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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint
Universit de Lyon, CNRS, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, LTDS UMR5513, F-69134, France
Universit de Lyon, CNRS, Ecole Nationale d'Ingnieurs de Saint-Etienne, LTDS UMR5513, F-42023, France
c
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Askerceva 6, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
b
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 6 November 2012
Received in revised form
11 April 2013
Accepted 15 April 2013
Available online 22 April 2013
This paper aims at improving the understanding of cryogenic assistance in machining Ti6Al4V and
Inconel718 with carbide tools. It especially intends to investigate the cooling and/or lubrication
capabilities of a nitrogen jet under extreme contact conditions using a dedicated tribometer. Whereas
neither liquid nor gas nitrogen is able to decrease friction coefcient and adhesion on Ti6Al4V, it is
proved to be efcient on Inconel718 with a prevailing effect of the liquid phase. In both cases, applying
gas nitrogen already decreases the amount of heat transmitted to the pin but this can be drastically
enhanced by using liquid nitrogen. Finally, this work provides quantitative data regarding friction
coefcient under dry and cryogenic conditions that can be implemented in numerical cutting models.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Friction
Heat transfer
Cryogenic conditions
Adhesion
1. Introduction
Superalloys, such as nickel and titanium based alloys, are usually
employed in the manufacture of strategic and high-added value
components, especially for aerospace, aircraft, defence, or orthopaedic. Several specic properties such as high strength, resistance to
chemical degradation and wear resistance make them well suited for
service in extreme environments and particularly attractive in high
temperature applications. However their ability to maintain these
properties at elevated temperatures severely hinders the machinability of these alloys, thus they are generally referred to as difcultto-cut alloys [1].
It is claimed that in cutting, due to their low thermal conductivity
combined to a high chemical reactivity and adhesion with tool
materials [2], temperature at the toolwork material interfaces seriously increases, and drastically affects tool wear [3,4]. As a consequence, an effective high speed cutting application for these alloys
cannot be reached due to the extremely high thermal loads applied
on the tool material. Moreover, even if the trend is to move towards
dry or near-dry cutting in order to reduce the consumption of oil
based cooling lubrication uids (CLF) [5], the latter cannot be
completely avoided in the case of the mentioned materials. These
materials are thus still mainly machined under ooding conditions
with the known associated problems regarding costs and their
effectiveness [6]. Nevertheless, conventional oil-based CLFs are found
0301-679X/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2013.04.010
2. Brief state-of-the-art
2.1. Contribution of cryogenic applications when machining
superalloys
Nitrogen is mostly concerned in cryogenic applications and
usually liqueed by cooling to 196 1C (liquid nitrogen LN). It is a
safe, non-combustible, and non-corrosive gas. LN quickly evaporates, leaving no residues possibly contaminating the machined
part, chips, machine tool, or operator, thus eliminating disposal
costs. From a general point of view, cryogenic machining could
help to machine parts faster, with higher quality, increased
machining performance, and reduced overall cost [19]. Some
potential benets of cryogenic machining are
73
3. Experimental approach
3.1. Experimental set-up
The work material is simulated through a cylindrical bar of
Ti6Al4V or Inconel718 alloy. Ti6Al4V used for this study has been
supplied in a quenched and annealed version. It is characterised by
74
Fig. 1. Detailed description of the tribometer: (a,b) pin on bar contact conguration, (c) cryogenic delivery system and nozzle oriented in front of the friction pin and (d,e)
instrumentation of the pin holder [32,40].
kept uncoated when investigating the TiAl6V4. In order to eliminate the potential inuence of surface roughness, pins have been
polished to reach a low surface roughness Ra o 0:3 m which is
coherent with a typical surface roughness on a nely ground
carbide cutting tool. Each pin is maintained by an instrumented
pin-holder (Fig. 1d and e). The pin-holder is xed onto a dynamometer in order to provide the macroscopic normal Fn and
tangential force Ft (Fig. 1e) and is tted with a thermistor (Fig. 1d).
Concerning the bar, after each friction test, a cutting tool
refreshes the surface ploughed by the pin. A belt nishing
operation is also performed in order to obtain a very low surface
roughness Ra0:1 m and a constant surface for each test.
Ft
Fn
75
Material: TiAl64V
F : 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: uncoated
app
Fig. 2. Inuence of cryogenic lubrication on the apparent friction coefcient between Ti6Al4V and an uncoated carbide pin.
76
4. Results on Ti6Al4V
4.1. Apparent friction coefcient
The evolution of the apparent friction coefcient app versus the
sliding velocity Vsl is presented in Fig. 2 for the Ti6Al4V alloy. It is
Material: TiAl64V
F : 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: uncoated
Fig. 3. Inuence of cryogenic lubrication on the heat ux transmitted to an uncoated carbide pin when sliding against Ti6Al4V (For interpretation of the references to color
in this gure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.).
Material flow
Material: TiAl64V
Fn : 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: uncoated
DRY
500 m
Cryo liquid
500 m
Cryo gas
500 m
10
20
40
60
80
100 m/min
Fig. 4. Optical analyses showing the inuence of the lubrication mode on material transfer from Ti6Al4V to an uncoated carbide pin.
Sliding
velocity
(m/min)
20
60
100
SE
Material flow
Ti
Ni
DRY
Liquid Nitr.
600 m
77
Fig. 5. Inuence of cryogenic lubrication on material transfer between Ti6Al4V and an uncoated carbide pin: secondary electron (SE) and EDS analyses.
Cryo liquid
Cryo gas
20
m/min
DRY
100 m
500 m
100 m
500 m
100 m
100
500 m
Material: TiAl64V
Fn : 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: uncoated
Material flow
Fig. 6. Secondary electron (SE) images showing the different contact mechanisms between a Ti6Al4V and an uncoated carbide pin depending on the lubrication mode.
78
Material: Inco718
F : 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: TiN
app
Fig. 7. Inuence of cryogenic lubrication on the apparent friction coefcient between Inconel718 and a TiN coated carbide pin.
Material: Inco718
F : 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: TiN
Fig. 8. Inuence of cryogenic lubrication on the heat ux transmitted to a TiN coated carbide pin when sliding against Inconel718.
5. Results on Inconel718
5.1. Apparent friction coefcient
Fig. 7 represents the evolution of the apparent friction coefcient app depending on the sliding velocity Vsl in the case of
Inconel718. In dry conditions, it is shown that friction coefcient
decreases signicantly from 0.5 to 0.2 as sliding velocity increases.
These values have rst to be compared with the few friction
coefcients available in the literature for this work material. For
instance Ulutan and zel [44] reported values between 0.4 and
0.6 for a range of cutting conditions between 55 and 90 m/min. An
earlier study conducted by Liao and Shiue [45] provided friction
coefcient from 0.8 to 1.18 between 15 and 35 m/min when using
uncoated carbide P20 and K20. However these values were not
determined by any friction test but by tting a numerical cutting
model to experimental data in the rst reference, and an analytical
model based on cutting mechanics in the second one. Berger and
Hogmark [46] are the only ones who performed some tribological
tests at a very low speed of 13 mm/s ( o 1 m=min) with two
cylinders in contact, one made of Inconel718 and another made
Material flow
79
Material: Inco718
Fn: 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: TiN
DRY
500 m
Cryo liquid
500 m
Cryo gas
500 m
10
20
40
60
80
100 m/min
Fig. 9. Optical analyses showing the inuence of the lubrication mode on material transfer from Inconel718 to a TiN coated carbide pin.
Sliding
velocity
(m/min)
20
Material flow
100
SE
Ti
Ni
DRY
Liquid Nitr.
600 m
60
Fig. 10. Inuence of cryogenic lubrication on material transfer between Inconel718 and an uncoated carbide pin: secondary electron (SE) and EDS analyses.
80
Cryo liquid
20
m/min
DRY
100 m
500 m
100 m
100
500 m
Material flow
Material: Inco718
Fn : 1000 N
Pin: 9 mm WC-Co
Coating: TiN
Fig. 11. Secondary electron (SE) images showing the different contact mechanisms between a Inconel718 and a TiN coated carbide pin depending on the lubrication mode.
6. Discussion
As mentioned in the introduction and Section 2, cryogenic
machining has been largely developed to reduce the wear of the
cutting tools when such alloys are employed [14]. It is important to
emphasize that wear is not a generic term and that different
types of damage and wear mechanisms have to be considered
([48] Chapter 4). Adhesion and diffusion are the most active ones
for almost all tool materials when machining titanium [2] or
7. Conclusions
This paper focused on the tribological behaviour of Ti6Al4V and
Inconel718 alloys against uncoated and TiN coated carbide tools in
dry and cryogenic conditions. In order to simulate the contact
conditions corresponding to those occurring at the contact interfaces, a specially designed open tribometer tted with a cryogenic
injection system has been used to characterise macroscopic friction coefcient, heat transfer and material transfer depending on
the sliding velocity.
The high cooling capabilities of liquid nitrogen have been
proved on both investigated materials with a drastic reduction of
the heat transmitted to the pin in the whole range of sliding
velocities. However, neither liquid nor gas nitrogen has been able
to decrease the friction coefcient and material transfer when
Ti6Al4V and uncoated carbide pins were used, while a signicant
improvement has been noted for Inconel718 and TiN coated pins.
81
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to express their gratitude to the French
Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (MAEE) and French
Ministry of Higher Education and Research (MESR) for their
nancial support via the PHC PROTEUS programme.
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