellectual fairness and security, can enhance self-esteem in all
learners
-could provide activities that promote success in reading and
writing, amply practice and careful corrections, focus on relevant
background information, actively involve learners, providenative language support, focus on content that and activities that
are relevant to the students, create roles for family and
community members, hold high expectations and being
responsible to cultural and personal diversity-

Standards-Based Education
The use of explicit outcomes of what students should know and
be able to do, which are outlined in standards, to develop
instruction and assessments.

Standards and Frameworks

A curriculum framework is an organized plan or set of standards
or learning outcomes that defines the content to be learned in
terms of clear, definable standards of what the student should
know and be able to do. Academic standards are the benchmarks
of quality and excellence in education such as the rigor of
curricula and the difficulty of examinations.

Cognitivism
A theory of learning. The idea is that learning is a conscious,
rational process. People learn by making models, maps and
frameworks in their mind. ~ is the opposite of behaviorism.

Information Processing
The methods by which we take in, analyze, store, and retrieve
material.

Mapping
Diagramming main ideas and connections between them.

Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura's explanation of how the factors of environment,
personal characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine
future behavior.

Vicarious Learning
Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being
rewarded or punished for performing the action.

Constructivism
View of cognitive development that emphasizes the active role of
learners in building their own understanding of reality.
(Learning by doing.)

Learning as Experience
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Problem-Based Learning
Classroom activity in which students acquire new knowledge and
skills while working on a complex problem similar to those in the
outside world.

Inquiry Learning
Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and
students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their
conclusions.

Discovery Learning
Approach to instruction in which students develop an
understanding of a topic through firsthand interaction with the
environment.

Punishment

Can be either positive or negative, intended to reduce the

occurrence of a behavior.

Scope and Sequence

Scope is what you are covering and sequence is when you are
covering it.

Affective Domain
Known as the "feeling" domain and is divided into categories that
specify the degree of a person's depth of emotional response to
tasks; it includes feelings, emotions, interests, attitudes, and
appreciations.

Psychomotor Domain
The domain involved in the learning of a new procedure or skill;
often called the doing domain.

Cognitive Domain
The "thinking" domain, includes six intellectual abilities and
thinking processes beginning with knowing, comprehending, and
applying to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Observable Behavior
Behaviors for objectives must be able to be seen or heard so
teachers can measure and assess how well an objective and/or a
task has been accomplished.

Remediation
A process that provides an individual with instruction and
practice to develop or strengthen skills which are nonexistent or
weak.

Enrichment
Educational approach that provides a child with extra learning
experiences that the standard curriculum would not normally
include.

Thematic Unit
An integrated learning experience that is structured around a
theme.

Interdisciplinary Unit
Many subject areas are included under one topic or theme (also
called thematic units or an integrated approach).

Collaboration
Joint communication and decision making among educational
professionals to create an optimal learning environment for
students and especially for students with disabilities. A
philosophy about how to relate to othershow to learn and work.

Integrative Assessment
Ask open ended questions. An approach to evaluation that
assimilates input from relevant sources.

Critical Thinking
The ability and willingness to assess claims critically and to make
judgments on the basis of objective and supported reasons.

Creative Thinking
The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up
with unique solutions to problems.

Inductive Reasoning
Deriving general principles from particular facts or instances
("Every cat I have ever seen has four legs; cats are four-legged
animals").

Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general
principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The
sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday
morning.)

Direct Instruction
A teacher-led instructional procedure that provides students
with specific instructions on a task, teacher-led practice,
independent practice, and immediate corrective feedback. Also
referred to as explicit instruction.

Indirect Instruction
-involving the students in inquiry, problem solving and discovery
-allows them to explore the environment, work with
manipulative and learn by doing and playing.
-takes advantage of students interests and encourages them to
find their own solutions.

Independent Instruction
Perhaps the most student-directed model of instruction.
Teachers may (or may not) initiate a project but the learner
generally takes responsibility for setting learning contracts,
research projects, computer mediated-instruction, and distance
learning.
Strength is that it encourages student self-reliance, selfregulation, and self-evaluation. Effective teachers can help
students set goals, manage their time, monitor their own
progress, and reflect on their achievements.

Experiential Instruction
Also called "anchor instruction." students use concrete
applications of concept being taught (anchor) to connect to a
concrete experience. Hands-on or simulated through computer
software, field trips.

Interactive Instruction
-involves lots of student interaction
-methods include: cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching,
think/pair/share

Explicit Teaching
Barak Rosenshine--10 basic principles for the development of an
explicit teaching session
1.Create a short statement of lesson purpose
2. Provide a short review of previous, prerequisite learning.
3. Present new material in small steps, withe student practice
4. Provide clear, detail explanations and instructions
5. Provide active practice for all students.
6.Ask effective questions, check for understanding and

encourage all pupil response

7. Guide students during practice
8. Offer students during practice.
9. Provide Practice for independent work and monitor students.
10. Continue Practice until students are ready to use new info
independently and confidently.

Drill and Practice

Offer students practice in the form of a variety of exercises. The
students receive immediate feedback on their answers. Typically,
Individualized practice and thus not appropriate for group or
collaborative work.

Demonstration
A visual presentation showing how something works.

Cloze Procedures
Fill in the blank production. an exercise, test, or assessment
consisting of a portion of text with certain words removed (cloze
text), where the participant is asked to replace the missing
words. Cloze tests require the ability to understand context and
vocabulary in order to identify the correct words or type of words
that belong in the deleted passages of a text. This exercise is
commonly administered for the assessment of native and second
language learning and instruction.
The word cloze is derived from closure in Gestalt theory.

Concept Mapping
Provides a visual framework for organizing conceptual
information in the process of defining a word or concept. The
framework contains the category, properties, and examples of
the word or concept.

Reading for Meaning

-An approach to reading instruction that emphasizes inferential
skills and treating texts as sources of meaning
--Reading familiar texts, developing knowledge of sight words
(look-say approach)
--Unfamiliar words are comprehended through context clues
--Students are expected to use top-down processing only
--Also known as the whole language approach

Case Studies
Involves a detailed study of a single individual or a small group
of individuals.

Inquiry
A process of learning that starts with asking questions and
proceeds by seeking the answers to the questions.

Learning Contracts
A negotiated agreement between the teacher and student that
gives the student some freedom in acquiring skills and
understanding based on student choice and curriculum.

Learning Centers
Multi-level stations where activities designed for specific
instructional purposes to provide reinforcement, independent
practice, and Discovery.

Distance Learning
Process of delivering educational or instructional programs to
locations away from a classroom or site.

Brainstorming
Coming up with as many solutions to a problem as possible in a
short period of time with no censoring of ideas.

Cooperative Learning Groups

Cooperative learning refers to a set of instructional techniques in
which students work together in small groups to complete an
assignment or project. Students are assigned individual roles
such as that of a facilitator, recorder, or time-keeper and are
given the opportunity to share their knowledge of the topic.

Synthesizing
Make your connections, pull it all together and create something
new from it all.

Inferring
The process of making an inference, an interpretation based on
observations and prior knowledge.

Modeling
Term coined by Bandura on how we learn by imitating others.
His research - children will spontaneously imitate the behavior of
a model without any obvious reinforcement.

Developing Self-Regulation Skills

Through relationships with adults begin to acquire strategies that
enable them to control their behaviors and emotions.
There is a genetic component/predisposition - but self-regulation
is malleable; can be taught or improved upon by parents,
caretakers or others in their environment.

Scaffolding
Vygotsky's idea that learners should be given only just enough
help so that they can reach the next level.

Differentiating Instruction
Adjusting instruction to meet the needs and learning styles of
individuals or groups of learners.

Guided Practice
The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and
when to apply the strategy, practice done with frequent and
immediate teacher assistance.

Coaching
Giving advice, direction or information to improve performance.

Whole-Class Instruction
Working on instructional material with the whole class at the
same time. Appropriate when most to all students need to learn
specific content or skills at the same time.

Small-Group Instruction

Students are in small groups, more attention from

teacher. This can be done in a number of ways but the most
common are a) one small group at a time while the rest of the
class does work independently b) all students are in a small
group and teacher moves between groups.

Pair/Share
A cooperative grouping strategy. It involves placing two students
together to discuss ideas about a topic. Then, after some time has
passed, the teacher asks the students to share with the whole
class what they discussed in their groups.

Independent Learning
Learners require knowledge soley on through their own efforts.
Uses inquiry and critical thinking.

Cooperative Learning
Approach to instruction in which students work with a small
group of peers to achieve a common goal and help one another
learn. (More instructor structured with a specific answer or
solution.)

Collaborative Learning
Students learning together, drawing on one another's knowledge
and skills. (Open ended questions without specific answers.)

Heterogeneous Grouping
An educational practice in which students of diverse abilities are
placed within the same instructional groups.

Homogeneous Grouping
An educational practice in which students of similar abilities are
placed within the same instructional groups. This practice
usually serves as a barrier to the integration of children with
disabilities.

Multi-Age Grouping
The mixing or integration of student of different ages in one
classroom or learning setting.

Short Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the
seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the
information is stored or forgotten.

Long Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory
system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Teachable Moments
The spontaneous, indirect teaching that occurs when teachers
respond to students' questions or when students otherwise
demonstrate the need to know something., Unplanned
opportunities for learning., points in time, perhaps associated
with critical periods, when a child is highly motivated and better
able to acquire a particular skill.

Think/Wait Time

Length of time a teacher pauses, after either asking a question or

hearing a student's comment, before saying something.

Active Listening
Empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and
clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.

Reflective Listening Statements

Reflective listening statements function like mirrors, enabling
clients to see themselves in new ways and muster the motivation
for change.
1. Repeating or Rephrasing - Listener repeats or substitutes
synonyms or phrases; stays close to what the speaker has said
2. Paraphrasing - Listener makes a major restatement in which
the speaker's meaning is inferred
3. Reflection of Feeling - Listener emphasizes emotional aspects
of
communication through feeling statements - deepest form of
listening.

Risk Taking
Being willing to try out new ideas.

Examples of Good Body Language

-facial expression-smile
-eye contact
-open posture
-distance
-tone of voice
CLOSER
C-control distractions, L-lean in, O-open posture, S-squarely face
the patient, E-good eye contact, R-RELAX,
--eye contact, relatable hand gestures, good posture, smiling,
asking relatable questions

Examples of Body Language

No eye contact, multitasking, bad posture, frowning, asking
random questions, opening eyes wide, snarling, winking,
opening mouth wide

Gesture
A movement or action of the hands or face, expressive of some
idea or emotion.

Cultural Cognitive Constraints

The frames of reference or world views that provide a backdrop
that all new information is compared to or inserted into.

Cultural Behavior Constraints

Each culture has its own rules about proper behavior which
affect verbal and nonverbal communication. Whether one looks
the other person in the eye-or not; whether one says what one
means overtly or talks around the issue; how close the people
stand to each other when they are talking--all of these and many
more are rules of politeness which differ from culture to culture.

Cultural Emotional Constraints

Different cultures regulate the display of emotion differently.
Some cultures get very emotional when they are debating an
issue. They yell, they cry, they exhibit their anger, fear,

frustration, and other feelings openly. Other cultures try to keep

their emotions hidden, exhibiting or sharing only the "rational"
or factual aspects of the situation.

Effective Listening Strategies

1. Attending to the Speaker
2. Restating Key Points
3. Asking Questions
4. Interpreting Information
5. Providing Supportive Feedback
6. Being Respectful

Formal Assessment
Standardized written or performance test of knowledge, aptitude,
values, etc. Pre-planned, systematic attempt to ascertain what
students have learned.

Informal Assessment
Occurs in a more casual manner and may include observation,
inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, performance and
portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self evaluation,
and discussion.

Formative Assessment
Assessment used throughout teaching of a lesson and/or unit to
gauge students' understanding and inform and guide teaching.

Summative Assessment
The process of assessing after instruction and using the results
for making grading decisions.
Evaluation at the conclusion of a unit or units of instruction or
an activity or plan to determine or judge student skills and
knowledge or effectiveness of a a plan or activity.

Diagnostic Assessment
Highly specialized, comprehensive and detailed procedures used
to uncover persistent or recurring learning difficulties that
require specially prepared diagnostic tests as well as various
observational techniques.
A form of assessment designed to provide teachers with
information about students' prior knowledge and
misconceptions before beginning a learning activity.

Analytical Checklist
A student's writing is assessed according to a pre-determined set
of criteria.

Scoring Guides
A scoring guide is the same as a rubric. It is a tool with a
descriptive scale used for measuring and documenting
observations that clearly spells out particular characteristics of a
behavior.

Rubric
A scoring guide used in assessments.

Anecdotal Notes
Short, concise written observations made by the teacher while
students work. The purpose is to observe & record information.

Continuums
A graphic organizer can be used to help students learn key
vocabulary or concepts. Provides an opportunity for students to
activate and develop prior knowledge of the feeling words that
will be discussed.

Self-Assessment
An evaluation of your strengths and weaknesses.
Can be used in a group work to assist students in raising their
awareness about the quality of their contributions to the group;
part of any writing assignment to summarize strengths and
weaknesses they see in their writing.

Peer-Assessment
Assessment by students of their classmates' products or
performances; usually done informally and during a class
session.

Achievement Tests
A test designed to assess what a person has learned.

Aptitude Tests
A test designed to predict a person's future performance;
aptitude is the capacity to learn.

Ability Tests
Tests used to assess the skills an individual already possesses;
Also called performance tests.

Norm-Referenced Scoring
Norm-referenced tests (or NRTs) compare an examinee's
performance to that of other examinees. Standardized
examinations such as the SAT are norm-referenced tests. The
goal is to rank the set of examinees so that decisions about their
opportunity for success (e.g. college entrance) can be made.

Criteria-Referenced Scoring
Criterion-referenced tests (or CRTs) differ in that each
examinee's performance is compared to a pre-defined set of
criteria or a standard. The goal with these tests is to determine
whether or not the candidate has the demonstrated mastery of a
certain skill or set of skills.

Validity
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is
supposed to.

Reliability
The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by
the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate
forms of the test, or on retesting.

Raw Score
Assessment score based solely on the number or point value of
correctly answered items.

Scaled Score

A conversion of the student's raw score on a common scale to a

numerical scale to compare to other students. (Weighted Score)

Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
score.

Holistic Scoring
Score is given on the paper as a whole. Assessors balance
strengths and weaknesses among the various criteria to arrive at
an overall assessment of success or effectiveness of a paper.

Reflective Practice
The process of teachers' thinking about and analyzing their work
to assess its effectiveness.

Incident Analysis
By conducting incident analysis, suggested by Fred Korthagen,
the teacher deeply thinks about one particular teaching or
learning event that concerns her, she looks back to her thoughts,
feeling, and the events from multiple perspectives, trying to
reveal what is the central issue in the situation.

Critical Friend
Someone who provides you with nonjudgmental, constructive
feedback, which is not part of a formal evaluation, but apart of
your ongoing reflection and professional development.

Action Plan
A multi-step strategy to identify and achieve your goals.

Stake holders
Anyone- parents, tax payers, politicians and corporate and
community leaders who have an interest in education.

First Amendment
The constitutional amendment that establishes the four great
liberties: freedom of the press, of speech, of religion, and of
assembly.

Intellectual Freedom
The right of every individual to seek and receive information
from all points of view. Provides free access to all expressions of
ideas through which any and all sides of a question, cause or
movement may be explored.

Due Process
Due process in education means that fairness should be rendered
in all areas, and that the teacher's or student's rights as
individuals should under no circumstances be violated.

Mandated Reporting of Child Abuse

Everyone has a duty to report in cases where there is suspected:
Child abuse and/or neglect by a parent, guardian, custodian or
caretaker. Reports should be made to the Director of the County
Department of Social Services in the county in which the child or
disabled adult resides or is found. Reports may be made orally or
in writing.

When is a teacher liable?

Tort law is based on the legal premise that individuals are liable
for the consequences of their own conduct (or lack
of conduct) when such actions result in injury to others. In a
school/classroom setting, tort law is the most common
area of the law that subjects teachers to personal liability.
In most education-related civil lawsuits there are two
main categories of tort liability relevant to the professional
educatorIntentional and negligent Torts.
Inappropriate touching, physical discipline, sharing private
information (test scores), slander, threatening, isolating,
accidents due to negligence, tying down or taping are all
situations in which a teacher would be held liable.