Académique Documents
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Autumn 2001
University of Washington
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
d
d
arg{x(t)} = (t)
dt
dt
A chirp signal
x(t) = e j2
has instantaneous frequency
fx (t) = ct
ct 2
2
= A(t)e j(t)
so instantaneous frequency for a linear FM chirp is a linear function of time t. The frequency is increasing linearly
with time, with slope c.
Note: if there are more than one simultaneous frequency components, at a particular time, then it is hard to analyze
this way. But OK for FM signals.
x(t) = A cos((t))
d(t)
= c + k(t)
dt
so
(t) = ct +
Z t
k(t)dt
If this was impulse response of an LTI, we can think of this as, at each time, there is a lag in frequency. (t) has all
frequency at a given time.
Group delay is dual of instantaneous frequency.
tx ( f )
d
arg{X( f )}
df
X( f ) = A( f )e j( f )
For the chirp signal,
1
1
X( f ) = exp[ j( f 2 /c)]
c
4
Therefore
arg{X( f )} =
and
d
arg{X( f )} = f /k
df
f 2 /c
4
Note, if this was impulse response of an LTI, this can be seen as, at each frequency, what was the time delay of the
resulting system.
13-1
13-2
1
1 az1
H(z) = 1 az1
where
a = re j
j )
b0 M
k=1 (1 ck e
N
a0 k=1 (1 dk e j )
or plot in dB scale
20 log10 |H(e j )| = 20 log10
M
N
b0
+ 20 log10 |1 ck e j | 20 log10 |1 dk e j |
a0 k=1
k=1
M
N
b0
+ ][1 ck e j ] ][1 dk e j ]
a0 k=1
k=1
< ARG[H(e j )]
arg[H(e j )] = ()
H(e j ) = |H(e j )|e j()
HI (e j )
HR (e j )
13-3
Also,
ARG[1 re j e j ] = tan1
and
grd[1 re j e j ] =
r sin( )
1 r cos( )
r2 r cos( )
1 + r2 2r cos( )
For a system of single zero/pole and r 0.9, its magnitude and phase responses and group delay is shown in Fig 13.1.
20 log10 |1 re j e j |
PSfrag replacements
2 2 +
2 2 +
phase in radian
v1
v2
v3
3
0
1
2 2 +
Geometrical view of frequency response as viewed from the poles, zeros on the z-plane
Consider a single zero system
H(z) = 1 re j z1 =
z re j
z
0<r<1
e j re j
v1 v 2
v3
=
=
e j
v1
v1
Then
|1 re j e j | =
|v3 |
= |v3 |
|v1 |
since |v1 | = 1. The length of v3 tells us the absolute value of the magnitude of the response.
Note:
13-4
v3
v2
PSfrag replacements
v1
3
Figure 13.2: Geometric view. Think about as rubber band at the zero, and at z = 0. Streched to current position on
unit circle.
1. This is not even at = 0, when time signal is complex. If = 0, magnitude would be even and time signal
would be real.
2. v3 is called a zero vector. If we had a pole, we would have a pole vector. We can generalize.
To get magnitude response at a given :
multiply all zero vector lengths
3
v3
v2
PSfrag replacements
v1
13-5
](1 re j e j ) =](e j re j ) ]e j
=]v3 ]v1
=3
r<1
So, as increases, |v3 | will get smaller until = , where |v3 | will be the minimum and after > , |v3 | gets larger
v1
v3
PSfrag replacements
v2
When r 1, it is possible for v1 = v2 v3 = 0. Hence magnitude is zero at = , as expected. (zero on the unit
circle should give zero magnitude).
What about the phase?
At = , the phase is 3 .
13-6
3
v3
v1
v2
PSfrag replacements
v1
3
v3
PSfrag replacements
v2
PSfrag replacements
v1
v2
v3
3
radian
1
1
Figure 13.7: Phase sign flip when r > 1. When r 1, the phase is smooth.
13-7
If
1
b0 M
k=1 (1 ck z )
a0 Nk=1 (1 dk z1 )
H(z) =
Note: zero at z = ck = |ck |e jck .
1 jck
.
|ck | e
H (1/z ) =
b0 M
k=1 (1 ck z)
N
a0 k=1 (1 dk z)
Define
C(z) =
b0
a0
2
M
k=1 (1 ck z )(1 ck z)
N
k=1 (1 dk z1 )(1 dk z)
For C(z), pole/zero at z = a implies pole/zero at z = 1/a . But C(z) could come from other H(z) with same magnitude
response but different phase response.
The key is: given a magnitude response of a linear constant coefficient difference equation system, there exist some
finite number of possible phase responses, and correspondingly to different systems (some might be stable/causal,
while others do not).
z1 a
1 az1
1 a e j
e j a
= e j
j
1 ae
1 ae j
|H(e j )| = 1