50-2

2. RESEARCH DESIGN
2.1.

Concept of Research Design

When a research is carried-out, it follows a definite pattern or plan of action throughout the procedure, i.e.,
since the problem identification to the report preparation and presentation. This definite pattern or plan of action
is called research design. It is a map that guides the researcher in collecting and analysing the data. In other
words, research design acts as a blueprint that is followed throughout the research work. For example, a
building cannot be constructed without the knowledge of its structure. A builder cannot order raw materials or
set dates till he knows the structure of this building, such as office building, school, home, etc.
According to William Zikmund, Research design is defined as a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collection and analysing the needed information.
According to Kerlinger, Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as
to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.
According to Green and Tull, A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring
the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what
information is to be collected from which sources by what procedures.
According to Selltiz et al., A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
A research design is not only a work plan, it also specifies the type of data required to address the research
problem. It ensures that the data analysis and the conclusions lead to answering the initial questions of
researcher in a simple way. Therefore, a research design provides the structure of a research in such a way that
it provides relevant outcomes economically.

2.1.1.

Need of Research Design

Research design is needed because of following reasons:

Need of Research Design
Reduces Cost
Helps in Relevant Data Collection and
Analysis
Helps in Getting Reviews from Experts

Facilitate the Smooth Scaling

Assists in Smooth Flow of Research
Operations
Provides a Direction to Executives

1) Reduces Cost: Research design is needed to reduce the excessive costs in terms of time, money and effort
by planning the research work in advance.
2) Facilitate the Smooth Scaling: In order to perform the process of scaling smoothly, an efficient research
design is of utmost importance. It makes the research process effective enough to give maximum relevant
outcome in an easy way.
3) Helps in Relevant Data Collection and Analysis: Research design helps the researchers in planning the
methods of data collection and analysis as per the objective of research. It is also responsible for the reliable
research work as it is the foundation for entire research. Lack of proper attention in preparation of research
design can harm the entire research work.

4) Assists in Smooth Flow of Research Operations: Research design is necessary to give better and effective
structure to the research. Since all the decisions are made in advance, therefore, research design facilitates
the smooth flow of research operations and reduces the possible problems of researchers.
5) Helps in Getting Reviews from Experts: Research design helps in developing an overview about the
whole research process and thus assists in getting responses and reviews from different experts in that field.
6) Provides a Direction to Executives: Research design directs the researcher as well as the executives
involved in the research for giving their relevant assistance.

2.1.2.

Features of a Good Research Design

It is considered that a good research design should reduce the biasness while should maximise the reliability of
data being collected and analysed. A good research design should provide the opportunity as per the various
aspects of research problem. It should minimise the experimental error and should provide maximum
information. Hence, it can be concluded the selection of research design relies upon the research problem and
the nature of research. Following are the major features of a good research design:
Features of a Good Research Design
Objectivity
Validity
Sufficient Information

Reliability
Generalisability
Other Features

1) Objectivity: Objectivity refers to the ability of the research instruments to give conclusions that are free
from observers personal biases. A good research design should be able to select those instruments only that
provide objective conclusions. Usually, it is believed that maintaining objectivity is pretty easy, but it
proves to be difficult during execution of research and data analysis.
2) Reliability: Another essential feature of a good research design is the reliability of responses. The
instruments used in research should be able to provide similar responses to a question asked from a
respondent. If the response varies, the instrument is considered unreliable. In other words, reliability of
research design is measured in terms of consistency in responses.
3) Validity: An important characteristic of a good research design is its ability to answer the questions in the
way it was intended to. It should focus on the objective of the research and make specific arrangements or
plan for achieving that objective. For example, when a research is conducted to measure the effects of
advertisements in viewers, it should be able to answer this, and not the sale of a particular product.
4) Generalisability: A research design is said to be generalisable if the outcome of the research is applicable
on a bigger population from which the sample is selected. A research design can be made generalisable by
properly defining the population properly, selecting the sample carefully, analysing the statistical data
appropriately, and by preparing it methodologically. Therefore, the more the outcomes are generalisable,
more efficient is the research design.
5) Sufficient Information: Any research is conducted to gain insight of the hidden facts, figures and
information. The research design should be able to provide sufficient information to the researcher so that
he can analyse the research problem in a broad perspective. The research design should be able to identify
the research problem and research objective.
6) Other Features: Along with the above, there are some other features also that make a research design
good. These are adaptability, flexibility, efficiency, etc. A good research design should be able to minimise
the errors and maximise the accuracy.

2.1.3.

Terms Relating to Research Design

To understand the concept of research design more clearly, it is necessary to explain some important related
terms. Some of them are defined below:
1) Dependent and Independent Variables: A variable can have different quantitative values such as distance,
height, width, temperature, etc. A dependent variable depends upon other variable. It can also be the result
of other variable. An independent variable is the antecedent to the dependent variable. An independent
variable can be defined as the variable which is not affected by other variables and their measurements. An
example of dependent and independent variable can be the effect of stress on pulse rate. When the level of
stress changes, then the pulse rate changes. Here, the stress level is independent variable and the pulse rate
is dependent variable.
2) Extraneous Variables: Extraneous variables are the variables that are undesirable as they influence the
outcome of the experiment by generating errors in it. They are not the variables of the interest. They
influence the relation among the variables under study.
For example, if a researcher is trying to investigate the relationship between the marks in maths subject and
the environment in house, then, the intelligence of a student will be the extraneous variable, as the
independent variable would be environment in house, and dependent variable would be marks in
mathematics. Therefore, intelligence is unrelated to the study.
3) Confounding Variables: Confounding variables also called as third variables and mediator variables
negatively impact the relationship between variables, which in turn harms the analysis of the results. It
shows a fake correlation between the dependent and independent variables, due to which the null
hypothesis gets rejected unnecessarily.
For example, if a researcher is trying to find out that if the heavy smokers die at a young age. He collects
the data, analyses it and generalises that there is a positive correlation between heavy smokers and death at
younger age. But when some other people who are still living and are of old age, the generalisation gets
false. It implies that there are other factors too, that affect the death at younger age, besides heavy smoking.
4) Control: Controlling is the technical term which is related to controlling the influence of extraneous
independent variables as well as controlling the experimental conditions. It is done while designing the
research study.
5) Research Hypothesis: These are the predictions or supposed relationships between dependent and
independent variables. Research hypothesis are the statements that are tested using scientific methods. A
research hypothesis must have a dependent and independent variable.
6) Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis Testing Research: The testing of hypothesis can be
either experimental or non-experimental in nature. When the independent variable is modified, it is called
experimental hypothesis testing research, while when the independent variable is not modified, it is called
non-experimental hypothesis testing research.
7) Experimental and Control Groups: Experimental group is the group that is subjected to treatment. The
test variables are managed in this group only. On the other hand, control group is the group that is not
subjected to any treatment and used as a standard to compare the outcome. An example of experimental and
control groups can be the experiment on plants to see their growth on different temperatures. Then the plant
which is kept in room temperature would be called as control group, while the plants put in more than room
temperature would be called as experimental group.
8) Treatments: Treatments are the conditions under which the experimental group is projected in an
experiment. For example, if there are three patients of the same disease who are under experiment of three
different medicines. Then those three medicines would be considered as treatments.
9) Experiment: Experiment is the examination of truth to prove some research hypotheses for a research
problem. For example, an experiment can be conducted to test the newly discovered substance.
10) Experimental Units: Experimental units are the carefully determined units, upon which experiments are
carried out and treatments are applied. These blocks are set in advance.

2.2.

Dimensions of Research Design

There are several dimensions that are useful in deciding the design for a research study. These are as follows:
Dimensions of Research Design
Maximising Validity
Outlining Comparisons
Population, Geographic, and Time
Boundaries

Operationalising the Key Variables

and Concepts
Level of Analysis
Level of Precision

1) Maximising Validity: In most instances, a credible research design is one that maximises validity it
provides a clear explanation of the phenomenon under study and controls all plausible biases or confounds
that could cloud or distort the research findings. Four types of validity are typically considered in the design
of applied research:
i) Internal Validity: The extent to which causal conclusions can be drawn or the degree of certainty that
A caused B, where A is the independent variable (or programme) and B is the dependent variable
(or outcome).
ii) External Validity: The extent to which it is possible to generalise from the data and context of the
research study to other populations, times, and settings (especially those specified in the statement of
the original problem/issue).
iii) Construct Validity: The extent to which the constructs in the conceptual framework are successfully
operationalised (e.g., measured or implemented) in the research study. For example, does the
programme as actually implemented accurately represent the programme concept and do the outcome
measures accurately represent the outcome? Programmes change over time, especially if fidelity to the
programme model or theory is not monitored.
iv) Statistical Conclusion Validity: The extent to which the study has used appropriate sample size,
measures, and statistical methods to enable it to detect the effects if they are present. This is also related
to the statistical power.
2) Operationalising the Key Variables and Concepts: The process of refining and revising the research
questions should have yielded a clear understanding of the key research variables and concepts. For
example, if the researcher is charged with determining the extent of high school drug use (a descriptive
task), key outcome variables might include drug type, frequency and duration of drug use, and drug sales
behaviour. Attention should be given at this point to re-assessing whether the researcher is studying the
right variables i.e., whether these are useful variables.
3) Outlining Comparisons: An integral part of design is identifying whether and what comparisons can be
made i.e., which variables must be measured and compared with other variables or with themselves over
time. In simple descriptive studies, there are decisions to be made regarding the timeframe of an
observation and how many observations are needed. Typically, there is no explicit comparison in simple
descriptive studies. Normative studies are an extension of descriptive studies in that the interest is in
comparing the descriptive information to some appropriate standard. The decision for the researcher is to
determine where that standard will be drawn from or how it will be developed. In correlative studies, the
design is again an extension of simple descriptive work, with the difference that two or more descriptive
measures are arrayed against each other to determine whether they covary. Impact or outcome studies, by
far, demand the most judgement and background work. To make causal attributions (X causes Y), one must
be able to compare the condition of Y when X occurred with what the condition of Y would have been
without X. For example, to know if a drug treatment programme reduced drug use, one needs to compare
drug use among those who were in the programme with those who did not participate in the programme.
4) Level of Analysis: Knowing what level of analysis is necessary is also critical to answering the right
question. For example, if researchers are conducting a study of drug use among school students in a

particular city, Are they interested in drug use by individual students, aggregate survey totals at the school
level, aggregate totals at the school district, or for the city as a whole?
Correct identification of the proper level or unit of analysis has important implications for both data
collection and analysis. The Stage I client discussions should clarify the desired level of analysis. It is likely
that the researcher will have to help the client think through the implications of these decisions, providing
information about research options and the types of findings that would result. In addition, this is an area
that is likely to be revisited if initial plans to obtain data at one level (e.g., the individual student level)
prove to be prohibitively expensive or unavailable. A design fallback position may be to change to an
aggregate analysis level (e.g., the school), particularly if administrative data at this level are more readily
available and less costly to access.
5) Population, Geographic, and Time Boundaries: Population, geographic, and time boundaries are related
to external validity issues. Each can affect the generalisability of the research results e.g., whether the
results will be representative of all high school students, all high school students graduating within the past
3 years, all students in urban areas, and so on. Population generalisability and geographic generalisability
are probably the most commonly discussed types of generalisability, and researchers frequently have heated
debates concerning whether the persons or organisations that they have studied and the locations where they
conducted their studies will allow them to use their findings in different locations and with different
populations. In basic research, generalisability or external validity is usually not considered but in applied
research some may rate it more important than internal validity. Time boundaries also can be crucial to the
generalisability of results, especially if the study involves extant data that may be more than a few years
old. With the fast pace of change, questions can easily arise about whether survey data on teenagers from
even just 2 years prior are reflective of current teens attitudes and behaviours.
6) Level of Precision: Knowing how precise an answer must be is also crucial to design decisions. The level
of desired precision may affect the rigor of the design. When sampling is used, the level of desired precision
also has important ramifications for how the sample is drawn and the size of the sample used. In initial
discussions, the researcher and the client should reach an understanding regarding the precision desired or
necessary overall and with respect to conclusions that can be drawn about the findings for specific
subgroups. The cost of a study is very heavily influenced by the degree of precision or certainty required. In
sampling, more certainty usually requires a bigger sample size, with diminishing returns when samples
approach 1,000. However, if the study is focused on subgroups, such as gender or ethnicity, then the sample
at those levels of analysis must also be larger.

2.2.1.

Research Design Process

The stages in the process of research design are interactive in nature and often occur at the same time.
Designing of research study follows given process:
Step 1: Defining Research Problem: The definition of research problem is the foremost and important part of
a research design process. Defining the research problem includes
Defining Research Problem
supplying the information that is required by the management.
Without defining the research problem appropriately, it is not
possible for the researcher to conclude the accurate results. While
Assess the Value of Information
defining research problem, the researchers first analyse the
problems or opportunities in management, then they analyse the
Select the Approach for Data Collection
situation. The purpose of clarifying the research problem is to
make sure that the area of concern for research is properly
reflected and management decision is correctly described. After
Select the Measurement Technique
situation analysis, they develop a model for research which helps
in the next step which is specification of information.
Sample Selection
Step 2: Assess the Value of Information: When a research
problem is approached, it is usually based on some information.
Select the Model of Analysis
These data are obtained from past experiences as well as other
sources. On the basis of this information, some preliminary
judgements are made regarding the research problem. There is
Evaluate the Ethics of the Research
always a need for additional information which is available
Estimate Time and Financial Requirements
Prepare the Research Proposal
Figure 2.2: Research Design Process

without additional cost and delay but waiting and paying for the valuable information is quite difficult. For
example, a car manufacturing industry may be concerned about decrease in the sale of a particular model. A
researcher will look for the solutions by analysing various aspects.
For this, the researcher has to continuously collect a lot of information and needs to evaluate them by
understanding their value and filtering out useless information.
Step 3: Select the Approach for Data Collection: For any type of research, a researcher needs data. Once, it is
identified that which kind of information is required for conducting the research, the researchers proceed
towards collecting the data. The data can be collected using secondary or primary sources. Secondary data is the
previously collected information for some other purpose, while the primary data is collected by the researcher
especially for the research problem.
Step 4: Select the Measurement Technique: After collecting data, the measurement technique for the
collected data is selected. The major measurement techniques used in research are as follows:
1) Questionnaire: Questionnaire is a formal structure which contains questions to collect the information
from the respondents regarding his attitude, beliefs, behaviour, knowledge, etc.
2) Attitude Scales: Attitude scales are used to extract the beliefs and feelings of the respondents regarding an
object or issue.
3) Observation: It is the monitoring of behaviours and psychological changes of the respondents. It is widely
used in research.
4) Projective Techniques and Depth Interview: Sometimes direct questions are not sufficient to get true
responses from the individuals, that is why, different approaches like depth interviews and projective
techniques are used. These techniques allow the respondents to give their responses without any fear.
Researcher neither disagrees nor gives advice in these techniques.
Step 5: Sample Selection: Once, the measurement technique has been selected, the next step is selecting the
sample to conduct the research. The researchers in this stage select a sample out of the total population instead
of considering the population as a whole.
Sample can be selected by using two techniques, i.e., random sampling techniques, and non-random sampling
techniques.
Step 6: Selecting Model of Analysis: Researchers select the model of analysis or technique of data analysis,
before collecting data. After this, researchers evaluate the techniques using hypothetical values to ensure that
the measurement technique would provide the desired outcome regarding the research problem.
Step 7: Evaluate the Ethics of Research: While conducting research, it becomes very much necessary for the
researcher to follow ethical practices. The researches which are conducted ethically draws interests of general
public, respondents, clients and other research professionals.
Hence, it becomes the duty of the researcher to evaluate the practices in research, to avoid any biasness on
behalf of the observer and researcher as well.
Step 8: Estimate Time and Financial Requirements: This step is one of the most important steps in designing
research. Here, researchers use different methods like Critical Path Method (CPM) and Programme Evaluation
Review Technique (PERT) to design the plan as well as control process and to determine the resources required. A
flowchart of these activities along with their approximate time is prepared for visual assessment of the research
process. With the help of this chart, the researcher can find out the sequence of activities to be taken.
Step 9: Prepare the Research Proposal: The final step in the process of research design is preparing the
research proposal. A research proposal or the research design is prepared for the operation and control of
research. An effective research proposal is prepared before actual conduction of the research.

2.3.

Types of Research Design

Based on the aim of study, there are three types of research design:
Types of Research Design

Exploratory Research
Design

Descriptive and diagnostic

research design

Experimental/causal
research design

1) Exploratory Research Design: Exploratory research design aims to get a better understanding of the
problem by explaining the concepts and developing hypotheses regarding the research study. Various
techniques used in exploratory research study are literature survey, surveys, focus groups, case studies, etc.
Exploratory research does not emphasise upon sampling, but tries to gather information from participants
who are considered knowledgeable.
2) Descriptive Research Design: Unlike exploratory research, the aim of descriptive research is to describe
the characteristics of a phenomenon. It is more rigid than exploratory research. It describes various aspects
related to a population. It is the study that is designed to depict the population in much more accurate way.
It attempts to describe, explain and interpret the conditions in much detailed approach. It examines a
phenomenon that is occurring at a specific place and at specific time.
3) Experimental or Causal Research Design: Experimental or Causal or Conclusive research design is a type
of research design which is predetermined and structured in nature. It is used for causal or conclusive
research, which is conducted quantitatively. It is called causal research, because it is helpful in exploring the
cause and effect relationship of a research problem. The main objective of casual research is to test the
hypotheses which were defined in the exploratory Research Design. Causal research is simply opposite to the
descriptive research, as with the help of experimentation, it can interpret whether the relationship is causal or
not.

3. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1.

Introduction

Exploratory research design is the research design implied in case of exploratory research. In this type of
research, researchers try to uncover the hidden and unknown facts and phenomena. This kind of research is
helpful in exploring the information for problems which have not been defined precisely. It is also called as
formulative research. It tries to answer the questions with appropriate reasons. For example, in order to find
out the reasons behind the continuous growth of cases of Ebola infection, exploratory research is used as the
information providing the reasons is hidden in this case.
Exploratory research design is suitable for those cases, where no prior studies or background knowledge is
available for reference. The major focus of these studies is to gain knowledge so that further investigations can
be carried-out. Basically, this research is the initial stage of future in-depth investigations. Sometimes,
exploratory research is conducted to know the suitable methodology for certain research problem. A general
exploratory research design attempts to provide maximum information in minimum time with least possible
effort and money. Final decisions or results can not be prepared with the help of exploratory research. Using
this research, the researcher is able to develop the hypotheses regarding various research problems.

3.2.

Purpose of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is conducted to accomplish following objectives:

1) To Diagnose a Research Problem: The main purpose of exploratory research design is to diagnose the
scope or extent of problem which is not clearly defined. This formulation is necessary for the precise
investigation of the research problem. It tries to analyse a research problem so as to facilitate further
investigations. It helps the researchers to gain knowledge about undiscovered and unknown issues. This
information is required for formulating strategy and making necessary decisions.
For example, an exploratory research can be carried-out for gaining knowledge about a new kind of
disease. It may explain the problems of patients and the remedies for those problems.

2) To Generate New Ideas: Exploratory research design tries to develop new ideas so that future experiments
and researches can be carried out to get deeper insight. For example, scientific researchers can develop
new ideas to cure a disease which can be further tested in laboratory.
3) To Develop Hypotheses: Exploratory research seeks to develop hypotheses related to the research problem
that can be analysed and tested to prove some assumptions. Though exploratory research is theoretical in
nature, but it sets the platform for future investigations.
4) To Gain Familiarity: This research design puts emphasis on gaining familiarity with the issues, problems
and concepts. Exploratory studies enhance the existing pool of knowledge by explaining the unfamiliar
facts and situations. It also attempts to shed light on the theories and concepts that are used in certain
research.
5) To Identify the Boundaries of Research: Exploratory research also strives to determine the factors and
major environmental variables that form the boundaries for a research or that may possibly affect the
research study.

3.3.

Methods of Exploratory Research Design

Exploratory research is carried out using following methods and techniques:

Methods of Exploratory Research Design
Secondary Data Analysis
Qualitative Research
Pilot Surveys
Expert Surveys
Case Study
Two-Tiered Design

1) Secondary Data Analysis: The foremost approach of a researcher for gaining knowledge regarding an
issue is to go for existing literature also called secondary data. It includes collecting and evaluating facts
and information already available about the selected research problem. It can be done through analysing
literature. Generally, journals are useful in providing required information as results or findings of different
researches can be found in these journals.
Precisely, it can be said that literature review involves the thorough analysis and examination of prior
research. It acts as the summary and provides deep review of the particular or specific research area.
Analysing existing literature answers many questions relating to the research problem. Secondary data
reveals the gap between researchers knowledge and available research in that field.
The aim here is to be able to understand the facts and knowledge already available about a particular topic
along with their merits and demerits. Literature review is not just simply a collection of different synopsises
or reading materials, it is a systematic description of prior studies which is written according to a guiding
model.
2) Qualitative Research: To conduct an exploratory research more accurately, researchers need to conduct
qualitative research. Qualitative research is a technique in which main focus is on collecting reliable data
from its natural environment, rather than the numbers, figures, or statistical techniques. Thus, issues which
cannot be analysed quantitatively can be analysed and interpreted through qualitative research.
The unique feature of qualitative research is the collection of data which includes multiple sources instead
of a single source. Here, the particular research topic is understood from view point of the target population.
This kind of research includes small samples and is exploratory and unstructured in nature and includes
small samples.
Major techniques of qualitative research are as follows:

i)

Depth Interviews or Experience Survey: One of the ways for conducting qualitative research is depth
interview or experience survey. This interview is conducted involving a small number of participants to
understand their views and perspectives on certain issue or situation. For example, a researcher may
ask respondents about the current law and order situation in a particular city, their experiences and
suggestions may also be asked.
Depth interviews are conducted for various reasons such as estimating needs, developing and enhancing
planning process, problem identification, etc. Unlike surveys, in depth interviews, researchers ask openended questions to few respondents that allow the participants to respond in detail.

ii) Focus Groups: Focus group is a qualitative technique that consists of an unstructured group of 6 to 10
participants, and an interviewer called moderator. This interview is conducted to get a deep insight
about a relevant research problem by allowing the participants to express their feelings. The moderator
directs the discussion towards the research topic. Hence, this way the moderator is also a direct
participant of the conversation. Sometimes, researchers get such an understanding that is rarely obtained
from any other method including less interaction.
Focus groups are considered as a useful source that facilitates reliable, accurate, and unbiased
information. The purpose for conducting focus group interviews may include the development of new
product or concept of product, improved production, designing motivation curriculum for new
employees, or developing new product line. Focus groups provide ideas and information that are used in
future experiments. The discussions carried-out using focus groups are used in improving the research
questions and hypotheses as well as in comparative analysis of research designs.
iii) Projective Techniques: Projective techniques are the loosely structured qualitative techniques where
the researchers try to get a better understanding of the research problem. In this technique, the
researchers ask indirect questions to the researchers to draw out the emotions, beliefs, feelings or
thinking of individuals relating to the concerned topic.
In projective techniques, the respondents interpret the behaviour of others instead of their own attitudes
and perceptions. This way, respondents somehow show their own attitude and feelings. Therefore,
researchers analyse the behaviour of a participant by giving them some unstructured and unclear
situations. The projective technique is based on the work in clinical psychology, which explains that by
creating more complex and confusing situation, more individual projection of motives, emotions,
attitudes or feelings can be drawn.
This technique helps in expressing hidden or unexpressed emotions or thoughts of individuals by
allowing them to project the expected reactions or behaviours of other people in a given situation.
3) Pilot Surveys: When a survey is conducted on a relatively sample which is randomly drawn from the target
population, it is called pilot survey or pilot study. These are of short duration involving a small fraction of
individuals, organisations, or places from the larger target population. Therefore, in pilot surveys, the
procedures and techniques to be followed are loosely structured and not strict and accurate enough as in
quantitative techniques. Pilot study is an economic technique. In this technique, researchers without
disclosing their identities, try to understand the feelings and experiences that are felt by the respondents.
For example, the owner of a chain of restaurants uses pilot survey to investigate the real image of the
restaurants in the mind of customers. He/she simply occupies a suitable table in the restaurant and observes
the activities of customers.
The data generated by pilot studies are not for quantitative analysis, but for analysing qualitatively. This feature
makes the pilot survey different from a research, where relative information is gathered through secondary data.
The qualitative data generated through pilot studies come directly from the intended participants rather than from
the cases or experts which makes it different from experience surveys and case studies.
4) Expert Surveys: Another significant technique of exploratory research is the expert survey or opinion
survey. It includes the collection and interpretation of information gathered from experts from concerned
area of research. In experience survey, researchers try to acquire the knowledge of experts from inside or

outside the organisation. Since, the experts know that survey is dependent on their experience; they are
motivated to provide their own ideas and experiences about the research issue or problem.
Expert surveys are conducted to get the knowledge from the experts of certain field of research, which is
rarely accessible. Expert surveys are used to reveal the linking between different significant variables
attached to the concerned research issue for getting valuable information. For example, in order to find out
the buying preferences of customers about four-wheelers, expert survey can be used. The dealers or retailers
are preferred to be the key persons giving the required information through their experience and knowledge.
They can provide better information as they better understand the need and desire of customers.
5) Case Study: This is among the most popular methods of qualitative research analysis. In this method, a
thorough analysis of a unit is performed. This unit can include a diverse range of entities such as an
individual, a family, a cultural or regional group, an institution, a community, etc. This study emphasises on
in-depth analysis of a limited issue rather than broad analysis of many issues. Case study tries to analyse the
relevant incidents, processes, or situations and their interdependence. The main objective of this technique
is finding the factors which may describe the behavioural outline of the given entity in an integrated form.
In case study technique, the researchers investigate the situations that are similar to the research objective.
The prime objective of analysing a case study is to gain knowledge about similar situations so that research
can be conducted more objectively. The in-depth or detailed knowledge about the concerned entity or
organisation with thorough attention on detailed information is the main benefit of this kind of technique.
This in-depth analysis allows the researchers to trace the events as per their occurrence. For example, a car
manufacturing company facing declining sales, may analyse the case of its competitor to understand the
steps taken by them car manufacturer when their sale decreased.
6) Two-Tiered Design: Two-tiered design is another exploratory research technique that is carried-out in two
steps. In the first step, the research problem is clearly defined, and in the second step, the research design on
the basis of research problem is designed. This technique is suitable when the research problem has not
been previously defined or has been defined ambiguously. Hence, this technique helps the researcher in
clearly understanding the objective.
While the first stage of two-tiered design includes qualitative data, the second stage requires quantitative
data. With the help of this technique, researchers are able to formulate a more structured design for a
comparatively unstructured research study. Sometimes, researchers intentionally omit the first stage, and
directly begin with the second stage, since the first stage requires significant time, money, and effort. But,
they should not skip the first stage, as it helps in defining the objectives more clearly that leads to more
definite structure.

3.4.

Significance of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is useful in following ways:

1) New Discoveries: Exploratory research helps a researcher to find-out new ideas and insights regarding a
situation. It always tries to explore the unfamiliar aspects which were previously unknown. Researchers
always welcome new ideas and information because it helps them to mould research in new direction which
ultimately gives better results and conclusions.
2) Enhances Knowledge: Exploratory research is very helpful in adding knowledge to the ongoing research.
New knowledge to the existing pool of knowledge enhances the understanding of researchers related to
certain area of research. Since, exploratory research is not backed by statistical methods, the conclusions
about a given research problem cannot be developed. However, a clear outline of the subject is effectively
produced through this research.
3) Wide Range of Techniques: Exploratory research facilitates the researchers to select the techniques from a
wide range of available sources. The sources used in exploratory research may be published secondary
sources as well as some other sources like depth interviews, case studies, expert surveys, case studies or
casual discussions. The researchers can carry-out the research process with the help of one or more of
techniques from this broad spectrum to better understand the issue.
4) Directs Future Research: Exploratory research provides valuable conclusions and new insights about the
research topic. These findings and insights trigger the researchers for further researches and acts as a

platform for successive investigations. Exploratory research helps the researchers to understand an issue in
a better way that helps in deciding the approach to be taken to achieve the desired outcomes.
5) Strategic Planning: Exploratory research is also beneficial for strategic planning in organisations as the
conclusions of this research provide general outline of the given subject, which helps in formulating
strategies for future. For example, in new product development process, an exploratory research may be
conducted which can provide the expected need and demand of such products in the market. If, the
conclusions are not so favourable, new product planning process may be altered or terminated.

3.5.

Limitations of Exploratory Research

Besides many advantages, exploratory research has following limitations:

1) Leads to Wrong Decisions: Since, exploratory research does not statistical analysis to find the conclusions;
hence the conclusions of these researches can be completely reliable. Due to this drawback, relying on these
findings may lead to wrong decisions. Exploratory research is qualitative in nature, and therefore the
outcomes are quite judgemental.
2) Incorrect Information: Since, the outcomes of exploratory research are qualitative, therefore the analysis
may subject to some personal biases. In addition to this, the results are not distinctive, but are generally
vague. Because of this limitation, it requires further research to confirm the findings.
3) Cannot be Generalised: The results of the exploratory research can not be generalised for the whole
population as these only explore the understanding of a given situation or problem. It can not be used for
representing the responses or thinking of the entire population.
4) Costly: Conducting exploratory research requires significant amount of time and money to arrive at
conclusions. Even after spending resources, researchers cannot be certain about the conclusions.

4. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

4.1.

Introduction

When the objective of the research is to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon or population, the
researchers select descriptive research. It can provide and describe the critical features and information about
the target population or environment. It describes the answers for questions like what, who, how, when, where,
etc. The objective of descriptive research is to reveal the already present data or feature in the given population.
In other words, it can be said that descriptive research seeks to explain a phenomenon and the reasons and
assumptions behind the specific behaviour. For example, archaeologists explained the Harappan civilisation
and described many significant findings such as urban planning, baked brick houses, drainage system, water
supply system, etc., which has influenced modern society to a great extent.
Descriptive research emphasises on explaining the phenomenon by providing factual and accurate information,
but does not discuss the variables responsible for a situation. Also the effect of a particular variable can not be
measured, it can only be described. Therefore, it cannot be used for describing the cause and effect relationship
among the variables.
Descriptive research focuses on the status of a given environment. It is very suitable for research in education,
management, epidemiology, and social sciences, behavioural sciences, etc. Both qualitative and quantitative
data are produced through descriptive research that helps in describing the state of nature at a given time.

4.2.

Methods of Descriptive Research Design Design

Major methods or techniques for conducting descriptive research are as follows:

1) Evaluating Secondary Data: Sometimes, to collect the primary data, it is essential to collect and analyse
the secondary data first. These secondary data are already available in form of magazines, journals,
previous researches, which saves the time from conducting a survey. Even if the primary data is already
collected, most of the projects analyse quantitative secondary data for various purposes.

The factors which make secondary data less trustworthy are validity and reliability of those data. If the data
are collected and analysed keeping in mind the reliability and validity, analysis of quantitative data becomes
more effective.
An example of quantitative secondary data is census data, crime rates, unemployment rates, etc.
2) Survey: Survey is a systematic descriptive technique that is conducted to collect the information from a
sample of individuals drawn from a large population. Generally, surveys are carried-out with the help of
well-constructed questionnaire. In this method, the researchers ask questions to the respondents to which
they answer, and their answers are subsequently recorded. After the completion of questionnaire, these data
are analysed and interpreted to get the conclusion. For effective and reliable survey, a questionnaire should
be simple and well-constructed. The questions used in the questionnaire should be properly sequenced and
easy to understand.
The technique of survey is widely applicable to many areas that include primary data collection. Survey can
be conducted in many forms such as feedback forms, mail surveys, face to face in-depth interviews, etc.
3) Panels: Panels are mostly used progressively for syndicated research projects. In this method a panel of study
units such as organisations, households, retail stores, etc, from which data is collected periodically. This kind
of measurement provides data that show the changes in behaviour, attitudes, perceptions, etc., over time.
Various commercial institutions sponsor the panel studies and are maintained by different research agencies.
Panels can be studied for numerous purposes such as to analyse the trends in market, assess the changes in
market due to changes in marketing mix variables. Although panel studies are suitable for these researchers,
considerable efforts should be made to control the dynamic variables.
For example, in a consumer panel, buying behaviour of individuals is observed with respect to time.
4) Observation: One of the most common methods used by researchers to collect data is to observe the
situation or phenomenon. Here, it is important to note that observation does not only mean to see things, but
to intensively monitor and understand them deeply to interpret about them.
Researchers select observation for data collection because with the help of observation various unspoken
expressions can be recorded along with their timings. It also reduces the possibility of personal biasness that
occurs during other methods. It allows the researchers to record detailed descriptions and formulate relevant
questions to bring out the nature, intention, attitude, etc. An example of observation study can be used to
estimate the percentage of population who obey the traffic rules.
5) Case Study Method: Another technique used for descriptive research is case study. In this, a similar
incident or situation (sometimes a small number) is comprehensively analysed so as to gain the information
about the real problem. While in survey method, few amount of information is gathered about a large
population, in contrast, in case study method, a large amount of information is collected about one or few
respondents. By examining one significant case, the researcher is able to draw thorough conclusions about
several other related cases.
Although, case study cannot be used for making inferences or generalisations about a particular population,
the conclusions drawn from the case studies play a significant role in developing concepts and theories by
providing sufficient reasoning. Case study is generally used to deal with the critical issues faced by
organisations in their operations. The prime purpose of analysing a case is to enhance the pool of
knowledge in various fields. In this technique, usually the researchers study the case histories of
organisations, institutions, programmes, etc, rather than an individual.
Several fields like psychology, medicine, sociology, management and counselling etc., use case study for
information gathering.
6) Longitudinal Research: Longitudinal research attempts to examine the features of people or units at more
than different points in time. It is used in examine the changes in society. Longitudinal research is used in
descriptive and explanatory researches. It is comparatively costly and complex than cross-sectional
research. Longitudinal research is of three types:
i) Time-Series Research: Time series research aims at collecting data from a population at regular interval
which can be in weeks, months, years, etc, on same variable in terms of aggregate measures. The researcher

compares the changes over time by taking the measurements in different time periods. These researches can
be used for measuring the changes over time, trends in market, and forecasting the short-term future as
well. The data in time-series research are represented using charts and graphs. Examples of time series
research can be the measurement of employment, poverty, crime over the certain period of time.
ii) Cohort Study: In cohort study, a group of respondents who experience the same events during a same
time interval are observed. Rather than measuring the same people, it seeks to observe different
categories of people. The group of respondents should belong to the same group who experience the
same. This research is explicitly macro-analytical in nature, which implies that the researcher
considers the whole category for observing the features. An example of cohort study is measuring the
changes in voter opinions during polls.
7) Cross-Sectional Research: Cross sectional research is a snapshot of a phenomenon that represents the data
at one point in time. It shows how those variables would be pointed out in a section of a population. This
kind of research uses survey method for data collection. Although it is most suitable with the exploratory
research but it can also be used along descriptive and explanatory researches as well. It is very cost-efficient
and simple in nature.
8) Other Methods: Besides above methods, some other methods are as follows:
i) One-Shot Survey Design: One-shot survey design is the basic type non-experimental research. It this
technique, researcher carries out a single observation to describe the phenomenon or situation. It is
preliminary research type, but holds a good position in descriptive research.
ii) Trend Survey: Trend survey seeks to estimate perceptions regarding a groups shared experience. The
distinctive characteristic of trend surveys is that it measures the perceptions of a group rather than
individuals perception. Trend surveys consider many groups and measure the changes in their perceptions
to trace any trend. Trend surveys are conducted on general public to represent common interest. These
studies can be carried-out for short as well as long duration projects. Since, in long duration projects many
factors are subjected to change making the outcomes invalid and vague, researchers prefer to carry-out
trend surveys for short-term projects. An example of trend survey can be, surveying the hiring policy of an
IT company and measuring the perceptions of hiring committee over time to trace a trend.
iii) Follow-Up Survey: Follow-up surveys require an additional step past panel surveys. In a follow-up
survey, researchers survey a group of individuals then again survey the same group several years later,
then surveys the same group a third time several years after the panel group study has completed.
iv) Developmental Survey: In this type of descriptive research, the development in learning and
performance of people are measured with time. This research is carried out with the help of
longitudinal research, in which group of people are measured over time. Since, it becomes difficult to
trace same group over a long period of time, hence to overcome this problem cross sectional method
can be adopted, where people from different age groups are selected to assess the effects of maturity. A
good example of developmental survey is to measure the attitude of viewers of cinema, where the
perceptions can be measured by selecting people from different age group.

4.3.

Significance of Descriptive Research Design

Significance of descriptive research can be understood by following heads:

1) Wider Scope: Descriptive research has wider scope as it tries to describe the characteristics of population.
The tools and techniques of descriptive research are applied in many areas such as opinion polling, media
or advertising research, educational research, market research, etc.
2) Provides Life Experiences: The speciality of a descriptive research is that, it does not only rely upon
qualitative data, but also on quantitative data. Both these types of data have their own relative benefits.
Such large amount of data provides enormous insight to the life experiences.
For example, observational technique helps the researchers to get various life experiences and facilitates
knowledge about others point of view
3) Provides Relevant Data: Due to the combination of both the qualitative and quantitative aspects, the data
collected through this research is relevant and comprehensive. The researcher is able to collect data from all
possible sources like panels, observations, case analysis, etc. With the help of descriptive research

techniques, the researcher can have in-depth information about the research problem through both the
theoretical and numerical approaches.
4) Reduces Risk: Descriptive research identifies the distinctive features or characteristics that allow the
researchers to identify the risk factors or errors which can be highlighted and eliminated to produce the
accurate outcome.

4.4.

Limitations of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research has following limitations:

1) Unwillingness to Answer: The major limitation of descriptive research is the unwillingness of participants
to answer. The respondents selected for data collection may not provide true information. These
respondents may manipulate their responses to match with the researchers need. Similarly, the respondents
may also refuse to answer the personal or little complicated questions.
2) Manipulation of Responses: Observers paradox is another limitation of the descriptive research. The
respondents do not reflect their natural behaviour in the case they know that they are being observed. The
observer is able to record only the altered behaviour of the respondents, which affect the accuracy of the
result.
3) Errors: Errors may be there in the result of descriptive researches. For all the descriptive researches, the
questions are pre-designed and fixed according to the nature of the research. There is always a possibility of
error in the process of study. The researcher decides which information is to be utilised and which to be
discarded, according to the hypothesis formed. The whole process is based on the experience of the
researcher, and hence, outcomes may be erroneous.
4) Requires More Skills: For effective completion of the descriptive research, more skilled executives and
researchers are needed.
5) Unreliable and Unscientific: Descriptive research may be unreliable and unscientific due to the absence of
analytical methods. The results of descriptive techniques can not be reproduced for reviewing the research
findings.

5. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

5.1.

Introduction

Experimental research design or design of experiments or causal research design studies causality, i.e.,
cause-and-effect relationships between Research variables. In this type of research design, researcher selects
two similar groups from the target population, one is called experimental group and the other is control
group. While control group is kept constant and free from any interference, experimental group is exposed to
set of experiments. At the end of experiment, the changes in experimental group are measured by comparing it
from control group. Therefore, the factors affecting the change are identified.
Experimental researches are controlled and structured in nature. To understand the causal relationship, it is
necessary to manipulate one or more independent variables to measure the effects on dependent variables.
Therefore, experimental or causal researches help in collecting experimental knowledge or information, which
is based on experimental data rather than theories. This research may be helpful in understanding an event or
enhance the performance in a particular field. Experimental research is important to society as well for business,
as it helps in predicting the future activities. It provides an outline of activities to be performed to test the
relationship between various variables by proving hypotheses. In other words, it is a structured design that
allows the researchers to carry-out experiments.

5.2.

Criteria for Causality in Experimental Research Design

There are three basic conditions that are required for a relationship to be causal. Although these conditions
alone are not sufficient to prove a cause-and-effect relationship, but these are necessary.
Following three conditions must be satisfied for the causality in experimental research design:
1) Concomitant Variation: Concomitant variation is the degree to which the causing factor (X) and effective
variable (Y) show the relation as predicted by the hypothesis. The evidence of relationship can be measured
in qualitative or quantitative manner.
For example, in qualitative case, to estimate the relationship between the performances of team members
(effect) and their salary (cause) can be estimated by formulating a hypothesis supporting the concomitant
relation. Therefore, this concomitant relation would show that increasing salary increases the performances
of team members, while reducing salary decreases their performances.
2) Time Order of Occurrence of Variables: According to this criterion, the causing event can not happen
after the effect has been taken place. It must occur before or concurrently with the effect. An effect
cannot be generated by the event that occurs after the occurrence of effect. Though, it is possible for an
event to act both as cause and an event in same relationship. For example, team members who get higher
salary (cause) perform better (effect), while the employees who perform better (cause) can get higher
salary (effect).
3) Elimination of other Possible Causal Factors: The last condition for the causality in the experimental
research is the elimination of other possible causal factors. As per this criterion, there should be only one
causing factor keeping other factors constant.
For example, the salary of the team members can be the only possible causing factor, when all the other
variables such as working environment, employee involvement, recognition, promotion, etc. are kept
constant while estimating the relationship.
While on one hand, in an after-the-fact examination, controlling all the variables is not possible, on the
other hand, controlling some of the causing variables is possible up to some extent. The effects of several
uncontrolled factors may be stabilised for determining only the random variations from them.

5.3.

Methods of Experimental Research Design

According to the Campbell and Stanley, experimental research design can be described with the help of
following symbols:
X = A set of treatments introduced on experimental group.
O = Observations or measurements taken on independent variable. In case of more than one observation, these
can be denoted with the help of subscripts, i.e., O 1, O2 On).
R = Random assignment of the test units.
Experimental research designs can be carried out using following methods:
Classifications of Experimental Research
Design
True
Experimental

Pre-Experimental
One-shot case study
One
group
posttest
Static group

pretest-

Pretest-posttest
control group
Posttest-only control
group

QuasiExperimental

Statistical

Time series

Randomised
blocks

Multiple time series

Latin square

Solomon four group

Figure 2.3: Experimental Designs

Factorial

5.3.1.

Pre-Experimental Designs

In pre-experimental designs, treatments are not allocated to the subjects randomly. Therefore, these designs
cannot be called true-experimental designs, as these techniques do not deal with the challenges which have
occurred due to loss of internal validity. These designs are suitable for the cases, when it is the only possible
solution for an experiment. Various pre-experimental designs are as follows:
1) One-Shot Case Study: This technique is also known as after-only design. In this technique, only one test
unit is assigned a treatment X, and then a single measurement O 1 is taken on dependent variable. The test
units are not randomly assigned to the treatments, and the test units are selected by the researcher.
For example, if a primary school teacher wants to see if praising children cause them to become more
confident. He tests it with two students of second standard, and praises them. He finds that they are more
confident. Hence he concludes that:
Group
Experimental Group
Students

Treatment
X
Praise

Post-test
O1
Confidence

While one-shot case study is the most basic form of experiment, it has its own limitations. It does not allow
the researcher to compare the measurement O1 with the dependent variable before the treatment. Alongwith
this, the measurement of one-shot case study can be affected by many extraneous variables, which cannot
be controlled. This in turn affects the validity of the measurement. Therefore, this type of research is
suitable for exploratory research rather than experimental research. This technique is opted only when it is
the only solution to the problem.
2) One Group Pretest-Posttest: In one group pretest-posttest design, only one group is involved which is
exposed to the treatment. Here, the researcher measures the subjects before and after the implementation of
treatment. It is the improvement over one-shot case study, as it allows researchers to compare the changes
in objects from before and after stages.
For example, a sales manager may wish to conduct a training programme to enhance the knowledge of
sales team members. The sales manager may measure the knowledge of team members as O 1. As the
training programme is completed, the sales manager may again measure the knowledge level of team
members as O2.
Group
Experimental Group
Sales Team Members

Pre-test
O1
Selling Skills

Treatment
X
Training Programme

Post-test
O2
Selling Skills

This technique is widely used in marketing research. It also suffers from disadvantages. There is a
possibility that other extraneous variables cause the change rather than the treatment.
3) Static Group: In this technique, there are two groups upon which measurements are to be taken. The first
group is experimental group which is subjected to the treatment, and the other one is control group, which
is not subjected to the treatment. Here, the measurement of experimental group is taken after being exposed
to treatment, while the control group is measured without treatment. The outcome of the experiment is
measured by comparing both the measurements.
For example, a researcher may wish to compare the effect of a medicine by giving it to a patient, and
comparing his condition with another similar patient without the medicine.
Group
Experimental Group
Patient
Control Group
Patient

Experimental Variable Effect = (O1-O2)

Treatment
X
Medicine

Post-test
O1
Patient after treatment
O2

Although, this technique is more reliable than previous techniques, but it also has some disadvantages. This
technique does not assure that both the control group and the experimental group are equal in every aspect.
If the groups are selected randomly, and the group elements are not similar in nature, then the outcome may
differ which may affect the validity of findings. When the group elements are selected by the researcher,
then it is called as an after-only design with control group.

5.3.2.

True Experimental Designs

True experimental research design is considered to be the most accurate type of experimental research design.
In this type of experimental designs, researchers try to conduct research to prove some hypotheses using
statistical techniques. True experimental designs are as follows:
1) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design: In this technique, a measurement is taken both from the
experimental and control group before the treatment is administered on control group. After the treatment is
subjected, a posttest is conducted on both the groups to measure the changes in the groups. The difference
between the measurements can be calculated statistically. The criterion for conducting this technique is that
both the groups should be similar in every possible aspect. The basic philosophy behind this design is that
both the groups would be equally affected by the presence of any extraneous variable.
For example, this technique can be used to measure the effectiveness of an advertisement. For this, two
groups will be randomly selected, named experimental group and control group respectively. A
questionnaire will be given to them to measure their perspective regarding the product. After that members
of the experimental group will be shown the advertisement. After showing the advertisement, the
measurement will be taken from both groups to see the changes in perspective regarding the product.
Randomisation
R

Group
Experimental Group
A group of People
Control Group

A group of People

Pre-test
O1

Treatment
X

Post-test
O2

Response
to Product
Response to Questionnaire
Questionnaire Advertisement
O3
O4
Response
to
Questionnaire

Response to Questionnaire

Experimental Variable Effect= (O2 O1) (O4 O3)

2) Posttest-Only Control Group Design: In posttest-only control group design, experimental and control
group are selected from the target population, which are identical in nature. Before the introduction of the
treatment, no measurement is taken from any group. Only after the introduction of the treatment, the level
of phenomenon is measured in both the control and experimental groups. The resulting effect of the
variable may be calculated by subtracting the control group level from the experimental group level.
The above example can be implemented through this technique also. The difference would be that
researchers would not test the perspective of group of people before showing the advertisement related to
them. The perspective of the people would be measured right after showing the advertisement.
Randomisation
R

Group
Experimental Group

A Group of People
Control Group
A Group of People

Experimental Variable Effect = (O1 O2)

Treatment
X

Post-test
O1

Product Advertisement

Response to Questionnaire
O2
Response to Questionnaire

3) Solomon Four-Group Design: Solomon four-group is an improvement over pretest-posttest design. This
design introduces two additional control groups, which helps the researchers to assess the influence of
confounding variables on the measurement. It also allows estimating the changes caused due to pretest on
the subjects.
In this experimental design, different combinations of tests are conducted to identify the extraneous and
confounding variables and reduce their effects on the outcome. Although this design is beneficial from the
perspective of accuracy, but executing this design incurs huge cost and takes a lot of researchers time.
For example, 100 teachers are selected and randomly divided into four groups of 25 teachers and named
experimental group-1, experimental group-2, control group-1, and control group-2 respectively. Now,
first experimental group would be given a faculty morale questionnaire and would receive the treatment in
form of sensitivity training. The control would be given the questionnaire and would not receive any
treatment. On the other hand, second experimental group would receive sensitivity training and the second
control group will directly be postested in form of questionnaire.
As soon as the groups are pretested and receive treatments, they would be again given the questionnaire.
Now, the effects on various groups of teachers can be measured by comparing the groups.
Randomisation
R

5.3.3.

Group
Experimental
Group 1
25 teachers

Pre-test
O1

Treatment
X

Faculty Morale Sensitivity Training

Questionnaire
Control Group 1
O3
25 teachers
Faculty Morale
Questionnaire
Experimental
X
Group 2
25 teachers
Sensitivity Training
Control Group 2
25 teachers

Post-test
O2
Faculty Morale
Questionnaire
O4
Faculty Morale
Questionnaire
O5
Faculty Morale
Questionnaire
O6
Faculty Morale
Questionnaire

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Quasi-experimental research designs are applied when true experimental designs cannot be applied. These
techniques are easy and economical in nature. These research designs are suitable for following conditions:
1) Researchers have complete control over the measurements.
2) Researchers cannot control the projection of treatments and randomisation of test units is not possible.
Some of the major quasi-experimental designs are as follows:
1) Time-Series Design: In this design, the researcher takes a series of periodic measurements on the
dependent variable. The treatment is introduced either manually by the researcher or occurs naturally. As
soon as the treatment occurs, the periodic effects in measurements are estimated.
By measuring the dependent variable before and after the treatment, researcher becomes able to identify
and control the extraneous variables. Periodic assessment not only affects the immediate measurement to
the treatment, but also affects all the measurements. By applying randomisation in selection of test units
biasness in research outcomes can be reduced. For example, the death rate of people due to Ebola disease,
can be measured periodically, i. e., before and after the medication of people in successive years to measure
the effects.
While the people suffering from this disease can be measured before the treatment, the people can also be
observed after introducing the treatment in form of medication. This will enable the researchers to see the
effect of medication on people.
Randomisation

Group

Pretest

Treatment

Posttest

Experimental
O1
O2
O3
X
O4
O5
Group
A group of Death Rate Death Rate Death Rate Medication Death Rate Death Rate
people
(Before
3 (Before
2 (Before
1
(After
1 (After
2
suffering from years)
years)
years)
year)
year)
Ebola

O6
Death
Rate
(After
3
years)

2) Multiple Time-Series Design: This design is slightly different from the time series design in a way that it
includes a control group for measurement. The efficiency of this design depends on the fact that the effect
of treatment needs to be measured twice, i.e., against the measurements of experimental group before the
treatment, and against the control group as well. Another consideration while performing this research is to
select the test units of control group carefully. Taking the above example, the same observation can be made
with the help of a control group. The members of control group would not receive the medication. This
technique helps in drawing the conclusions in a better way.
Randomisation

5.3.4.

Group
Experimental
Group
A group
of
people suffering
from Ebola
Control Group
A group
of
people suffering
from Ebola

O1
Death Rate
(Before 3
years)
O1
Death Rate
(Before 3
years)

Pretest
O2

O3

Treatment
X

O4

Posttest
O5

Death Rate Death Rate Medication Death Rate Death Rate

(Before
2 (Before
1
(After
1 (After
2
years)
years)
year)
year)
O2
O3

O4
O5
Death Rate Death Rate
Death Rate Death Rate
(Before
2 (Before
1
(After
1 (After
2
years)
years)
year)
year)

O6
Death Rate
(After
3
years)
O6
Death Rate
(After
3
years)

Statistical Designs

The most common statistical designs are as follows:

1) Randomised Block Design: Randomised block design has evolved from agricultural research, where the
researcher introduces various treatments to different blocks of land, so that their effects on the yield of crop
can be assessed. Though there may be difference in the characteristics of land due to which the yield of crop
can be affected. To identify the differential factors, the researchers introduce the treatments to the plots in
each block randomly. The number of plots in a block is equal to the number of treatments, so that plots from
each block can be selected for different treatment. As soon as the treatment is introduced, the production of
crop is measured by using statistical techniques to analyse the effect of treatment.
2) Latin Squares Design: In this research technique, the researcher aims to control the variation in two
factors. The design forms a square as there is equal number of rows and columns. This technique is adopted
to identify the extraneous variable causing the change. In this research, all the possible combinations of
these two variables can be estimated multiple times. This design is used to reduce the effect of nuisance
factors. An important criterion for conducting this research is that the number of many test units should be
equal to the number of treatments.
3) Factorial Design: In factorial experimental design the researcher tests two or more variables at the same
time. It tries to find out whether the two variables combine to form the observed response or they
combine independently. This technique is suitable when there are three or more experimental variables,
and the test units are selected randomly. The major disadvantage of this method is that it involves
complex calculations.

5.4.

Significance of Experimental Research Design

The significance of experimental research can be understood by following points:

1) Cause and Effect: The major advantage of experimental research design is that the cause of a particular
event can be identified here. Other research designs either explain the event or describe the population, but
do not determine the cause behind an effect. By conducting an experiment using random assignments, and
participants unknown to the causing factors, would enable the researcher to observe any deviation due to
the experiment.

2) Reliable Outcomes: Another benefit of experimental research is that the outcomes of experimental
researches are highly reliable, as the procedure is conducted in a controlled environment using quantitative
measures, and random assignments. This distinctive feature allows the researchers to generalise the findings
as well as replicate the experiment with similar sample drawn from the same larger population. The samples
drawn are true representative of the population.
3) Provides Helpful Insight: These designs are very useful in providing important insight for solving
immediate problem. For example, by researching on different techniques of motivation, a suitable and
effective motivation technique may be developed for the employees of an organisation.
4) Control over Variables: In experimental research design, the researcher can control different variables in
the environment. Thus the researcher is able to determine the individual impact of all possible variables.
Moreover, the interrelationship among variables can also be measured more effectively.

5.5.

Limitations of Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design has following limitations:

1) Artificiality: The experiments are performed in artificial settings which lack real-life conditions. Such
unnatural environment disturbs the genuine behaviour of respondents, hence producing a false picture. As
these experiments are entirely different from the real-life environment, the outcomes of such experiments
may not be used for other live situations.
2) Biasness by Researchers: Since in experiments researchers input the causing variables manually, therefore
it is susceptible to selection bias on the part of the researcher. Many times because of convenience in
execution, the researcher can manipulate the inputs. As a result, the outcomes are not completely reliable
and valid. Moreover, the easiest and cost-effective sample is selected by the researcher for the study and
findings of this study are generalised for further use.
3) Modified Responses: The responses of the participants may be influenced by many factors in the
surrounding. Instead of giving genuine responses, the respondents may respondent what the researcher
wants to hear or may modify the response as per the subject of research.
4) Impossible to Control All the Variables: The much known feature of experimental design is the control
over different variables present in the environment. However, all the factors can not be entirely controlled
as it is not possible to identify all the potential variables affecting the experiment. Thus, it is very difficult
for the researcher to have complete control over the thinking and behaviour of the respondents.
5) Uncertainty of Actual Responses: The responses given by the respondents in such designs are uncertain as
it is difficult to differentiate between the true and manipulated responses.

6. EXERCISE
To be added later.