Learning theory (education)

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In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together
cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or
making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod,
1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place.
Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to
describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex
process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in
providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of
learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical
problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those
variables that are crucial in finding solutions.
There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall:
behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively
observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based
learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs
or builds new ideas or concepts.

Contents
[hide]

1 Behaviorism

2 Cognitivism

3 Constructivism

4 Informal and post-modern theories

5 Other learning theories

6 Criticism

7 Other interests

8 See also

9 Notes

10 External links

[edit] Behaviorism
Main article: Behaviorism
Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the
work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes these
investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three
basic assumptions are held to be true.[original research?] First, learning is manifested by a change in
behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how
close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of
increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning
process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.
There are two types of possible conditioning:
1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the
case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs
drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It
turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the
person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on
its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out
how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the
bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of
the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling.
2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a
punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as
Radical Behaviorism. The word operant refers to the way in which behavior operates on the
environment. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the
behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if

it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement
are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly
interested in measurable changes in behavior.
Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and
direct instruction have emerged from this model.[1]

[edit] Cognitivism
Main article: Cognitivism (psychology)
The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt
psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain
learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.
Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive
theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that the memory system is
an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important
role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.
Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the
physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory
and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory. The major
difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity:
the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists emphasize.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working
memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new
cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today,
researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory.
These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.[citation needed] Aspects of
cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning,
and memory as related to age.

[edit] Constructivism
Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new
ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words,
"learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences."
Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts,
rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This
is also known as social constructivism (see social constructivism). Social constructivists posit
that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared
problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a
culture by more skilled members"(Driver et al., 1994) Constructivism itself has many variations,

such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety,
constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.[citation
needed]
The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for
themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of
constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential
learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice.

[edit] Informal and post-modern theories

Informal theories of education may attempt to break down the learning process in pursuit of
practicality[citation needed]. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of
concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in
later. Critics[citation needed] believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like
trying to build a masonry structure without bricks.
Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning[citation needed]. Some[who?] argue that learning is
primarily self-regulated, and that the ideal learning situation is one dissimilar to the modern
classroom[citation needed]. Critics argue that students learning in isolation fail[citation needed].

[edit] Other learning theories

Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes than general
learning theories. For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn.
Connectivism is a recent theory of Networked learning which focuses on learning as making
connections.
Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in learning.

[edit] Criticism
The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.
Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (June 2010)
Criticism of learning theories that underlie traditional educational practices claims there is no
need for such a theory. The attempt to comprehend the process of learning through theory
construction has created more problems than it has solved. It further claims that in order to make
up for the feeling of inadequacy in confronting a process that we don't really comprehend, we
label something "learning" and measure it. Then we're comfortable, because at least then we
have the feeling that we have a grasp on the problem. We don't really follow the process, but in
lieu of a profound understanding of what's going on, we find something and say, "Let's declare
that to be learning, by consensus." This is basically what the entire educational system the world
over has done: quantify learning by breaking it up into measurable pieces-curricula, courses,
hours, tests, and grades. The assumption is that psychologically one knows enough about the
mind to identify aptitudes: the accepted (knowledge-based) conception of learning identifies four

assumptions of the accepted view of learning: that (some) one knows what ought to be learned
by people, why it ought to be learned, how it ought to be learned, and by whom each thing ought
to be learned. Together these assumptions are the lenses through which people have been
socialized in our culture to judge whether learning is occurring or not; and a further assumption
is that once one knows aptitudes, one also knows how to track a person so he will in fact reach
the goal that is being set out for him. The whole approach is the ultimate in pedagogical and
psychological technology. The only trouble is that it is humanly absurd. In this society, such a
process is exceptionally subtle, because it involves an authoritarian approach within a free
culture. By employing a variety of ruses the system produces a process which allows it to inhibit
personal freedom without really feeling that this is what is going on. The person doesn't feel that
something arbitrary is being done to himwhich is in fact what is happening.[2][3]

[edit] Other interests

Reinforcement Theory
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Reinforcement theory is a limited effects media model applicable within the realm of
communication. The theory generally states that people seek out and remember information that
provides cognitive support for their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. The main assumption that
guides this theory is that people do not like to be wrong and often feel uncomfortable when their
beliefs are challenged.
Politics provides an excellent setting for the study of reinforcement theory. The statistics on
undecided voters indicate that most people have pre-existing beliefs when it comes to politics.
Relatively few people remain undecided late into high-profile elections. For example, about a
month prior to the 2008 Presidential election, less than one-fifth of likely voters claimed to be
undecided (Sidoti, 2008). Much political advertising is targeted at these individuals not only
because of their importance in the overall result, but also because they are the most susceptible to
political persuasion (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 1997).
Part of the reason why undecided voters are frequent message targets can be found in
reinforcement theory. Reinforcement theory predicts that people with already developed opinions
will selectively attend to and cognitively incorporate information that supports their own views.

Reinforcement theory has three primary mechanisms behind it: selective exposure, selective
perception, and selective retention.

Contents
[hide]

1 Selective Exposure

2 Selective Perception

3 Selective Retention

4 References

[edit] Selective Exposure

The primary basis for the selective exposure assumption can be located within cognitive
dissonance theory. Basically, this theory states that people do not like to have previously-held
beliefs challenged. When individuals encounter information that is discrepant from their own
opinions, they seek to resolve the resultant disharmony somehow. People in general do not like
to be wrong. A change or shift in attitude is sometimes interpreted as an admission that the
original belief was inaccurate or inadequate. To avoid having their opinions challenged, research
indicates that people tend to simply avoid information that might be discrepant in nature
(Johnson-Cartee and Copeland, 1997). Support for this tendency to avoid dissonant messages can
also be found in mood management theory. Basically, this theory states that people expose
themselves to stimuli that are pleasurable and avoid stimuli that might induce a negative reaction
(Zillman & Bryant, 1985).
The selective exposure phenomenon focuses on how people manage to avoid incongruent
information and primarily encounter information that supports predispositions. Obviously, most
are not able to completely avoid all potentially challenging information. In these cases, message
receivers may outright reject dissonant messages (Wheeless, 1974). The reasons for rejection are
varied and plentiful. For example, the person might justify message rejection by attacking the
sources credibility.
A topic as emotional and involving as political preference is especially subject to the selective
exposure phenomenon. In fact, Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet (1948) found selective
exposure early on to be a necessary link in their theory that campaigns primarily reinforce and
activate preexisting political notions. The ever-increasing number of media options further
facilitates the publics ability to selectively expose themselves to desired media messages. The
explosion of the Internet has put the individual in the drivers seat with regard to what kind of
information s/he will encounter. McLeod, Kosicki, and McLeod (2002) stated that information

selection and exposure is much more specialized and individualized (p. 221) in the era of the
World Wide Web. Furthermore, cable channel options continue to multiply with specific, niche
target audiences in mind. Some researchers worry that this increased level of fragmentation
makes it possible for people to effectively avoid diverse viewpoints and perspectives (McLeod,
Kosicki, & McLeod, 2002). If a person limits his/her information acquisition to that which is
only consistent with a personal point of view, s/he will surely not contribute to a fully informed
electorate.

[edit] Selective Perception

Of course, it is not always possible to completely avoid all discrepant messages. When exposure
to a dissonant message has occurred, the phenomenon of selective perception often follows. This
process simply means that people skew their perceptions to coincide with what they desire
(Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 1997). Perception is of course subjective and dependent on several
factors. One factor, for example, is media type. Prior research indicates that people who actively
process television news tend to engage in more individualized explanations of an event as
opposed to those active processors of newspapers (McLeod, Kosicki, & McLeod, 2002). The
selective perception discussed here, however, is done in order to reduce dissonance with
previously held beliefs (Wheeless, 1974). Several communication theories use this assumption of
skewed perception as their basis (i.e., hostile media phenomenon, third person effect).
In the political realm, selective perception often occurs when a voter is presented with a
candidate position that s/he does not agree with but supports the candidate otherwise. Sherrod
(1971) found that voters preferring a particular candidate do selectively perceive that
candidates position on an issue in such as way as to make it consistent with their own (p. 554).
He pinpointed three primary reasons why the initial disagreement happens. First, the candidate
and voter may share political party affiliation, but may not agree on all of the issues. Second, the
voter may simply be unaware of the candidates actual position. Third, social pressure to take a
particular stand on an issue may exist that causes the voter to be incongruent with his/her
preferred candidate (Sherrod, 1971).
According to Sherrod (1971), there are three potential actions the voter may take to reduce
dissonance in this situation. First, the voter may learn about the candidates stand on the issue
and then change either his/her opinion of the candidate or alter his/her own position on the issue
in question to bring them in line. Second, the voter may still choose to disagree with the
preferred candidates position and instead will lessen the issues personal importance. Last, the
voter may engage in selective perception and actually misperceive the candidates position to
align better with his/her own stand than it actually does. This of course does not require any
change in attitude regarding either the candidate or the issue on the part of the voter. Sherrods
(1971) research found the third option to occur with the greatest frequency. He found that voters
most often selectively misperceive a candidates position on an issue rather than either change
ones own view or relegate the issue to a status of lesser importance.

[edit] Selective Retention

The final mechanism behind reinforcement theory has to do with selective retention and recall.
This phenomenon occurs when people remember only those items that are in agreement with
their predispositions (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 1997, 94). The ease with which a person can
recall information impacts the level and intensity of judgment related to the topic. For example,
people who can easily recall an example related to the message are more likely to make an
intense judgment about it (Shrum, 2002).
In general, most people are unable to accurately recall current event information presented on the
news. Gunter (1991) found that only about 5% of television news viewers could accurately recall
details of what they saw a short time after the newscast. Audience factors such as education and
socio-economic status also affect recall ability (Surlin & Gordon, 1976). Although additional
variables such as news presentation and format affect information retention, people generally can
better remember messages that are consistent with their own attitudes and beliefs (Wheeless,
1974). Surlin and Gordon (1976) found that political information in particular is more readily
retained and summoned up when it supports preexisting beliefs and political opinions.
Information that threatens such beliefs is more easily forgotten or lost. This phenomenon also
extends to political advertising. Prior research found that a candidates supporters could more
easily bring to mind his/her political ad than the opponents
Search

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Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It

states that individuals behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is based on law of
effect, i.e, individuals behaviour with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but
individuals behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the
inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses
totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action. Thus, according to
Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be designed effectively and
positively so as to motivate the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing
controlling mechanism for individuals behaviour. However, it does not focus on the
causes of individuals behaviour.
The managers use the following methods for controlling the behaviour of the
employees:

 Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an

individual shows positive and required behaviour. For example - Immediately
praising an employee for coming early for job. This will increase probability of
outstanding behaviour occurring again. Reward is a positive reinforce, but not
necessarily. If and only if the employees behaviour improves, reward can said
to be a positive reinforcer. Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a
behaviour. It must be noted that more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the
greater reinforcement value it has.
Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing
negative / undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement
can be used for increasing desirable / required behaviour.
Punishment- It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the
probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future. In other words,
punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing undesirable
behaviour. For instance - Suspending an employee for breaking the
organizational rules. Punishment can be equalized by positive reinforcement
from alternative source.
Extinction- It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction
implies lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by removing reward for
that kind of behaviour. For instance - if an employee no longer receives praise
and admiration for his good work, he may feel that his behaviour is generating
no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable
behaviour.
Implications of Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns behaviour. Managers who are
making attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that they do not reward all employees
simultaneously. They must tell the employees what they are not doing correct. They must tell the
employees how they can achieve positive reinforcement.

Theories of learning

Objectives:

Consider a variety of theories of learning

Identify several principles of learning

Understand how individual differences affect the learning process

There are many different theories of how people learn. What follows is a variety of them, and it
is useful to consider their application to how your students learn and also how you teach in
educational programs. It is interesting to think about your own particular way of learning and to
recognise that everyone does not learn the way you do.
Burns (1995, p99) 'conceives of learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour with
behaviour including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes
and emotions.' It is clear that Burns includes motivation in this definition of learning. Burns
considers that learning might not manifest itself in observable behaviour until some time after the
educational program has taken place.

Sensory stimulation theory

Reinforcement theory

Cognitive-Gestalt approaches

Holistic learning theory

Facilitation theory

Experiential learning

Action learning

Adult learning (Andragogy)

Why consider learning theories?

References

Sensory Stimulation Theory

Traditional sensory stimulation theory has as its basic premise that effective learning occurs
when the senses are stimulated (Laird, 1985). Laird quotes research that found that the vast
majority of knowledge held by adults (75%) is learned through seeing. Hearing is the next most
effective (about 13%) and the other senses - touch, smell and taste account for 12% of what we
know. By stimulating the senses, especially the visual sense, learning can be enhanced. However,
this theory says that if multi-senses are stimulated, greater learning takes place. Stimulation
through the senses is achieved through a greater variety of colours, volume levels, strong
statements, facts presented visually, use of a variety of techniques and media.
Reinforcement theory

This theory was developed by the behaviourist school of psychology, notably by B.F. Skinner
earlier this century (Laird 1985, Burns 1995). Skinner believed that behaviour is a function of its
consequences. The learner will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement (a pleasant
consequence) follows the behaviour.
Positive reinforcement, or 'rewards' can include verbal reinforcement such as 'That's great' or
'You're certainly on the right track' through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the
end of the course or promotion to a higher level in an organisation.
Negative reinforcement also strengthen a behaviour and refers to a situation when a negative
condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the bahaviour. Punishment, on the other
hand, weakens a behaviour because a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a
consequence of the behaviour and teaches the individual not to repeat the behaviour which was
negatively reinforced. A set of conditions is created which are designed to eliminate behaviour
(Burns, 1995, p.108). Laird considers this aspect of behaviourism has little or no relevance to
education. However, Burns says that punishment is widely used in everyday life although it only
works for a short time and often only when the punishing agency is present.
Burns notes that much Competency Based Training is based on this theory, and although it is
useful in learning repetitive tasks like multiplication tables and those work skills that require a
great deal of practice, higher order learning is not involved. There is criticism of this approach
that it is rigid and mechanical.
Cognitive-Gestalt approaches

The emphasis here is on the importance of experience, meaning, problem-solving and the
development of insights (Burns 1995, p.112). Burns notes that this theory has developed the
concept that individuals have different needs and concerns at different times, and that they have
subjective interpretations in different contexts.
Holistic learning theory

The basic premise of this theory is that the 'individual personality consists of many elements ...
specifically ... the intellect, emotions, the body impulse (or desire), intuition and imagination
(Laird, 1985, p.121) that all require activation if learning is to be more effective.
Facilitation theory (the humanist approach)

Carl Rogers and others have developed the theory of facilitative learning. The basic premise of
this theory is that learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator, that is by establishing
an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened
by external factors (Laird 1985.)

Other characteristics of this theory include:

a belief that human beings have a natural eagerness to learn,

there is some resistance to, and unpleasant consequences of, giving up what
is currently held to be true,

the most significant learning involves changing one's concept of oneself.

Facilitative teachers are:

less protective of their constructs and beliefs than other teachers,

more able to listen to learners, especially to their feelings,

inclined to pay as much attention to their relationship with learners as to the

content of the course,

apt to accept feedback, both positive and negative and to use it as

constructive insight into themselves and their behaviour.

Learners:

are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning,

provide much of the input for the learning which occurs through their insights
and experiences,

are encouraged to consider that the most valuable evaluation is selfevaluation and that learning needs to focus on factors that contribute to
solving significant problems or achieving significant results.

Experiential learning

Kolb proposed a four-stage learning process with a model that is often referred to in describing
experiential learning (McGill & Beaty 1995). The process can begin at any of the stages and is
continuous, ie there is no limit to the number of cycles you can make in a learning situation. This
theory asserts that without reflection we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes. The
experiential learning cycle:

(Brooks 1995, p.66)

Kolb's research found that people learn in four ways with the likelihood of developing one mode
of learning more than another. As shown in the 'experiential learning cycle' model above,
learning is:

through concrete experience

through observation and reflection

through abstract conceptualisation

through active experimentation

Differences in learning styles

As already discussed, the idea that people learn in different ways has been explored over the last
few decades by educational researchers. Kolb, one of the the most influential of these, found that
individuals begin with their preferred style in the experiential learning cycle (see above).
Honey and Mumford (1986 cited in McGill & Beaty 1995 p.177) building on Kolb's work,
identified four learning styles:

Activist (enjoys the experience itself),

Reflector (spends a great deal of time and effort reflecting)

Theorist (good at making connections and abstracting ideas from experience)

Pragmatist (enjoys the planning stage)

There are strengths and weaknesses in each of these styles. Honey and Mumford argue that
learning is enhanced when we think about our learning style so that we can build on strengths
and work towards minimising weaknesses to improve the quality of learning.
Action Learning

Action Learning is the approach that links the world of learning with the world of action through
a reflective process within small cooperative learning groups known as 'action learning sets'
(McGill & Beaty 1995). The 'sets' meet regularly to work on individual members' real-life issues
with the aim of learning with and from each other. The 'father' of Action Learning, Reg Revans,
has said that there can be no learning without action and no (sober and deliberate) action without
learning.
Revans argued that learning can be shown by the following equation, where L is learning; P is
programmed knowledge (eg traditional instruction) and Q is questioning insight.
L=P+Q
Revans, along with many others who have used, researched and taught about this approach,
argued that Action Learning is ideal for finding solutions to problems that do not have a 'right'
answer because the necessary questioning insight can be facilitated by people learning with and
from each other in action learning 'sets'.
Adult Learning (Andragogy)

Malcolm Knowles (1978, 1990) is the theorist who brought the concept of adult learning to the
fore. He has argued that adulthood has arrived when people behave in adult ways and believe
themselves to be adults. Then they should be treated as adults. He taught that adult learning was
special in a number of ways. For example:

Adult learners bring a great deal of experience to the learning environment.

Educators can use this as a resource.

Adults expect to have a high degree of influence on what they are to be

educated for, and how they are to be educated.

The active participation of learners should be encouraged in designing and

implementing educational programs.

Adults need to be able to see applications for new learning.

Adult learners expect to have a high degree of influence on how learning will
be evaluated.

Adults expect their responses to be acted upon when asked for feedback on
the progress of the program.

Here is a quote from Burns (1995, p.233)

By adulthood people are self-directing. This is the concept that lies at the heart of andragogy ...
andragogy is therefore student-centred, experience-based, problem-oriented and collaborative
very much in the spirit of the humanist approach to learning and education ... the whole
educational activity turns on the student.
Adulthood as a social construction

Pogson and Tennant (1995) provide a perspective of adulthood as a social construction. They say
that the concept of a life's course varies for different individuals and different cultures; therefore
trainers and adult educators should be wary of definitive views of adults and their behaviour.
Burns would probably support this view as he discusses the notion that 'definitions of the adult
are not clear' and says 'the same is true of adult education'. He discusses the 'petrol tank' view of
school education: 'fill the tank full at the only garage before the freeway, then away we go on
life's journey' (1995, p.227). He goes on to discuss that problems can arise when people have not
had their tank filled completely at school and he extends the metaphor to suggest that there
should be service stations along 'the length of the highway of life'.
The question could be asked - when is maturity complete? Is there no further development after a
certain stage in life?
Some authors think that while children at approximately the same age are at approximately the
same stage of development, the same cannot be said of adults. Adults would vary in levels of
knowledge and also in their life experiences. There could be said to be tremendous variation in
adult experience.
An adult's emotional response can affect learning

Some adults can approach formal educational settings with anxiety and feelings of high or low
self-efficacy. Their approach to new learning contexts can be influenced by how they appraise or
evaluate the new experience.
for example: given two adults in a classroom where an exercise is about to begin, one individual
may interpret the exercise in such a way that leads to a feeling of 'excitement', while the other
person interprets the exercise in such a way that leads to the feeling of 'embarrassment'. It is self
evident that the way the individual interprets the situation and the subsequent emotion that arises,
will affect the kind of action the individual is to take. (Burns, 1995, p.16)

Burns considers that such appraisals, coupled with labels such as 'fear' or 'anxiety' can lead some
learners to emotionally disengage from the source of discomfort that is the learning experience.
However, when coupled with labels such as 'excitement' or 'challenge' the learner is led to take
actions that focus on the task.
Why consider learning theories?

This short paper has summarised a range of learning theories that can be applied in educational
contexts. Teaching and learning activities can be designed and implemented to take principles of
learning into account. Also, it is interesting to think about individual differences among learners
and to work towards including activities that have variety and interest for all the learners in
educational programs.

Cybernetic Learning Theory

Understanding of Human Mind Leads to Better Memory

Apr 30, 2009 Terry Long

The most common definition of education is the process of bringing together
cognitive, emotional and environmental influences in the process of acquiring
knowledge.

Explanations of how this happens are referred to as learning theories. Learning theories fall
under three broad categories.

Behaviourism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

An Introduction to Cybernetic Learning Theory

The end of World War II, with its emphasis on reliable communications and missile technology,
led to experiments with self-regulating control systems and the development of a field called
Cybernetics. Such systems rely on error detection and correction. A simple example of such a
system is the autopilot on an airplane. Sensors in the body, wings and engines provide the
autopilot with a constant flow of data. The autopilot then makes automatic corrections to the
airplanes course, speed, and altitude based on the data given to it by the sensors distributed
throughout the airplane.

Cybernetic Learning Theory seeks to combine elements of behaviourism and cognitivism within
a technology based metaphor.
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Components of Cybernetic Learning Theory

Behaviourism
Behaviourism, also known as the learning perspective, is a school of psychology based on the
belief that all living organisms have predictable behavioural patterns. Behavioural psychologists
maintain that human behaviour can be studied scientifically without the need to resort to
hypothetical constructs such as the human mind. Behavioural psychologists also claim that there
is no difference between observable actions such as walking and talking and unobservable
actions such as thinking and feeling.
Cognitive psychology seeks a theoretical understanding of the human mind using quantitative
scientific methods. Cognitive psychology seeks to describe the inner workings of the human
mind in terms of information processing models. For this reason, techniques used by cognitive
psychologists are sometimes applied to cybernetic learning theory.
Cognitivism
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Cognitivism has two major components, methodology and theory. The methodological
perspective posits that the inner workings of the human mind can be explained through the
application of the scientific method. On a theoretical level cognitive psychologists believe that
the functioning of the human mind is governed by internal rules or algorithms.
In the same way that the autopilot on an airplane can be made to fly on a particular course and
speed through its response to external stimuli, proponents of Cybernetic Learning Theory claim

that a person can learn more effectively and with a better rate of recall than through other
learning techniques.
Cybernetic learning theory seeks to combine the unobservable processes of behaviourism with
the algorithmic understanding of cognition and the way the human brain processes information.
Goals of Cybernetic Learning Theory

The goals of Cybernetic Learning Theory can be described simply in the following way.

View of the Learning Process: Systemic and defined by memory capacity,

throughput and feedback loops, the learner is wired into the environment.

Locus of Learning: Feedback and self-regulating systems in a complex

environment

Role of the Designer: Design systems that accept student input and provide
meaningful feedback.

Through this understanding of human behaviour and how the human brain processes
information, it is believed that the proper application of cybernetic learning theory can be
beneficial in everyday life.