Ecosystems

CHAPTER

Redeye cicadafresh imago with wings expanded

1
Contextual outline

Common plants and animals have many interesting

adaptations, and many relationships among organisms
can be studied in a local environment.

1.1

Organisms are adapted

to their environment

Students learn to:

identify some adaptations of living things to
factors in their environment
identify and describe in detail adaptations of a
plant and an animal from the local ecosystem
define the term adaptation and discuss
problems associated with inferring
characteristics of organisms as adaptations
for living in a particular habitat.

Adaptations
Take a look at yourself; you are a well adapted organism.You have jointed legs, which allow you to move, to
walk, to leap and to run. Consider your hands. They are
marvellous instruments capable of delicate work,
manipulating objects, grasping, catching, turning. You
have adaptations that help you to keep warm. You
shiver and dress in warm clothes. You have a digestive
system, which enables you to eat and get nutrients
from a variety of foods.You are a well adapted creature.
You have lungs, which allow you to breathe. Yet
humans live in such a variety of environments that it is
difficult to argue that you are adapted best for a
particular land environment. Certainly you have many
adaptations for a life on land and are poorly adapted for
life in water. Certainly you would find it easier to
survive in a mild temperate environment that is rich in
resources, but your kind survives in every land environment. Humans even successfully venture into seemingly impossible habitats for short periods of time,
under the sea and in space. In these habitats we take
artificial environments with us; we live within a
capsule, submarine or space station. A human, however, is a little peculiar. What allows you to do this? Your
most extraordinary adaptation, your braina brain
unlike that of other animals because you have few
innate behaviours. Your brain is capable of learning
throughout your lifetime. This is your greatest adaptation because it allows you to survive in a changing
world and in many habitats. But what is an adaptation?
It is easy to identify some adaptations. The hair on
our head keeps our head warm. It is an adaptation.
When we are cold our hands turn blue as our blood
vessels leading to our extremities such as our feet, nose
and hands contract to reduce the flow of blood to these
areas. This reduces heat loss and it is an adaptation.
When we are hot we may sit in the shade to cool down;
this is also an adaptation. Adaptations are characteristics of organisms that help the species to survive.

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

Organisms possess a variety of adaptations that

take advantage of beneficial aspects of living in particular environments as well as adaptations to cope with
the difficulties. Adaptations are often classified as
structural, physiological or behavioural. The terms are
largely self-explanatory. If the adaptation is a physical
feature, it is a structural adaptation. Ears, the streamlined shape of a sperm cell, and the flattened body of a
cockroach are structural adaptations. Physiological
adaptations include processes such as the kangaroos
digestive processes, which allow it to gain nutrients
from tough dry grasses, and shivering to keep ourselves
warm. Behavioural adaptations are simply behaviours
such as putting on a jumper, a snail coming out to feed
when it is wet, or the nocturnal activity of a possum.
Often a behaviour, a structure, and physiology all
combine to provide a survival strategy. A spider spins a
web (behavioural), has spinnerets from which the web
is secreted (a structure), and produces the silk within
specialised tissues as a result of a sequence of chemical
reactions (physiology). As you read through this unit,
try to identify each adaptation as either physiological,
behavioural or structural.

Adaptations of organisms in your environment

Watching wildlife programs or reading books about
exotic animals and plants could make you think that
animals with interesting adaptations can only be found
in outback Australia, Africa or the jungles of South
America. You share your environment with many
organisms with fascinating adaptations.
Sometimes the environment has changed a great
deal from that to which the animals and plants were
originally adapted. Sudden changes can be caused by
catastrophic events such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and meteors. Humans can also change
environments enormously and quickly. Yet, your house
is inhabited by many organisms. Your bed is probably

Figure 1.1.1

Bacteria on skin

the home of bed mites. Your kitchen is visited by

cockroaches. Bacteria dwell on your skin despite your
frequent washing (see Figure 1.1.1) and dust mites live
off the dust in your home, which is mainly made up of
human skin cells that you and your family have lost.
Even birds and mammals may use your house as a
substitute tree.

Animal adaptation: spiders

In order to analyse the adaptations of organisms in
environments, we will consider one group of organisms
common in environments inhabited by humans
spiders.You may have spiders that weave their webs on
your window ledges and ceilings. You may have had a
huntsman spider invade your bedroom. Most of the
spiders around your home feed on insects. Part of a
spiders environment includes its food source. Different
spiders are adapted to capture different insects, or
insects as they move through different parts of the
environment. Many spiders, such as the orb spinner
spider, spin a web and mainly catch and feed on flying
insects. Others such as the huntsman spider lie in wait,
flattened against the bark of trees. They use their
excellent eyesight to spot prey and their well muscled
limbs allow them to pounce on their prey. Their prey
includes the many insects that crawl over the trees
bark. Other spiders have still more elaborate adaptations to capture their prey. The netcasting spider is
another common spider. It weaves a web but unlike the
orb spinner it holds this web as a net between its four
front limbs. Hanging from a thread it waits for insects
to crawl below and hurls its net onto them to trap
them. Like the huntsman it requires, and has, excellent
eyesight, which allows it to cast its net with accuracy.
A less common spider is the magnificent spider.
The magnificent spider is one of the two Australian
spiders that use a chemical-baited sex trap to capture
its preymale moths. Female moths produce a scent to
attract males. The male moths can detect tiny amounts
of this scent and they fly towards it in order to mate.
The magnificent spider also produces droplets of the
chemical with this same scent. To catch a moth, the
spider dangles a droplet of scent on a silk thread. When
a male moth approaches, the spider twirls the thread in
a circular motion. The moth flies towards the sex scent
with amorous intent and is trapped in the moving
thread.
All of the spiders described above are well adapted
to their environments. They have many adaptations in
common. They are all well camouflaged and have
similar body structure. They have eight jointed legs,
which allow them to move quickly and nimbly. They
also have jaws to grasp their prey and a poisonous bite.
They all digest their prey by secreting a digestive fluid
over their prey. Their prey is digested outside the body
and the spider then sucks it dry to obtain its food.

Spiders, like most animals, have a range of adaptations,

some peculiar to their environment. Others enable
survival across a range of habitats. These spiders may all
inhabit the same environment but each inhabits a
different part of it. They use different feeding strategies
to catch different prey in different ways. The special part
of an environment occupied by a species is called its
niche.

Varied adaptations
Many species of plants and animals have adaptations in
which they mimic features of other organisms. Some
plants attract flies, as pollinators, by smelling like
rotting flesh. Needless to say such foul smelling plants
are not often favoured by home gardeners. These types
of chemical mimicry are less common than visual forms
of mimicry. The Australian ichnumen orchid, for
example, is shaped like a large female wasp, and males
try to mate with the flower. In attempting to mate, they
spread pollen from one flower to another. You have
probably noticed large spots on the wings of some
butterflies, which mimic the eyes of a larger organism.
It is thought that these may be an adaptation to
frighten their predator. While such a display may work
for some species, others are adapted to be difficult to
see. Some insects are shaped so like a leaf or twig that
they are almost impossible to see.

Plant adaptation: old man banksia

Many animals are part of our environment. We also
share our environment with many plants. If you live in
an area with well maintained gardens you may find it
difficult to determine how each plants characteristics
are adaptations to their environment. One way to study
adaptations of these organisms is to find out about the
natural habitats of plants. If you have access to natural
bushland you will find it easier to identify plant adaptations and determine how these enable the plants to
survive. Many Australian plants can be found in your
environment, in suburban gardens, city parks, in the
country, in reserves or national parks.
The adaptations of one plant will be considered
here as an example of plant adaptations. If you saw an
old man banksia growing in a suburban garden you
might wonder at its flower and bark. Some of these
features seem to provide no adaptive advantage and
the production of the huge flower and thick bark would
be expensive in the consumption of energy and
materials. However, the huge flower, in any habitat,
seems easy to explain as a reproductive adaptation. The
flower produces large amounts of nectar. The flower
advertises the nectar to birds, insects and some small
mammals that come to feed. As they feed they
inadvertently collect pollen, which is transferred to
other banksias on which they feed. Thus the flower is a
reproductive adaptation. If you saw this same banksia
Ecosystems

growing in its habitat of poor sandy soil, just after a

bushfire, then you would see that its thick corky bark
has protected the banksia so that after its leaves and
many of its branches have been burnt, buds beneath
the bark have sprung to life and allowed the banksia to
grow back after fire. The woody fruit of the banksia also
protect the seeds from fire and after fire they open up
to release the seeds. The seeds fall to the ground and
germinate in the ash-enriched soil to produce a new
generation of banksias. If you looked at the banksia
roots, you would find a dense network of fine roots
(proteoid roots), which are capable of obtaining
nutrients from the very poor soils it inhabits. Thus the
old man banksia is well adapted to its environment,
which includes fire and poor soil. However, if you had
seen this banksia as it struggled to survive in an overwatered suburban garden with rich soil you might have
incorrectly concluded that it was a poorly adapted
species. We humans sometimes have peculiar ideas
about what is an ideal environment. We sometimes
think that for plants an ideal environment is plenty of
water, rich soils and ample sunlight. Yet, an ideal
environment is usually the environment to which an
organism is adapted even when this environment
might seem harsh to us.

Defining adaptation
Organisms live in and are part of an environment.
Adaptations can be defined as characteristics that make
an organism suited to its environment. This view of
adaptation is useful to a biologist questioning whether
a certain characteristic helps an organism to survive.
The biologist needs to study the organisms environment to see how the adaptation is suited to this
environment. Sometimes there is a clear match
between the characteristic and the environment. The
stick insect is well camouflaged so that it can lie hidden
among the dead twigs of trees it inhabits. The
centipedes flat body shape and many legs allow it to
push through the soil and leaf litter as it hunts small
prey. However, it is not always easy to infer that a
characteristic has evolved as an adaptation to a
particular habitat. Organisms are products of evolution.
This means that a present-day organisms characteristics are the products of millions of years of change.
During these millions of years, the ancestors of
present-day organisms have survived in different
habitats to which they were adapted. Hence the
characteristics of organisms are not all adaptations to
their current environments but may have been inherited from ancestors. This is most obvious among
organisms that have drastically changed their habitats
over their evolutionary history. Dolphins and whales,
for example, are thought to have evolved from landdwelling mammals that gradually became adapted to

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

aquatic existence. Whales and dolphins are very

successful animals. They are well adapted to life in
water. Their fins and flukes combine with their streamlined shape to propel them at great speeds through the
viscous medium they inhabit. Their lungs, though,
seem an odd adaptation. Lungs are characteristics of
air-breathing land vertebrates. It is likely that the lungs
of whale and dolphins do not indicate a particular
adaptation for their aquatic environment. Rather, they
have lungs because they have evolved from landdwelling air-breathing ancestors and lungs were an
adaptation to their ancestors environment. Therefore,
in studying organisms, we need to be careful not to
assume that all characteristics are adaptations to the
organisms present environment. Some characteristics
may be leftoveradaptations to environments inhabited
by ancestors. Other characteristics may have no
adaptive advantage at all but may be features that
provide no significant advantage or disadvantage.

The environment
In this unit you have seen how organisms are adapted
to their environment. The organisms environment
includes both the living things with which it shares its
environment, such as the predators and prey, and also
includes its non-living surroundings, such as the
quality of the soil and the frequency of bush fires. The
environment is a product of the interactions between
the many organisms and the non-living aspects of the
environment that exist together. In the next unit, we
begin the study of these relationships so that
environments and the organisms that inhabit them can
be better understood. In Chapters 2, 4 and 5 more
adaptations of a variety of Australian organisms to their
environment are discussed in detail.

Summary 1.1
Adaptations are inherited characteristics of organisms
that increase the chance of survival of the species.
Adaptations are also often described as characteristics of organisms that are suited to the organisms
habitats.
It is sometimes difficult to infer that the characteristic of an organism is an adaptation to its particular
habitat because:
the organism may be observed outside the
habitat in which it evolved, for example, in a
suburban garden
the characteristic may provide no particular
advantage in a particular habitat but has been
inherited from ancestral organisms that
inhabited different habitats
it may simply be difficult to be certain how a
particular characteristic helps a species to
survive.

 Organisms have a range of adaptations to their

habitats. Plants and animals in your environment
have a range of adaptations. Many are well adapted
to life in a house and its surroundings.
Closely related organisms, such as spiders, share
some adaptations such as body structure, limbs for
locomotion and external digestion, but they have
specialised adaptations that suit them to their
particular habitat, such as the strategies they use to
capture prey.

7 Why is it difficult to infer that some characteristics of organisms are

adaptations to living in a particular habitat?
8 (a) A puffball fungus releases thousands of spores simultaneously.
What would be the adaptive advantages of this reproductive strategy?
What is one disadvantage of this strategy?
(b) Figure 1.1.3 shows a human fetus inside the womb. What is one
advantage of this type of reproductive strategy? What are two
disadvantages?

Questions 1.1
1 What is an adaptation?
2 Give an example of an adaptation you possess. Explain why this is an
adaptation.
3 Name one organism that can be found in your home. Identify one of its
adaptations.
4 Describe three adaptations of animals from this unit. Identify each as
structural, behavioural or physiological.
5 Describe three adaptations of plants from this unit. How does each
increase the chance of survival?
6 Figure 1.1.2 shows a cup-moth caterpillar. Cup-moth caterpillars live
on eucalyptus. When disturbed, the cup-moth caterpillar sends out
bunches of poisonous spikes, which give a severe sting. From the
information provided, list two adaptations of the cup-moth caterpillar.
Why is it advantageous for the cup-moth caterpillar to be brightly
coloured?

Figure 1.1.2

Figure 1.1.3

A human fetus inside the womb

9 The cicada (see Figure 1.1.4) is a commonly seen organism in Australia

during summer. Biologists think it lives underground for about 5 to 7

A cup-moth caterpillar

Ecosystems

years before coming out of the ground to change form and mate. During
summer males produce a spectacular drumming noise. Two students
thought that the drumming was an adaptation. Look carefully at the
cicada shown and use your knowledge from observations of cicadas to
answer the following:
(a) One student inferred that the drumming noise was used to scare
away birds and other predators. Another student thought it might
be to attract other cicadas.
(i) Why do you think cicadas drum? Explain your reasoning.
(ii) How would you test these different ideas?
(b) Most cicadas come out of their holes at night when they change
from their underground form to their flying, tree-dwelling form.
Why do you think they do this at night?
(c) One type of cicada, commonly called a double drummer, comes
out in the day-time but usually in great numbers at the same time.
How might this be an adaptation?
(d) A cicada has a thin pointed tube, going from the mouth region
along the centre at the front of the body, which is visible outside
the body. Cicadas feed on trees and when underground on tree
roots. Why might this tube be a feeding adaptation?
(e) Suggest three other adaptations cicadas have.

Figure 1.1.4

A cicada emerging from its shell

10 Is school an adaptation? If it is an adaptation, would you classify it as

structural, behavioural or physiological?

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

1.2

Ecosystems: environments,
ecology and communities

Students learn to:

identify the factors that determine the
distribution and abundance of a species in
each environment.

Your environment and ecology

Take a look at your environment. Your environment
includes rocks and soil; the air you breathe and water
you drink, as well as the buildings in which you live.
And you are not alone. You share your environment
with a variety of plants and animals. Some are too small
to see, such as the bacteria on your skin and the viruses
that give you a cold. Others, such as trees, can be huge.
These plants, animals and other parts of your
environment do not just exist together. They interact
with each other.
Plants provide food and oxygen for animals.
Animals provide carbon dioxide for plants. Trees
provide shelter and nesting sites. Animals pollinate
flowers and disperse seeds. Plants and animals need
the suns light and warmth. Soil is held in place by roots
and enriched by leaf litter and animal droppings.
Ecology is the study of such interrelationships
between organisms and the interrelationships between
organisms and their non-living (physical) surroundings. Therefore ecology can be simply defined as
the study of how organisms interact with other
organisms and their physical surroundings.
Consider one local environment inhabited by a
school student. A description of the school environment
might include details about buildings and classroom
interiors, climate and topography, gymnasium facilities
and the size of the asphalt playgrounds, the types and
numbers of students and teachers, the availability of
shade trees and lawns, the pigeons that feast on leftovers between recess and lunch, and the availability of
junk food at the tuckshop. In short, a complete
inventory of the environment would include both the
abiotic (non-living things) and biotic (living things).
An ecologist would not be satisfied with such a
description as an ecological study of the environment
because the fundamental purpose of ecology is to
understand the way in which these things interact. For
example, what influence does the climate have on the
growth of the shade trees? How do these trees affect
the distribution of students during lunch? What
influence do school holidays have on the availability of
food scraps for pigeons and how do the pigeons
respond to fluctuating food supplies? That is, an
ecologist is interested not merely in a description of the
environment but wants to observe and explain, firstly,

clouds

sun

rain

shrubs

grasses
eucalypts

grasses
sedges

ferns

shrubs
grasses

eucalypts
Farmland
ecosystem

Figure 1.2.1

Forest
ecosystem

Woodland
ecosystem

Heath
ecosystem

Profile of a bushland ecosystem

the way in which organisms affect and are affected by

other organisms and, secondly, the way in which
organisms affect and are affected by their non-living
surroundings.

Ecosystems and communities

The basic unit of study in ecology is an ecosystem. The
set of interacting organisms in an area together with
their non-living surroundings makes up an ecosystem.
It can be defined as a self-sustaining group of organisms interacting with its environment. Ecosystems may
vary enormously in size and complexity. An ecosystem
could be an ocean or a coral reef, a creek or an
aquarium, a forest or a rotting log, the earth itself or a
Petri dish culture of microbes.
Ecosystems may vary in size, but they all have a
boundary within which the processes occurring can be
studied and across which the energy and material
inputs and outputs can be examined. The boundary is
usually set for the convenience of the study. In this way,
within an area of bushland one ecologist might study a
forest ecosystem, another, the neighbouring woodland
ecosystem, a third, the nearby heath ecosystem, and
still another may choose to study the whole area as a
single ecosystem (see Figure 1.2.1). Each has clear
boundaries set for the purpose of the study.
An ecosystem can be thought of as being made up
of two interrelated partsthe biotic and abiotic
components. The set of interacting organisms within an
ecosystem is called a community. In ecology the term
community does not usually refer to a single species

but refers to all the many different interacting plants

and animals in the area.
When studying a specific ecosystem, it is convenient
to name it. Hence the ecosystem that is composed of
the blue gum forest community and its abiotic environment can be called the blue gum forest ecosystem.
Naming ecosystems and communities is useful
because it allows a biologist to communicate something about an environment simply with a name.

Summary 1.2
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with
other organisms and their physical surroundings.
The non-living aspects of the environment are
called the physical or abiotic components.
The organisms or living things in the environment
are the biological or biotic components of the
environment.
An ecosystem is the basic unit of study in ecology.
An ecosystem is a self-sustaining group of organisms interacting with its environment.
An ecosystem consists of the biotic (living) and
abiotic (non-living) components of an area.
Ecosystems vary in size and complexity.
The interacting organisms within an ecosystem are
called a community.
Communities are made up of different plants and
animals.
A specific community or ecosystem is often named
by stating its dominant species and its vegetation
structure (e.g. blue gum forest community and blue
gum forest ecosystem).
Ecosystems

Questions 1.2
1 Name two plants and two animals, other than humans, that are part of
your environment.
2 On a map that shows your school or home, identify at least two ecosystems.
3 Use a common name to identify an ecosystem near where you live or
near your school that you could study.
4 What are each of the following:
(a) ecology
(b) ecosystem
(c) community?
5 What are the two components that make up an ecosystem?
6 What two groups of components make up an organisms environment?
7 Give one example from this unit and one example from your own
experience for each of the following:
(a) an interaction between organisms
(b) an interaction between organisms and their physical surroundings.
8 What is the basic unit of study in ecology?
9 Is mainland Australia one ecosystem or many? Explain.
10 What two features of a community or ecosystem are often included in
their name?
Key:

tall red gums

stunted grey gums

grass

Figure 1.2.2

An aerial view of three ecosystems

11 (a) Copy Figure 1.2.2 into your book.

(b) Draw lines to indicate the boundaries of three ecosystems.
Suggest possible names for each.

1.3

The distribution and abundance of

organisms

Students learn to:

examine trends in population estimates for
some plant and animal species within a local
ecosystem.
In units 1.3 and 1.4 you will learn how abiotic factors
influence the distribution of plants and animals.
When you study an organism in an ecosystem, there
are two questions that often spring to mind: how many
of them are there, and where are they? The region where
an organism is found is its distribution. The number of
individuals in an ecosystem is its abundance.

Distribution
The distribution of an organism usually shows the
locations in which it can be found. Distributions on a
large scale, such as the distribution of an organism in
Australia, can be determined by such methods as
trapping, personal sightings, the observation of tracks
or traces, etc. The data are collected and the distribution
is then often shown on a map (see Figure 1.3.1).
When studying a smaller ecosystem, the distribution of a particular organism is sometimes described
on maps of the area (see Figure 1.3.2). The method
used to determine the distribution usually depends on
the nature of the ecosystem itself, the characteristics of
the organism under study, and the resources available
to the researcher. The methods used to study the distribution of feral cats in a city like Sydney, for example,
might differ considerably from the method used to
study the distribution of banksias in a coastal reserve.

Figure 1.3.1

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

Satin bower-bird distribution in Australia

1 km

residential

ek
cre

residential
oval

sketch the plants as they occur along the line to show

their distribution. Typically, a vertical scale indicates the
height of the plants and the distance across the area is
indicated along a horizontal scale. Sometimes
important factors that may influence the distribution,
such as changes in soil type or depth, can also be
indicated on the transect (see Figure 1.3.3).
If a different perspective is desired, a series of transects across an ecosystem can be combined to produce
an aerial view or surface map of the vegetation distribution. Figure 1.3.2 could have been produced this way.

Estimating abundance
industry
key:
eucalypts

tea-tree

privet

grass

lantana

Figure 1.3.2

Vegetation distribution in a suburban reserve

Transects
The distribution of plants can generally be determined
by identifying individual plants and describing their
location in an area. This is usually done by marking out
a straight line across an area, noting the types of plants
present, and plotting their position along this line on a
diagram. This indicates the distribution of plants along
a cross-section of the ecosystem. This cross-section is
called a transect (see Figures 1.2.1 and 1.3.3). Although
plants are most often the subject of transect studies, the
distribution of animals that tend to stay in the same
place, such as those on a rock platform, can be
examined with the aid of transects.
On a transect, it is common practice to sketch the
topography of the cross-section as a single line and

The abundance of an organism is the number of

individuals belonging to the same species in an area.
This can most accurately be determined by simply
counting every individual in an area. The abundance of
people in Australia is determined by counting every
person in a census. However, it is often impossible to
locate every individual in an ecosystem and even when
possible, it is usually too time-consuming and costly.
Imagine the time it would take to identify and count
each ant in an ant nest, let alone a forest ecosystem.

Quadrats
The abundance of a species in an ecosystem is usually
found by taking small samples of the community and
using the data obtained from them to estimate the
population in the ecosystem as a whole. As with distribution, it is generally easier to find the abundance of a
plant than of an animal. The abundance of a plant
species is usually determined by marking out a number
of small, randomly selected square areas in the
ecosystem. These squares are called quadrats. The
individuals within the quadrats are counted. The
average number per area (density) is calculated and

80

key:

Height (m)

60

grasses
lantana

40

privet
eucalypts

20

tea-tree
0
50

Figure 1.3.3

100

150

200

250
Distance (m)

300

350

400

450

Transect through a suburban reserve

Ecosystems

Key:
density = 13 Christmas bells 500 m 2,
i.e. 2.6/100 m 2

heathland

10 m

abundance = density x total area

= 2.6/100 x 5000
= 130 Christmas bells

quadrats
10 m

Christmas bells

Figure 1.3.4

Quadrats used to estimate the abundance of Christmas bells in a heath

this can be used to estimate the abundance in the

whole ecosystem (see Figure 1.3.4).
The size of the quadrats used depends on the
characteristics of the organism being studied. A large
organism requires a larger quadrat than a small organism. An organism whose distribution is even and consistent requires fewer quadrats than one whose distribution is scattered and erratic. A few small quadrats
would suffice to estimate the population of grass on an
oval whereas many large quadrats would be required to
estimate the abundance of the sparsely scattered cedars
in an Australian rainforest.
When estimating abundance, a number of quadrats
are always selected at random so that any chance variations within the quadrats will even out. This can be
explained if we compare the sampling procedures with
tossing a coin. To estimate the number of times a tossed
coin will land heads, if tossed a million times, you
could take a very small sample, of only two tosses. If
tossed twice, a coin might land heads twice. This
particular sample would result in an estimate of a
million heads in a million tosses. If a sample of 100
tosses were used, a result closer to 50/50 would
probably be obtained. The estimate from this larger
sample is likely to be more representative of the actual
outcome. The greater the number of quadrats sampled,
the better the abundance estimate is likely to be.
The abundance of animals can also sometimes be
estimated by using quadrats. The abundance of animals
that remain in one place, such as barnacles, sea-squirts
or oysters, can be estimated by using quadrats. So too
can be abundance of large animals in herds on open
plains, and animals that can be easily flushed from
definable areas of undergrowth. Quadrats have been
successfully used to estimate the abundance of zebras,
kangaroos, tigers, and ground parrots, for example.
Often, however, the fact that animals move makes the
use of quadrats difficult.

The capturemarkingrecapture technique

A less widely used method of estimating abundance is
the capturemarkingrecapture technique. In this

10

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

procedure, traps are set in the study area. The animals

are captured, marked and released. Traps are reset in
exactly the same way and under the same conditions a
second time. By comparing the number of marked
individuals with the number captured, the population
of the animals in the area can be estimated (see Table
1.3.1).
Table 1.3.1

Capturemarkingrecapture data on bush rats

Capture (nI)

Number caught
Number marked
Abundance =
i.e.

Recapture (n2)

15
10

5 (m2)
Number captured x Number recaptured
Number marked in recapture
n1 x n 2
m2
15 x 10
5
30

The capturemarkingrecapture procedure is based

on the assumption that the number of marked
individuals in the second catch is proportional to the
number of marked individuals in the whole population.
Using this procedure, let us say that traps were set and
15 individuals were captured, marked and released.
Then traps were reset and 10 individuals were
captured. If 5 of these 10 were marked, it is reasonable
to assume that half of the total population is marked.
Altogether, 15 individuals were marked, therefore the
total population in the area is 30. That is, twice the
number originally marked. More accurate estimates
can be obtained by repeating the exercise a number of
times and calculating an average.
The capturemarkingrecapture technique sounds
great in principle but has problems when put into
practice. The technique is based on the assumption that
animals are no more or less likely to be captured in the
first trapping than in the second or subsequent
trappings. This assumption often does not hold true.
Some small rodents, for example, seem to enjoy the food

they get when first trapped and seem only too willing to
be recaptured. Other animals may be badly frightened
by the experience and avoid the traps in future. This
problem results in the capturemarkingrecapture
technique sometimes producing unreliable data.

(c) Feral camels and donkeys are thought to be damaging the ecosystem by destabilising sand dunes and feeding on saltbush.
Suggest one way in which the extent of their impact could be
measured.

Summary 1.3
The distribution of an organism is the region that it
inhabits.
The distribution of an organism on a large scale is
usually described by plotting on a map the places in
which it is found.
Transects are often used to determine the distribution of plants.
A diagram of a transect is often used to show the
distribution of plants.
The distribution of animals can often be determined
by personal sightings, trapping, or the observation
of tracks and droppings.
The population of an organism is the group of
individuals of the same species in an area.
The abundance of plants and some animals can be
estimated by counting the number of individuals in
randomly selected quadrats.
The abundance of animals can sometimes be estimated by the capturemarkingrecapture technique.
It is usually easier to determine the distribution and
abundance of plants than of animals because
animals move and may hide.
Estimates are usually used to determine the
abundance and distribution of organisms because it
is too difficult or too expensive to find every organism in an environment.

Figure 1.3.5

Koala distribution in Australia

Questions 1.3
1 Distinguish between the terms population and distribution.
2 Describe how you could determine the distribution of plants in an
ecosystem.
3 How could you estimate the number of weeds in a local area, for
example your garden or backyard, a local park or pasture?
4 How could you estimate the population of an animal in your local area,
for example the population of cockroaches in your kitchen, snails in
your garden, dogs in your street or barnacles on a rock platform?
5 Describe how the information in Figure 1.3.5 on the distribution of
koalas might have been determined.
6 Describe how you would estimate the abundance of tea-trees on a
coastal sand dune.
7 What factors would influence the size and number of quadrats that
would be used to estimate the abundance of an organism?
8 Describe in detail how the abundance of wombats in an ecosystem
could be estimated.
9 Figure 1.3.6 shows the distribution of saltbush shrubs in an arid ecosystem. Using quadrats, answer the following questions.
(a) Estimate the saltbush abundance.
(b) What is the saltbush density per 100 square metres?

key:

Figure 1.3.6

saltbush

Scale: 1 cm = 10 mm

Distribution of saltbush in an arid ecosystem

10 A group of biology students, with the help of a park warden, obtained

the following data when using the capturemarkingrecapture technique to estimate the abundance of Antechinus stuartii in a woodland
on the New South Wales south coast (see Table 1.3.2).
(a) Estimate the Antechinus abundance in the woodland.
(b) How could the accuracy of the estimate be improved?
(c) Why might an ecologist be reluctant to use the capturemarking
recapture technique?
Table 1.3.2 Capturemarkingrecapture data for Antechinus
stuartii in a woodland ecosystem

Day

1 (capture)
2 (recapture)

Capture

Number marked

Released

8
6

8
3

8
6

Ecosystems

11

1.4

Factors determining
distribution and abundance

Students learn to:

identify factors determining the distribution
and abundance of species in environments.
The abundance and distribution of organisms are
influenced by a complex range of physical and biological factors interacting in the environment. The
particular combination of influences that determine the
abundance and distribution of particular organisms is
usually unique. However, four major interrelationships
can be identified. These are the organisms interaction
with or influence by: abiotic environmental factors,
availability of resources, other members of the same
species, and other organisms of different species.

Table 1.4.1

Abiotic environmental factors and their measurement

Abiotic factor

Measurement*

light intensity
air temperature
daily temperature range
relative humidity
rainfall
wind
soil temperature
soil depth
soil moisture
soil porosity
humus

light meter
thermometer
max./min. thermometer
wet and dry bulb thermometer
rain gauge
anemometer
soil thermometer
digging to expose soil profile and measuring
comparison of wet and dry weights
rate of water flow through sample
estimating leaf litter depth and comparing
burnt and unburnt soil weights
indicator and pH chart
soil test kit

pH
soil mineral nutrient

* For more detail on measurement techniques see Investigation 1 at the

end of this chapter.

Abiotic factors

12

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

Resources
Anything an organism uses is a resource. Plants have a
fundamental role in the community as a resource for
animals. Resource needs of animals include such things
as food, living space, shelter, nesting sites, nesting
materials, oxygen, and water. The availability of these
can play a critical role in the abundance and distribution of organisms.
Sometimes the availability of a single resource may
be the single factor that determines the maximum
population of a particular species in an area. Such a
factor is called a limiting factor (see Figure 1.4.1). For
example, many Australian birds, bats, possums and
gliders nest on roofs in the hollow branches of
eucalypts. These hollows typically begin to occur in the
dead branches of trees that are about 100 years old.
Large hollows suitable for the possums and parrots
may not develop until trees are 150 to 200 years old.

additional nesting
boxes provided

no additional
nesting boxes

Abundance

One of the most important aspects of the abiotic

environment for terrestrial organisms is climate.
Typically, the climate and soil characteristics of an ecosystem interact to determine the types of plants that
grow in a region. Since plants generally provide food
and shelter for animals, the vegetation in the ecosystem in turn determines the distribution and
abundance of animals. Although all of these (animals,
plants, soil and climate) interact to maintain the ecosystem, it is ultimately the physical environment that
has the most profound influence on the long-term
distribution and abundance of organisms.
Whilst the roles of climate and soil in determining
the character of an ecosystem and community are of
critical importance, it must be remembered that they
are not single factors but represent sets of interacting
physical factors. Climate includes such things as the
amount and pattern of rainfall, average temperature
and temperature range, humidity, and all the regular
and irregular atmospheric phenomena that constitute
the weather. Soil characteristics include the texture,
depth, drainage, quantity and dispersal of humus
(decaying material), moisture content and waterholding ability, and the availability of salts such as
nitrates, phosphates and sulfates. And these are just
some of the non-living factors that combine to provide
the fundamental characteristics of the environment to
which organisms are adapted.
Within a particular ecosystem, the measurement of
these physical factors in the area can often provide
evidence to explain and predict the characteristic
patterns of distribution. Table 1.4.1 lists some of the
abiotic factors that could be examined when studying
an ecosystem and briefly states how they can be
measured. Further details are given in Investigation 1.

Time

Figure 1.4.1 The abundance of parrots and the influence

of nesting sites

If these large old trees are logged from forests, the

population of many birds and mammals can be
reduced rapidly in a single breeding season. Even if
similar eucalypt species are replanted to produce a
young robust forest, it may be hundreds of years before
suitable hollows reappear. Nevertheless, the populations can to some extent be preserved if artificial
nesting boxes are provided and reserves containing
stands of mature trees are established throughout the
forest. Similarly, the provision of nesting boxes in
suburban gardens and reserves can help to maintain
and increase the abundance of many parrots and
possums.

Summary 1.4
The distribution and abundance of organisms can
be affected by a variety of factors including abiotic
environmental factors, availability of resources,
other members of the same species, organisms of
different species.
An examination of variations in these factors within
an ecosystem can often provide an explanation for
the distribution and abundance of organisms within
that ecosystem.
The distribution and abundance of a particular
organism is usually determined by a number of
interacting factors.
A resource is anything that is used by an organism.
When a single resource, such as breeding sites or
food, is the factor that limits the abundance of an
organism, it is called a limiting factor.

Questions 1.4
1 List the four main interrelationships that influence the distribution and
abundance of organisms.
2 List some of the main abiotic factors that may influence the distribution
and abundance of an organism.
3 Explain why it can be said that the physical environment ultimately
determines the distribution and abundance of organisms.
4 (a) Describe the distribution of one plant and animal in your local area.
For both the plant and animal answer the following questions:
(b) Why do you think it is found in the areas shown?
(c) Is it more common in some places than others? Explain.
5 Carnivorous plants, which capture and digest insects, often dominate
impoverished, water-logged soils but are rare where soils are rich and
well drained.
(a) What factors influence their distribution?
(b) Why can they survive in soils where few other plants can?
6 In terms of the abundance of organisms, what is meant by a limiting
factor? Is there a single limiting factor controlling the abundance of any
organisms in your area?
7 Suggest the main abiotic factors you would examine in a terrestrial
ecosystem and state briefly how you could measure them.
8 Suggest some of the main abiotic factors you would examine in an
aquatic ecosystem.

1.5

Comparing the abiotic factors of

terrestrial and aquatic environments

Students learn to:

compare the abiotic factors of aquatic and
terrestrial environments.
In unit 1.4 you saw how the abundance and distribution of organisms could be explained in terms of
abiotic factors and resources. In this unit, the abiotic
factors of aquatic (water) and terrestrial (land)
environments are compared to illustrate the different
abiotic factors and resources that exist in these two very
different environments.
From a human perspective, it is all too easy to
regard the aquatic environment as hostile and unforgiving.Yet water provides an environment in which it is
much easier for life to exist than on land. It is thought
that life first evolved in water and water is the major
component of all living things.

Physical characteristics
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of how difficult it is to move
through a substance. For example, lets compare the
viscosity of water and honey. If you dropped a ballbearing into a glass of honey and a glass of water, the
ball-bearing would fall much more slowly through the
honey than through the water. Honey is more viscous
than water. If we extend the experiment a little further
by dropping the ball-bearing into a glass containing air,
then the ball will fall faster through the air than
through the water. Water is more viscous than air.
Viscosity is an important feature of the aquatic and
terrestrial environments and it is one area in which a
terrestrial existence provides an advantage over the
aquatic environment. It is much easier for animals to
move through air than through water. Many aquatic
animals have a streamlined shape, which allows them
to move more easily in water.

Buoyancy
Buoyancy is a measure of a substances ability to
support or hold up an object. For example, if you place
a cork in water it is easily supported by the water, but
the same cork falls through air. Water provides greater
buoyancy than air. Air appears to offer no support at all.
However, this is not true because air does provide some
support. If you drop a sheet of paper, the buoyancy
provided by air can be observed, but highly specialised
adaptations, such as wings, are required to make any
use of it.

Ecosystems

13

In this way water provides an advantage over the

terrestrial environment because it provides greater
support for an organism and this support is more than
a mere upward thrust. Organisms are surrounded by
water, which not only helps to hold them up but, in
some cases, also maintains their very shape. A jelly fish,
for example, quickly collapses into a deformed blob
when removed from water.

Temperature variation
The terrestrial environment can experience huge variations in temperature in very short periods. Within a
single day, variations of 15 to 20C are not uncommon,
and far greater temperature fluctuations occur, in desert
environments. Even in relatively small bodies of water,
such temperature variations do not occur. Water temperatures change much more slowly and this can be very
frustrating for early summer beach-goers who swelter
in high temperatures on land but find the water still too
cold for anything more than a quick dip.
Except at the very edges, the temperature of the
oceans remains constant from year to year. Indeed, any
slight variation in oceanic temperature could have quite
disastrous effects. For example, an increase in ocean
temperatures of only a few degrees could change global
weather patterns, melt Arctic and Antarctic ice, and
expand the volume of the ocean, enough to flood
coastal cities.
Since it is much easier to adapt to a constant
environment than to varying conditions, the constant
temperatures of the aquatic environment are much
more conducive to life than the varied temperatures
experienced on land.

abundant where turbulent water is tossed through the

air in places such as river rapids, water falls and
breaking ocean waves. The dissolved gases are then
gradually mixed throughout the water by slow convection currents. Nevertheless, as water depth
increases, the availability of both gases decreases.
Stagnant ponds and pools, too, often lack sufficient
oxygen for the survival of most organisms.
The availability of gases in water is also affected by
temperature. When you heat water, you will notice the
small bubbles that form well before the water boils.
These are bubbles of air that come out of solution as the
water heats up. As temperature increases, the solubility
of gases in water decreases. This means that there is less
oxygen and carbon dioxide in warm tropical seas than
in Arctic and Antarctic oceans. However, the abundance
and variety of life in the tropical marine environment
shows that enough of both gases is available.

Diffusion of gases
The movement of gases through water and air can be
influenced by wind and currents, but their movement
into and out of cells depends on diffusion. The
diffusion of gases is about 10 000 times faster through
air than through water. As a consequence, air provides a
tremendous advantage for the rapid movement of
gases. However, to gain entry to cells, they must dissolve
in water to pass through the cell membrane. This is why
any surface used for gas exchange must be moist.
cell wall
A

Freshwater
cell membrane

Conduction of heat
Although temperatures remain more constant in water
than on land, organisms tend to lose heat more rapidly
in water. This is because water conducts heat better
than air. People lost at sea probably die more often from
heat loss (hypothermia) than drowning because heat
is so quickly lost to the surrounding water. Aquatic
birds and mammals whose body temperatures are
higher than that of the water they inhabit must be
adapted to prevent this heat loss by conduction.

water in
water out

water diffuses in and out of the

cell across the cell membrane

More water enters the cell by osmosis than leaves the cell
the concentration of substances is greater inside the cell than outside

Salt water
cell wall

cell membrane

Availability of gases
Organisms need oxygen for respiration, and plants
need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. As almost
20 per cent of air is oxygen, it is available in abundance
on land except at very high altitudes. Much less carbon
dioxide is available since only about .03 per cent of air
is carbon dioxide, but this appears to adequately
provide the needs of photosynthesis in plants.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water.
Where water is in close contact with the air, both are
readily available. In particular, these gases are most
14

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

water out
water in
water diffuses in and out of the
cell across the cell membrane
More water leaves the cell by osmosis than enters the cell
the concentration of substances is greater outside the cell than inside

Figure 1.5.1

Osmosis in fresh water and salt water

Availability of water
On land, water is at a premium. It is quickly lost from
organisms by evaporation and must be replaced constantly. In an aquatic environment, water surrounds
organisms and yet it may not be as readily available as
you might imagine. In a freshwater environment, water
tends to constantly diffuse into organisms. This is
because cells contain more ions and organic substances
than the surrounding water. This causes a net movement of water into the cells. By contrast, in the marine
environment, cells often have a lower concentration of
salts than the surrounding water. Under these conditions, there is a net movement of water out of the cell
(see Figure 1.5.1). (For more information about this
movement of water into and out of cells see Unit 2.5)

some ions such as those of calcium are in demand by so

many organisms for the production of calcium
carbonate shells that its availability may limit the
abundance of some animals (see Figure 1.5.2).

Light
On land, light is available in abundance. It is generally
only scarce on the floors of dense forests and caves. In
water, light is often at a premium. The surface of water
reflects light. This means that only about 70 per cent of
the light that strikes the surface penetrates. Furthermore, water absorbs light. Therefore as depth increases,
light availability decreases. On the ocean floors, there is
no light for photosynthesis or vision and both plants
and animals have become adapted to cope with the
difficulties this presents (see Figure 1.5.2).

Availability of ions
On land, ions (salts) are available in soil water. Plants
absorb these through their roots and animals obtain
them when they feed off plants or other animals. Some
soils lack essential ions and few plants will grow under
such conditions. Conversely, some soils, particularly in
Western Australia and Victoria, contain excessive salts
and this prevents plant growth because water diffuses
from the roots into the soil rather than from the soil
into the plant. In the marine environment, most ions
are available in abundance. Just as convection currents
carry oxygen and carbon dioxide to the ocean depths,
so, too, these same currents return ions from decomposed organisms to the surface. Nevertheless,

light

light reflected

Pressure variations
On land, there are frequent fluctuations in pressure.
Typically, these are measured regularly and included in
daily weather reports. However, these variations are
small and have little direct impact on organisms. In
water, by contrast, although pressures do not fluctuate,
there is considerable variation. As water depth
increases, pressure increases (see Figure 1.5.2).
Pressures are so great on the floors of the deepest
oceans that they can crush submarines. Yet despite the
tremendous pressures, specially adapted animals do
inhabit the ocean depths.
These organisms were first studied by dragging nets

gases dissolve

light penetrates

Surface
waters

low pressure

gases
abundant

light absorbed

ions
abundant
ions
from dead
organisms

no light
Deep waters
high pressure
Deep
waters

Figure 1.5.2

Comparing surface water and deep water in an ocean

Ecosystems

15

along the ocean floor behind surface ships, but the

animals captured were sometimes so distorted when
brought to the low pressures on the surface that their
original appearance was altered. More recently,
specially designed vessels have permitted some exploration of this environment. However, the difficulties
faced by such research have prompted some scientists
to argue that more is known about outer space than
about the ocean depths.

Summary 1.5
Life probably first evolved in water. Water provides
an environment in which it is easier for life to exist
than on land.
Water is more viscous than air. Therefore it is more
difficult to move through water than through air.
Water is more buoyant than air. Therefore water
provides greater support for organisms than air.
Temperatures vary less in water than on land.
Ocean temperatures are fairly constant. Constant
temperatures are easier to adapt to than varying
temperatures.
Water is a better conductor of heat than air. Therefore a body immersed in water will rapidly lose heat
to its surroundings.
Gases (e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide) are available
in greater abundance on land than in water.
The availability of gases decreases with altitude on
land and decreases with depth in water.
Gases diffuse more quickly through air than
through water.
Water can be lost quickly by evaporation from
exposed surfaces on land.
In the freshwater environment, the concentration
gradient favours the movement of water out of most
cells.
In the marine environment, most ions (salts) are
readily available. In freshwater ions are in very low
concentrations. On land, most ions are readily
available in solution in soil water, though some soils
contain an excess of salts while others contain too
little.
Light availability in water decreases with depth.
On land, air pressure may fluctuate quickly but it
has little direct effect on organisms.
Air pressure decreases with altitude. Water pressure
increases with depth.

Questions 1.5
1 List three advantages and three disadvantages for life in the terrestrial
and aquatic environments that are related to their abiotic characteristics.
2 Why do most fish have a streamlined body shape?
3 Why do land animals need larger muscles and bones for support than
aquatic animals?

16

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

4 Why is the concentration of oxygen higher near the surface than on the
bottom of the oceans?
5 Why is the salt, calcium carbonate, in high demand in the marine
environment?
6 (a) Why do both marine and terrestrial organisms need to be adapted
to avoid excessive water loss?
(b) Why dont freshwater organisms require similar adaptations?
7 Why is it eternally dark on the ocean floor?
8 Why dont many aquatic organisms require mechanisms to regulate
their body temperatures?
9 The terrestrial environment is sometimes described as a two-phase
environment whereas the aquatic habitat is sometimes said to consist
of a single phase.
(a) Explain what is meant by this statement.
(b) To what extent do you agree?

1.6

The distribution and abundance of

organisms: the influence of light

Students learn to:

identify factors determining the distribution
and abundance of organisms in aquatic
environments.
In Unit 1.5, you compared the abiotic factors of
terrestrial and aquatic environments. This comparison
revealed the different challenges faced by life on land
and life in water.You learnt in Unit 1.1 that an ecologist
would be dissatisfied with this comparison. An ecologist would want to know about the relationships
between the abiotic factors and the organisms that live
in the environment. To consider all the abiotic factors
and their varied influences would be too large a task in
this book. So, in the next two units the effects of
selected aquatic and terrestrial abiotic factors will be
analysed. First, the influence of light availability on
aquatic and terrestrial environments will be considered
in this unit. Then, in Unit 1.7 the distribution of communities across Australia will be explained in terms of a
variety of terrestrial abiotic factors including rainfall,
temperature and soil quality.

Light in water
Light provides the energy requirements of virtually all
living things. On land, it is generally readily available in
abundance. In water, useful amounts of light are only
available to a depth of about 100 m depending on the
water clarity. The lack of light is brought about by two
factors: firstly, about 30 per cent of the light that strikes
the waters surface is reflected and, secondly, water
absorbs light.

Water does not absorb all wavelengths of light

equally. The different wavelengths of light, which we
see as colours, make up the colour spectrum of white
light. If you have been snorkelling or skin-diving, you
will realise that underwater things take on a green or
blueish tinge. This is because the red and orange wavelengths of light are quickly absorbed by water. The
degree to which water absorbs the different wavelengths of light is called the absorbance spectrum of
water (see Figure 1.6.1).

Green, red and brown algae

Figure 1.6.1 also shows the absorbance spectrum of
chlorophyll. A comparison of the two graphs reveals a
major problem for aquatic plants. Water absorbs the
very wavelengths of light that are used most by
chlorophyll for photosynthesis. This means that as
depth increases, not only the quantity but also the
quality of light decreases.
Plants have evolved a variety of adaptations to
make the best possible use of the light available in
water. Red and brown algae contain coloured materials
solar energy reaching ocean surface
visible light
ultraviolet

eters)

anom

ngth (n

le
Wave

infrared
10

Sea s

urfac

300

400

500

only 45% of light energy

reaches 1 metre

700
600

inc

about 16% reaches

10 metres

rea

00

gd

sin

1m

only 1% remains at
100 metres

th

ep

10 m
red nge
ora low
yel en
gre e
blu let
vio

100 m

Figure 1.6.1 Light absorbance by water

Absorbance

water
(5 m deep)
phycoerythrin
chlorophyll-a

fucoxanthin
violet

blue

green

yellow

orange

red

Light

Figure 1.6.2 Absorption of light by pigments in green (chlorophyll),

red (phycoerythrin) and brown (fucoxanthin) algae

(pigments), which absorb the light that penetrates to

the greatest depth in water (see Figure 1.6.2). The red
pigment (phycoerythrin) and the brown pigment
(fucoxanthin) absorb the blue and green wavelengths
of light. The energy is then transferred to chlorophyll,
which carries out photosynthesis. This allows red and
brown algae to live at a much greater depth than green
algae. If you visit a rock platform at low tide, it is easy
to observe a green band of algae exposed on the rock
surface, a red band of algae lower on the rock platform,
and brown kelp at the greatest depth, usually covered
by water even at low tide.

Animal adaptations
The lack of light in deep water also presents major
difficulties for aquatic animals. We humans rely heavily
on sight as our main means of obtaining information
about our surroundings, but this is not true of all
animals. Dogs, for example, live largely in a world of
smells because they rely mainly on their sense of smell.
Since sight may be of little consequence to them, the
lack of light in the ocean depths poses few problems for
the animals that dwell there.
Many aquatic animals rely heavily on smell and
sound rather than sight. A few even produce their own
light, which is called bioluminescence. This may help
them attract a mate or lure unsuspecting smaller
animals to a predators wide-set jaws. In this blind
world, some animals use senses that humans do not
possess. Electric eels, for example, are sensitive to the
minute electrical impulses given off by the nerves in the
muscles of other animals. The platypuss bill is similarly
sensitive and it detects prey, such as yabbies, in the
same way. Such adaptations are not only advantageous
in deep oceans but may be equally useful in shallow,
murky freshwater.
Finally, the problems related to lack of light are not
limited to aquatic habitats. At night, there is little light
in the terrestrial environment. Yet many animals are
nocturnal. In Australia the vast majority of mammals
are most active at night. Many bats, with the exception
of flying foxes, see poorly and yet they are one of the
most successful mammals. In short, it is only our
peculiar human perspective that makes us see darkness
and dim light as a hostile environment. Had this
chapter been written by a bat, it may have discussed
adaptations to cope with the bright light of day!
In this unit, the adaptations of organisms to one
abiotic factor, light, have been considered and the way
in which light availability influences the distribution of
algae described.Variations in many other abiotic factors
also influence the distribution of organisms in aquatic
environments. These include:
the salt concentration of the water, ranging from the
extremely salty Dead Sea to freshwater with almost
no salt
Ecosystems

17

 temperature variations, which range from hot

springs and geysers through warm tropical seas to
freezing Antarctic oceans
pressure differences, ranging from low pressures in
surface waters to extreme pressure in deep ocean
trenches
variation in available gases, ranging from little in
warm, stagnant ponds to the plentiful gases in turbulent waters of oceans and cold streams
the availability of sulfates for chemosynthetic
bacteria near hot gas outlets on the ocean floor.
These and other factors influence the distribution of
various organisms, since different organisms are
adapted to different conditions.

Summary 1.6
Light provides the energy needs of virtually all
organisms.
Water reflects and absorbs light. Therefore as depth
increases, the amount of available light decreases.
The colours of light absorbed most by water are
similar to those absorbed most by chlorophyll (see
Figure 1.6.1). The wavelengths needed for photosynthesis are quickly absorbed by water.
Red and brown algae contain red and brown pigments, which absorb the light that penetrates to the
greatest depth.
Red and brown algae are more abundant in deeper
water than green algae.
Algae are distributed near the water surface and not
at great depths in water.
Life is abundant near hot gas outlets on the ocean
floor where chemosynthetic bacteria are the
producers.

Questions 1.6
1 Why is light generally more abundant on land than in water?
2 Describe the main problems for photosynthesis in water that are
related to light.
3 Why do objects collected under water sometimes have a different
colour when they are brought to the surface?
4 (a) Explain why red and brown algae can survive at greater depths of
water than green algae.
(b) How does this explain the distribution of redbrown and green
algae on a rock platform?
5 Do red and brown algae contain chlorophyll? Explain. How does light
influence distribution and abundance on land?
6 What is the advantage for a terrestrial plant in growing tall?
7 Describe how aquatic animals are adapted to environments with no
light. How does light influence their distribution and abundance?
8 Use library resources to investigate how abiotic factors influence the
distribution and adaptations of organisms in an aquatic environment.
Two of the most interesting ecosystems you could investigate include:
(a) coral reefs, such as the Great Barrier Reef
(b) ecosystems found near hot-gas outlets and near mid-ocean
ridges on the ocean floor.

18

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

1.7

The flow of energy and matter

in an ecosystem

Students learn to:

describe the roles of photosynthesis and
respiration in the transformation of energy in
ecosystems
identify the general equation for aerobic
cellular respiration and outline this as a
summary of a chain of biochemical reactions
identify the uses of energy by organisms
describe the flow of energy through a natural
ecosystem
describe the role of decomposure in an
ecosystem.

Uses of energy by organisms

The energy available to organisms in an ecosystem is
used in a variety of ways, including movement, making
sound, carrying out chemical reactions as part of
cellular metabolism, producing heat and, in some
organisms, producing light. You are probably familiar
with using energy for sound, movement and heat as
you, talk, walk and maintain your body temperature,
but energy is also used by some organisms to produce
light. Glow worms, flash-light fish and fireflies, for
example, all use chemical energy to produce light. This
process is bioluminescence, which is a spectacularly
efficient process because, unlike all human systems
devised to provide light, when organisms convert
chemical energy into light energy almost no heat is
produced. Thus organisms again demonstrate that
biology and evolution have succeeded in developing
efficient systems beyond the capacity of human
invention. The efficiency of this light-producing system
is one reason for their extensive study by biologists.
Another is the sheer beauty of the biochemical systems
and the extraordinariness of the organisms.

Energy transfer and loss

It is a fundamental law of science that energy cannot be
created or destroyed. It can, however, be changed from
one form to another. In an electric toaster, for example,
electrical energy is converted into mainly heat energy.
When a match burns, chemical energy is converted into
heat and light energy. When you shout, some of the
chemical energy in glucose is converted into sound
energy. (This actually involves a series of energy
changesyou might like to try to draw up a list of
them.) However, these energy transfers are not perfect.
Whenever energy is changed from one form to another,
some energy is lost. In car engines, for example, a lot of

light energy

chlorophyll

photosynthesis

transported
throughout
the plant

glucose

respiration

energy
for cell
processes

converted into other

carbohydrates
(starch, sugar etc.)

Figure 1.7.1

Energy transfer from light to plant cells

the energy we would like to see transformed into

moving the car is lost as waste heat and sound.

Energy transfer through ecosystems

In ecosystems the initial source of energy for the
community is light. Plants absorb some of the light
energy from the sun. Some of this light energy is converted, through photosynthesis in the chloroplasts,
into chemical energy in glucose molecules. This glucose
can then be transported to other parts of the plant.
Typically, about half of it is broken down in respiration
to make energy available for cellular processes. The rest
of the glucose is converted into larger carbohydrates
and other organic compounds (see Figure 1.7.1).
Photosynthesis and respiration are both processes
made up of a chain of chemical reactions, which are
controlled in cells by many enzymes and factors. Two
equations can be used to summarise these complex
processes.
Photosynthesis is often summarised as:
light
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
This summary shows the reactants in photosynthesis (carbon dioxide and water), the energy source
(light) and the products (glucose and oxygen). It does
not show the many steps involved in the process. Nor
does it show the role of enzymes and other factors.

plant

eaten by animal

Respiration is often summarised as:

glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide + energy
Again this reaction tells nothing of the many steps or
enzymes or factors in the process but it does summarise
the equation, showing the reactants and the products,
and indicates that energy is made available as a result of
the process. In living systems, photosynthesis converts
light energy into chemical energy, and respiration serves
to make this energy available for cellular functions.
Respiration and photosynthesis are not opposite
reactions, the steps in the reactions are very different.
The reactions are very different biochemically.
When animals (herbivores) eat and digest plants,
the complex carbohydrates are converted back into
glucose. This glucose can be broken down by
respiration in the animal cells to provide the animals
energy requirements (see Figure 1.7.2). Similarly, when
animals (carnivores) eat other animals, they can make
use of the chemical energy stored in the substances of
the dead animals body.

The cycling of matter in ecosystems

In photosynthesis, the carbon dioxide obtained from air
and the water absorbed from the soil are used to
produce glucose. From this, other carbohydrates can be
manufactured within the plant cells. Some of the
carbohydrates are used, together with the nitrates, sul-

carbohydrates
digested to
glucose

respiration

energy
for animal cell
processes

converted into
other
substances

Figure 1.7.2

Energy transfer from plants to animals

Ecosystems

19

fates and phosphates, which have been absorbed from

the soil, to produce proteins and nucleic acids. Other
elements obtained from the soil and incorporated into
plant tissues include calcium, magnesium, iodine,
cobalt, molybdenum, and many others. In this way
matter from the physical surroundings, in the form of
simple salts and gases, is absorbed by the plant and
converted into complex organic substances, some of
which are used to produce the plants tissues. When an
animal eats a plant, some of the digested material is
used to produce the animals tissues.

The role of decomposers

When a plant or animal respires, water and carbon
dioxide are returned to the atmosphere. As animals
release waste urine or faeces, materials are returned to
their surroundings. When plants and animals die, they
are decomposed, returning their remaining nutrients to
their physical surroundings. The decomposers, mainly
bacteria and fungi, recycle matter. They decompose
dead plant and animal material making nutrients
available to plants (see Figure 1.7.3). The result is a
transfer of matter from organisms to the physical
environment. These materials can then be taken in
again by plants to continue the cycle. Unlike energy,
matter moves in a cycle through the ecosystem. It is transferred from the physical surroundings to plants; from
plants to animals; and from plants and animals back to
the physical surroundings.
This matter cycle is actually made up of a number
of cycles including, among others, the carbon/oxygen
and nitrogen cycles and the water cycle. These cycles
are described in Figures 1.7.4, 1.7.5 and 1.7.6.

oxygen in the air

death
and
decay

salts
water

plants

carbon
dioxide

Figure 1.7.3

urine
animals

respiration

How matter is cycled through an ecosystem

Although, in time, all the matter is eventually

recycled through ecosystems, within a specific ecosystem matter can enter and be lost across ecosystem
boundaries. Nevertheless no ecosystem can sustain a
long-term net loss of matter. In time, a balance must be
achieved between the gain and loss of matter.

Summary 1.7
Light energy from the sun provides the original
source of energy for ecosystems.
Plants convert light energy to chemical energy in
glucose through photosynthesis.
Animals obtain energy in the form of chemical
energy in food. This is mainly in the form of carbohydrates.
The chemical energy in glucose is made available to
plant and animal cells through cellular respiration.
Organisms never obtain all the energy available in
their food source because energy is constantly being
used and lost by organisms as waste heat; and
energy is lost in every energy transfer.

oxygen used in
burning

carbon dioxide in the air

oxygen used in
respiration produces
carbon dioxide as it
releases energy from
sugar
fungi
respire

animals
respire

plants
respire

photosynthesis
uses carbon dioxide
to make sugar
and releases
oxygen

eaten by
animals
bacteria respire
decay of
dead plants
and animals

Figure 1.7.4

20

The carbon/oxygen cycle (simplified)

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

faeces

burning fuels:
wood, coal, gas and petrol are used
in these processesthey are the
remains of plants and animals
which lived millions of years ago.

 Energy is lost from plants and animals mainly as

waste heat energy. This results in a loss of energy
from the ecosystem.
Energy is not recycled in an ecosystem.

Matter is recycled in an ecosystem.

The recycling of matter in an ecosystem occurs
through a number of interconnected cycles (see
Figures 1.7.4, 1.7.5 and 1.7.6).

nitrogen gas
in the air

lightning
produces
nitrates
animals eat plants,
obtaining protein
animal
protein

dead animals
and plants

animal
waste

denitrifying bacteria
in waterlogged soil
nitrifying bacteria

plant protein
made with nitrates
and absorbed
by-plant roots

nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in
bacteria in root
the soil
nodules of acacias
peas, beans
and clover

nitrates in
the soil

Figure 1.7.5

The nitrogen cycle (simplified)

evaporation
from rivers

evaporation
from plants and
animals

evaporation
from land

evaporation
from lakes
rain

evaporation
from the sea

und water

undergro

Figure 1.7.6

The water cycle (simplified)

Ecosystems

21

Questions 1.7
1 What is the original source of energy in ecosystems?
2 (a) In what form do cells obtain energy for use in cellular processes?
(b) By what process is light energy converted into this?
(c) By what process is the energy made available within cells?
3 What substances in plants are the main source of energy for animals?
4 When an animal eats plants, it never obtains all the energy in the plants
it eats. Why?
5 In the physical environment, what substances provide the initial source
of material for living things?
6 (a) What substances in plants provide the main sources of materials
for animals?
(b) How do plants obtain these substances?
7 How do plants and animals release matter to the physical environment?
8 What eventually happens to all the matter in a community?
9 People sometimes remove dead logs from forests for use in fire places,
and leaf litter for use as garden mulch. Explain the long-term consequences of these actions in relation to the flow of matter and energy
within the ecosystem.
10 When areas of natural vegetation are cleared for agriculture, the land
sometimes turns out to be impoverished and inadequate for crops.
(a) Where have all the nutrients gone?
(b) How was the original ecosystem maintained?
11 A group of people are isolated and have only grain and chickens as
food sources. Should they
(a) feed the grain to the chickens and eat the chickens?
(b) feed the grain to the chickens and eat the eggs the chickens lay?
(c) eat the grain and the chickens?
Explain your answer.

1.8

Interrelationships among organisms

Students learn to:

identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism,
mutualism and commensalism in the ecosystem and the role of organisms in each
type of relationship
outline factors that affect numbers in
predator and prey populations in the area
studied
describe and explain the short-term and
long-term consequences on the ecosystem
of species competing for resources.

Interrelationships between members of

different species
Within a community, two organisms sometimes have
no observable effect on each other. However, different
species within an ecosystem often influence one

22

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

another. Some of the main types of interrelationships

are considered in this unit.

Mutualism
A relationship between two organisms in which both
benefit is called mutualism. Examples of mutualism
include the alga and fungus that make up a lichen, the
alga and polyp that make up coral acacias with their
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the bacteria in the digestive
systems of many herbivores that digest cellulose.
No large animals can digest cellulose. All grazing
animals must rely on symbiotic bacteria or protozoa in
their digestive systems to break down cellulose.
Kangaroos have an additional stomach near the
beginning of the digestive tract. This contains the
bacteria and protozoa that break down the cellulose in
grass. Both the kangaroo and the bacteria benefit from
the relationship. The kangaroo obtains access to an
additional food source and the bacteria have a habitat
with a constant environment and an ample supply of
food. All herbivores have symbiotic protozoa and
bacteria in the gut, but few can match the efficiency of
the kangaroos digestion.

Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms in which only one benefits and the other is
unaffected. Some examples of commensalism include
the anemone fish and the sea anemone, and the
remora fish and the shark. The anemone fish lives
among the tentacles of sea anemones, gaining protection from predators. The anemone appears to receive
no benefit. The remora hitches a ride on sharks. It gains
a free ride and feeds on scraps from the sharksfood but
appears to provide no service to the sharks.

Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism
lives in or on another organism and feeds from it. The
organism in, on or off which a parasite lives is called its
host. Well adapted parasites cause little harm to their
host. Their host remains healthy and able to provide
them with a habitat and food. Many tapeworms live
attached to the lining of the digestive system of their
host animal and absorb digested food without causing
any serious harm. Some less well adapted parasites
cause discomfort, which irritates the host and triggers
responses aimed at getting rid of the parasite. Ticks and
fleas, for example, feed off dogs, who scratch and gnaw
at their coats in an attempt to remove them. Some
parasites, such as disease-causing bacteria, bring about
illness and can kill their host. These disease-causing
parasites are called pathogens.

Allelopathy

different species, which is its prey. When the prey

population increases, there is more food for the
predator and therefore the predator population
increases. As the predator population increases, more
prey is consumed. The predator population falls again
because there is less food, and the cycle begins once
more. This causes the populations of both organisms to
fluctuate in the same pattern. In these graphs both the
predator and the prey graphs have a similar shape, but
the predator population change always lags behind
that of the prey and the predator population is usually
less than the prey population.
Such obvious relationships are seldom observed
under natural conditions because many variables interact to influence the abundance of both predators and
prey. In particular, where predators have a variety of
food sources, such simple patterns are not observed.

Allelopathy is a relationship in which one organism

directly hinders the growth or development of another
by releasing toxins. Some plants and fungi produce
antibiotics that prevent the growth of bacteria. Sir
Alexander Flemings discovery that bacteria did not
grow around the fungus Penicillium notatum led to the
development of the antibiotic penicillin.
Plants may also release substances that inhibit the
growth of other plants. Sometimes substances are
secreted by the roots. Lantana is an introduced plant
that has become a pest in the Australian bush. It not only
crowds out native species by competing for soil nutrients
and light but also appears to release substances into the
soil that inhibit the growth of some native species.
Plants may also indirectly inhibit the growth of other
plants. The decomposition of pine needles can result in
soils too acidic for the germination and growth of many
plants. Inhibition is not limited to exotic plants. The
decay of eucalyptus leaves, for example, can render soils
unsuitable for some introduced plants. In each of these
cases, the plants chance of survival has been increased
by reduced competition for resources.

Competition
Competition is a relationship in which two organisms
compete for a limited resource. Competition between
organisms in the same place for the same set of resources
usually results in the elimination of the less successful
one. The introduction of dingoes and, more recently, feral
cats and foxes has been blamed for the reduced population of some native carnivores in parts of Australia.
Sometimes organisms are fairly evenly matched in
their competition for resources. Such organisms may coexist indefinitely. In rainforest, for example, the availability of light is often at a premium for seedlings. Therefore there is constant competition for light. Nevertheless,
no single species dominates and the rainforest remains
an exceptionally diverse community. Competition is most
intense within a single species population because all the
individuals require the same resources.
Occasionally one species is more successful than
another and yet both continue to coexist. On the rock
platform, the black periwinkle (Nerita) competes for food
with the limpet (Cellana). Both feed on the algae growing
on the rocks. The periwinkle moves faster, but feeds less

Predation
A relationship in which one organism eats another is
called a predator/prey relationship, or predation.
The term is usually only applied to relationships in
which one animal eats another. Dingoes and wallabies,
lions and zebras, orb spinner spiders and beetles are all
examples of predator/prey relationships.
Predator/prey relationships often have a major
impact on the abundance of organisms. Indeed, prey
and predator populations are sometimes so closely
related that graphs of their abundance may look very
similar. Figure 1.8.1 shows the effects of a predator/prey
relationship between two mites that were studied
under laboratory conditions.
The shape of the graphs can be explained in the
following way: The predator mite eats the mite of a
1200

25

800

20

prey
600

15

400

10
predator

200

Predator abundance

Prey abundance

1000

0
1

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Time (weeks)

Figure 1.8.1

The predator/prey relationship of two mites

Ecosystems

23

efficiently than the limpet. If the periwinkles are

removed, the limpet population increases. Where there
are many periwinkles, there are few limpets. Nevertheless, some algae are always left behind by the
periwinkles and this ensures the continued survival of the
limpets.

Consequences of competition
When two species compete for the same resources, one
of the species usually loses. In the short term, this
results in a decrease in the abundance of one of the
species. The effects of competition on the population of
organisms can be observed under laboratory conditions. In such experiments, the grain beetle Calandra
is more successful than Rhizopeatha. Where they coexist, this results in a decrease in the Rhizopeatha population. If competition between species continues in an
ecosystem, one of the species can be eliminated from
the area. In the long term, this can result in the extinction of the less successful species.
Over long periods, organisms evolve and adapt to
their environment. Competition is one pressure in the
environment that influences the evolution of organisms. Partly as a result of competition, organisms evolve
to occupy a particular niche within each ecosystem. An
organisms niche in an ecosystem results from a
combination of the abiotic and biotic factors the species
uses in its habitat. As a result of competition and evolution, organisms of different species do not occupy the
same niche in the same ecosystem. The black periwinkle (Nerita) and the limpet (Callana) feed on the
same food resource and share the same environment in
the same ecosystem but they occupy different niches
because they feed in different ways.

Summary 1.8
The distribution and abundance of organisms is
influenced by a range of factors, which include the
abiotic environment; the availability of resources;
interaction with other species; and interaction with
members of the same species.
An examination of variations in these factors within

Table 1.8.1

24

an ecosystem often provides an explanation for the

distribution and populations of organisms within
the ecosystem.
Members of different species within an ecosystem
may have no significant impact on each other (see
Table 1.8.1).
Competition between species may result in
elimination of one species or the species adapting to
occupy distinct niches. In the short term, the
abundance and distribution of at least one of the
species are reduced.

Questions 1.8
1 List the four main interrelationships that influence the distribution and
abundance of organisms.
2 State two types of relationship in which the organisms are not harmed
and give an example of each.
3 State two types of relationship in which an organism is harmed and
give an example of each.
4 Use two specific examples to explain how relationships within species
can influence their distribution and abundance.
5 In some predator/prey relationships, predators tend to prey more
heavily on the young, weak and sick than on the strong and healthy.
How might such a relationship benefit the prey in the long-term?
6 State whether the situations described below are
(i) allelopathy
(ii) mutualism
(iii) commensalism
(iv) competition
(v) parasitism
(vi) predator/prey relationships.
(More than one answer may be chosen.)
(a) The pollination of orchids by bees as they search for nectar.
(b) The killing of lyre birds by feral cats.
(c) The digestion of wood in the gut of termites by microorganisms.
(d) The infection of humans by the malaria plasmodium.
(e) The building of nests in trees by magpies.
(f) Water moccasin snakes dwelling beneath trees where herons
nest, eating fledglings that fall from the nests but preventing
egg-eating predators from climbing the trees to raid the
nests.

Relationships between different species

Relationships

Descriptions

Example

mutualism
commensalism
predation
parasitism
competition
allelopathy

both organisms benefit

one benefits the other unharmed
one organism eats another
one organism lives in or on another obtaining food from it
organisms compete for a limited resource
one organism directly prevents the development of a competing organism
by releasing toxins

lichen (fungus/alga)
anemone fish/anemone
dingo eats wallaby
tick on dog
periwinkle/limpet compete for algae
lantana secretions inhibit native plants

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

140
120

Abundance

100
80

P. aurelia

Separate
cultures

P. caudatum

Relative population density

7 Describe two different types of relationship you have observed in your

environment.
8 (a) Biologists think that relationships should not be called detrimental.
Why might it be wrong in biology to call a predator/prey relationship detrimental?
(b) The word allelopathy comes from two Greek words allos meaning
other and pathos meaning suffering. Do you think allelopathy is a
good term to describe the relationship between lantana and the
native plants it inhibits?
9 The graph (see Figure 1.8.2) shows the population change in duckweed
in an aquarium. It is hypothesised that predation by water snails is
limiting population size. Briefly outline an experiment to test this hypothesis. Redraw the graph to show how it would appear if the results:
(a) supported the hypothesis
(b) refuted the hypothesis.

Combined
cultures

P. aurelia
P. caudatum

Figure 1.8.4

8 10
Days

12

14 16

Competition between paramecia

12 Two types of barnacles often live in the same ecosystem. These are the
brown barnacle (Chthamalus) and the grey barnacle (Balanus).
Figure 1.8.5 shows a typical distribution of these barnacles on rocks.
The grey barnacle is thought to be unable to survive as high on rocks
as the brown barnacle because it is less tolerant of dry conditions.
Develop a hypothesis to explain the distribution of the barnacles shown.
Suggest one way in which you could test this hypothesis.

60

Distribution of the
grey barnacle in the
absence of the brown
barnacle

Time (weeks)

Figure 1.8.2

high tide

40

Changes in a duckweed population

10 Figures 1.8.3 shows the population graphs of a number of organisms:

a, b, c, d and x.

grey
barnacles

ocean

low tide

a
high tide

Abundance

b
x

Distribution of the
brown barnacle in the
absence of the grey
barnacle

brown
barnacles

ocean
d

low tide

Time

high tide

The abundance of organisms a, b, c, d, x

C
Distribution of the grey
and brown barnacle
in co-existence

brown
barnacles

balanus

If x is the prey, which organism is most likely to be its predator?

Explain.
11 Figure 1.8.4 shows populations of two paramecia grown under
laboratory conditions.
(a) Explain the decrease in Paramecium caudatum population
when it coexists with P. aurelia.
(b) Suggest why P. caudatum is not extinct.

chthamalus

Figure 1.8.3

ocean

grey
barnacles
low tide

Figure 1.8.5

Distribution of barnacles
Ecosystems

25

1.9

Food webs

hawk
fox

emu wren

Students learn to:

describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems
explain trophic interactions between
organisms in an ecosystem, using food
chains, food webs and pyramids of biomass
and energy.

honey-eater

insects

mouse

shrubs

Figure 1.9.2

Producers and consumers

rabbit

sheep

grass

A simplified food web

Plants are called producers because they use light

energy to produce organic substances from the material
they take in from their physical surroundings. Therefore
plants provide the initial food source on which all
organisms depend for their matter and energy needs.
In this way plants provide the foundation on which a
community is built.
Animals eat or consume other living things. Therefore they are called consumers. An organism that feeds
on plants is a first-order consumer. An organism that
feeds on a first-order consumer is called a second-order
consumer, and so on. Consumers that break down or
decompose dead organisms are called decomposers.
Many bacteria and fungi are decomposers. For
example, a wallaby is a first-order consumer because it
eats grass; a dingo, which eats the wallaby, is a secondorder consumer; and the bacteria that bring about the
decay of the dead wallaby and dingo are decomposers.

When this follows a single line without branching, it is

called a food chain (see Figure 1.9.1). In a food chain,
the arrow shows the direction in which the energy and
matter flow. Hence the arrow always points away from
the organism that is the food and towards the animal
that is eating or consuming it.
From the food chain shown in Figure 1.9.1 you
should be able to see that the consumers occupy
different levels. The level occupied by a consumer is
referred to as a feeding or trophic level. First-order
consumers occupy the first trophic level; second-order
consumers occupy the second trophic level, and so on.
Consumers can also be described according to the
type of food they eat. Animals that eat plants are herbivores. Those that eat other animals are carnivores, and
organisms that eat both plants and animals are omnivores. However, this system is not precise because
omnivores and carnivores can occur at a number of
different levels.

Food chains

Constructing food webs

With the exception of plants, all organisms in a

community obtain their material and energy needs
from their food. Therefore a description of the feeding
patterns within a community actually indicates the
direction in which energy and matter are transferred
through the community. This can be achieved by
drawing a flow chart indicating who feeds on whom.

The feeding patterns in communities are complex.

Therefore they can never be described by a single food
chain. The energy flow through a community actually
occurs through a complex network of interconnected
food chains called a food web (see Figure 1.9.2).
Food webs can be drawn in a variety of ways but to
ensure quick, effective communication it is convenient

Figure 1.9.1

26

human

producer

first-order
consumer

second-order
consumer

grass

wallaby

dingo

Producers and consumers in a food chain

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

to follow a consistent pattern. When drawing a food

web, the producers are usually placed at the bottom;
the consumers are generally grouped according to their
trophic level and placed in order from lowest to highest
level up the page (see Figure 1.9.2). Because some
organisms often occupy more than one trophic level, it
is not always possible to adhere strictly to this pattern.
The hawk, for example (see Figure 1.9.2) is a secondorder consumer because it eats mice and a third-order
consumer because it also eats birds. It therefore
occupies both the second and third trophic levels.
Sometimes it is difficult to construct a food web
because it is not always easy to observe an organism
feeding.

Using food webs

Food webs are constructed to help us to understand how
a community functions. They provide a concise
description of the feeding patterns, which determine the
flow of energy and matter through a community. The
availability and flow of energy and matter have a major
bearing on the structure and make-up of the community.
Therefore any alteration to the food web in a community
may have far-reaching consequences. Hence, food webs
can often be used to predict and explain the effects of
changes within the community. For example, a farmer
may want to eliminate foxes from the community
because they prey on the sheep (see Figure 1.9.2).
However, from the food web it can be seen that the
destruction of the fox population may not be in the
farmers best interests.The elimination of foxes could also
lead to an increase in the population of pests (i.e. insects,
mice, and rabbits).These may, in turn, eat more grass and
reduce the amount of fodder available to sheep. It may be
that the presence of foxes in the ecosystem actually
increases the productivity of the farm. In this way, food
webs provide information that can help in the
management and preservation of ecosystems.

Biomass pyramids
Just as the flow of energy through an ecosystem is an
important aspect of an ecological study, so too is the
transfer of matter within an ecosystem. The total
amount of mass in a community is called its biomass.
Since matter is lost from the community at each trophic
level, the biomass of the producers is usually greater
than that of the first-order consumers and their biomass is, in turn, greater than that of the second-order
consumers, and so on. This trend can be readily seen in
biomass pyramids, which show the biomass of the
organisms at each trophic level. The biomass of organisms is usually expressed as a percentage of the
communitys total biomass (see Figure 1.9.3).
This allows us to compare the amounts of matter at
each trophic level and indicates the efficiency with

stable

unstable

unstable

Key:
carnivores
herbivores
producers

Figure 1.9.3

unstable

Stable and unstable biomass pyramids

which matter is transferred through the community.

Furthermore, because energy is transferred through the
community as chemical energy in matter, it also
indicates how efficiently the energy is being transferred.
The normal pattern of a biomass pyramid may
occasionally be altered for a short time. Disease or
drought can sometimes rapidly decrease the plant
biomass. When this occurs, the consumer biomass may
represent a larger than normal proportion of the
community biomass for a short time (see Figure 1.9.3).
However, the small plant biomass would not be able to
provide sufficient energy or matter to support the
consumers. This biomass pyramid is therefore unstable
and many consumers typically die off or emigrate.
Eventually, the characteristic stable biomass pyramid
shape reappears (see Figure 1.9.3).
Food webs describe the direction of flow of energy
and matter. Biomass pyramids show the amount of
matter at each trophic level. Energy pyramids show the
amount of energy at each trophic level. Because they
provide different information about an ecosystem,
biomass pyramids and food webs are best used
together to describe the energy and matter transfer
through a community.
A
Energy
pyramid
of human as
vegetarian

human

corn

beans

wheat

apples

human

B
Energy
pyramid of
human as
carnivore

cattle

corn

sheep

pigs

wheat

chicken

grass

Figure 1.9.4 Energy pyramid of a human

(A) vegetarian; (B) carnivore

Ecosystems

27

Energy pyramids
Energy pyramids show the amount of energy at each
trophic level in a community. They are similar to biomass pyramids because energy is transferred throughout a community as food. The lower the organism on a
food chain the more energy it has available to it. Figure
1.9.4 compares the energy pyramid of a human who is
a vegetarian (A) with a human whose diet consists only
of meat (B). As at least 10 per cent of the energy is lost
at each trophic level, the vegetarian human makes
much more efficient use of the energy available in the
ecosystem than the human carnivore. Note that the
human carnivore requires approximately 10 times the
energy in producers as the human as vegetarian. This
has implications for the population of humans on
Earth. The human population that can be supported on
Earth is very much affected by human diet. If humans
were to consume more plants and less meat, then the
Earth could provide food for a larger human
population.

(d) herbivore
(e) carnivore
(f) omnivore
(g) biomass.
2 State whether the organisms listed below are (i) producers,
(ii) consumers, (iii) decomposers, (iv) herbivores, (v) carnivores or
(vi) omnivores:
(a) sheep
(b) grass
(c) carrot
(d) human
(e) wattle
(f) Tasmanian devil
(g) bread mould
(h) kangaroo
(i) mushroom
(j) worm.
3 Draw a simple food chain for a human who only eats beef.
4 Which of the following biomass pyramids is most likely to represent the
biomass in a stable ecosystem (see Figure 1.9.5)?

Summary 1.9
Plants are producers. Producers make the organic
materials on which all other organisms depend for
food.
Animals are consumers. Consumers obtain food
from other organisms. They obtain energy and
matter from the organisms they eat.
Organisms that break down dead organisms and
the waste products of organisms are decomposers.
Many bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
Decomposers are consumers.
A food chain or web is a flow chart showing the
feeding patterns within a community.
Food chains and food webs show the flow of energy
and matter through a community.
A food web is made up of a set of interconnecting
food chains.
Food webs can be used to explain and predict
changes in the community
Biomass pyramids usually indicate the relative
amount of matter in the organisms of a community
Energy pyramids indicate the relative amount of
energy transferred to each trophic level.
In a stable community, biomass and energy
decrease rapidly as the trophic level increases.
Biomass and energy pyramids can be used to
predict and explain changes in a community.

Questions 1.9
1 Define the following terms:
(a) producer
(b) consumer
(c) decomposer

28

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

Figure 1.9.5

Food pyramids

5 Contrast the information about a community conveyed by a food web, a

biomass pyramid and an energy pyramid.
6 Draw a food web for a community in which periwinkles and limpets
feed on seaweed; octopuses feed on crabs; crabs feed on periwinkles
and limpets; starfish feed on limpets; seals eat crabs, and octopuses
and seagulls eat crabs and starfish.
7 On an excursion, a group of biology students observed a community
and collected the following information. Use it to construct a food web.
During the day, parrots were seen feeding on grass roots. New Holland
honey-eaters took nectar from banksias. Scale insects were found on
the bark of young banksias, tea-trees and eucalypts. Bees visited a
variety of plants including banksias, tea-trees and eucalypts.
Wallabies were seen grazing on patches of grass in the woodland.
At night, sugar gliders licked the sap from eucalypts and competed
with ring-tail possums for banksia nectar. The house mouse ate grass
seeds and scraps left over from visitors on picnics. The Antechinus
preyed on the house mouse and small beetles that were commonly
found nibbling grass. Lyre birds also fed on beetles they found when
scratching the ground. Yabbies abounded in small ponds where they
scavenged on the dead and decaying material (detritus), which settled

to the bottom. Foxes and quolls were not sighted, but their droppings were
collected and found to contain the following:
Fox droppingsbeetle exoskeletons and wings, yabbie shells,
house mouse and Antechinus fur.
Quoll droppingsparrot feathers and house mouse fur.
8 From the information in the food web from question 7
(a) name the producers
(b) state the consumer level of the house mouse
(c) name an organism that occupies more than one trophic level
(d) state one short-term consequence of poisoning the insects
(e) state which organisms would have the highest biomass
(f) state which organisms in the food web would be at the greatest
risk from biomagnification of poisons.
9 Draw a possible biomass pyramid for the community described in
question 6.
10 In a lake, for every 1000 kilojoules (kJ) of light energy converted into
carbohydrate by algae, small aquatic animals obtain about 150 kJ of
energy. Of this 150 kJ, 30 kJ is transferred to smelt. Trout feeding on
smelt obtain about 6 kJ of energy. If you eat the trout, you obtain only
1.2 kJ of energy from the trout.
(a) Draw a food chain for this community.
(b) Draw an energy pyramid for this community.

1.10

Human impacts on ecosystems

Students learn to:

identify the impact of humans in the
ecosystem studied.

Humans have an impact on their environment. In this

they are not unusual. However, the impact humans
have had on the environment is unusual in that the
changes have been rapid and widespread. Modern
affluent societies place huge demands on the resources
of the Earths ecosystems. High levels of consumption
result in high levels of waste and pollution. Ecosystems
are often degraded or eliminated. Forests have been
cleared for timber and agriculture. Other ecosystems
have been destroyed because they were favoured
dwelling places for humans. Fragile estuaries and
coastal sand dunes, for example, provide homes with
Table 1.10.1

water views. Humans have moved throughout the

Earths continents and islands. Our transport is rapid
and covers huge distances. Organisms that once were
isolated are now faced with species that humans have
introduced from other continents. In Australia introduced foxes and rabbits as well as feral cats and pigs
have preyed on or competed with native species,
damaging the complex fabric of ecosystems. All these
activities reduce the range, distribution and species
diversity of natural ecosystems.
Most humans have changed from hunters and
gatherers to being members of agricultural and then
urban societies. As hunters and gatherers, our activities
had relatively little impact on ecosystems. By contrast,
agricultural and urban societies have greatly disturbed
ecosystems, altering the natural flow of energy and
recycling of matter (see Table 1.10.1).

Comparison of the efficiency of disturbed and

undisturbed ecosystems
Recycling of matter
In natural ecosystems, matter is recycled by decomposers. There is no long-term net loss of materials
from the ecosystems. They are therefore self-sustaining. Agricultural ecosystems are constantly
suffering a loss of matter; crops are harvested, lambs
and cattle slaughtered. They are transported out of
agricultural ecosystems into urban ones. The urban
ecosystem is therefore constantly gaining matter from
the agricultural ecosystem. The agricultural ecosystem
often requires frequent applications of minerals from
fertilisers or careful crop management to replace the
lost nutrients.
Soil erosion resulting from agricultural practices is
regarded by many as the most important conservation
issue in Australia for the 21st century. Indeed, vast areas
of Australia are at risk of becoming deserts (see Figure
1.10.1). It has been estimated that soil degradation
costs approximately 600 million dollars a year in lost
agricultural production. We can only guess at the cost of
its impact on the natural ecosystem.
In the urban ecosystem, the influx of matter results
in the production of massive amounts of waste. Some
wastes contain contaminants that pollute the environ-

Comparison of disturbed and undisturbed ecoystems

diversity
complexity/stability
energy input
energy use
matter recycling

Urban

Agricultural

Natural

little; humans dominate

simple/unstable imbalance of animals over plants
mainly fossil fuels, nuclear, hydro-electric
excessive burning with rapid heat output
and energy lossinefficient
very inefficient, little recycled,

little; single crop species or animal dominate

simple/unstable monocultures
mainly light and fossil fuels
mainly photosynthesis/respiration with gradual
heat output and energy loss
inefficient, some recycled

great
complex/stable
light only

efficient,recycled

Ecosystems

29

has resulted in an increase in the concentration of

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, causing the greenhouse effect, which many scientists claim is
responsible for a gradual rise in the temperature of the
Earths atmosphere.

Energy use

key:

Figure 1.10.1

very high

moderate

high

low

Areas at risk of desertification in Australia

ment. Most waste is often not recycled within the ecosystem but is typically dumped into natural ecosystems. In Sydney, most of the waste sewage is
dumped into the ocean, where it damages beaches and
aquatic ecosystems before being decomposed.
Even the air is imported into urban ecosystems from
natural and agricultural systems because there are too
few plants in cities to recycle the oxygen from the
carbon dioxide produced by the animals and the
burning of fossil fuels. Indeed, in recent times the
production of carbon dioxide has outstripped the ability
of the constantly decreasing natural ecosystems to
convert the carbon dioxide into oxygen. This imbalance

Table 1.10.2

Air pollution

Pollutant

Possible harmful effects

Major non-natural source

particulates: smoke, dust, grit

corrosion and deterioration of building materials;

eye, nose and throat irritation
formation of acid rain; corrosion; chest irritation; bronchitis
by binding with haemoglobin in the blood oxygen absorption
is reducedmay be fatal; impaired nerve functions;
heart disease
formation of acid rain, which is formed when nitrogen
oxides combine with water in the atmosphere;
plant growth retarded; corrosive; eye and throat irritations
irritation and disturbed functions of eyes, nose and lungs;
death of leaves of plants; damage to rubber and textiles
retarded plant growth; abnormal growth of buds and leaves;
carcinogenic
toxic; reduction of brain function
increased risk of mutation; cancer; genetic
disturbances
plant leaves attacked; eye irritation; lung functions
disturbed

combustion of fossil fuels; motor vehicles;

incinerators; industries; road construction etc.
combustion of fossil fuels; smelting of mineral ores
combustion of fuels

sulfur dioxide
carbon monoxide

nitrogen oxides

ozone
hydrocarbon vapours
lead compounds
radioactive materials
peroxacetyl nitrate (PAN)

30

In natural ecosystems, the main energy input is light

from the sun. This is absorbed by plants, converted into
chemical energy and used slowly over long periods of
time by plants and animals. This energy is gradually
changed into heat energy and released. In urban
ecosystems, fossil fuels provide a large component of
the energy input. When they are burnt, the result is a
rapid release of heat energy.
Both urban and agricultural ecosystems are unstable. In agricultural ecosystems, diseases can spread
rapidly and destroy virtually all the vegetation in an
area because vast areas are dominated by a single
species. Similarly, insect pests that feed on crops can
often reach plague proportions.
In agricultural and urban ecosystems, where there
are few species, food webs are very simple. Simple food
webs are unstable because there are few alternative
food supplies if one is lost. Natural ecosystems are
diverse and more stable because they have complex
food webs.
Because urban and agricultural ecosystems are
simple and unstable, they require a very large energy
input to maintain them. This energy is used for such
things as the clearing and preparation of the land, the
planting of crops, the building of dams, the supply of

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

motor car engines

reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air

motor car engines; solvents in paints and
dry-cleaning
motor car exhaust; smelters
nuclear weapons; radioactive waste dumps
chemical changes in the atmosphere due to
the suns action on other pollutants

precipitation may fall through

polluted air, dissolving
atmospheric pollutants

agricultural yields are boosted

by the addition of fertiliser;
run-off from these can cause
bacterial, algal and plant
blooms in river systems
agricultural practices
frequently involve the
use of toxic chemicals
for pest and weed
control; these may
become dissolved in
surface run-off and
transported to rivers

logging practices may

expose soil to erosion

mining and quarrying may cause

sedimentation problems

algal bloom
(cyanobacteria)

irrigation may
mobilise salt and
lead to salinisation
of rivers (and soil)

pollution from industry is

extensive and often involves toxic
wastes, such as heavy metals

aerial spraying of pesticides

and herbicides may directly
contaminate water

clearing increases soil

erosion leading to
sedimentation of streams

landfill is often made up

of dangerous chemicals

large urban centres generate huge

quantities of nutrient-rich effluent;
other pollutants are detergents, oils
from motor vehicles, soil from building
blocks

cities located on coasts may

pipe sewage into ocean after
only minimum treatment

Figure 1.10.2

Sources of water pollution. Research two of the problems identified to outline the cause, effects and possible solutions

Ecosystems

31

insecticides and fertilisers, and the transportation of

food and waste.

Pollution
Human activities produce a variety of wastes that can
contaminate ecosystems. These wastes pollute the
environment and may degrade the habitat of other
species and humans themselves.
Most pollution is caused by humans from
developed countries. Pollution is the result of our consumption of goods. Agriculture, which provides our
food and the bleaching of the paper on which you
write, for example, can contaminate rivers and streams.
The industries that supply you with the things you
want, such as a car, also pollute the environment. These
contaminants may pollute the water systems, the air
and soil. The sources and types of water and air
pollution are many. Some of these are shown in Table
1.10.2 and Figure 1.10.2. If you look carefully at the data
in Table 1.10.2 you will see that transport is a major
cause of air pollution. If you travelled by bus or car to
school you contributed to this pollution. Even if you
went to school by train, the electricity used to drive the
train may have been produced by burning coal, which
pollutes the air.

Biomagnification
Food webs can be used to predict the flow and possible
long-term effects of contaminants that pollute an
ecosystem. The concentrations of some pesticides,
such as DDT, and heavy metals, like lead, mercury and
cadmium, increase along the food chain. That is, higher
order consumers tend to have higher concentrations of
these substances in their tissues than lower order
consumers. This occurs for two reasons. Firstly, these
substances are only broken down very slowly and
therefore accumulate in an organisms body tissues
over its lifetime. Secondly, the transfer of energy from
one organism to the next by feeding is inefficient.
Therefore a predator must eat large quantities of prey
to supply its energy and material needs.
While the energy transfer is such that the predator
might only obtain 20 per cent of the energy available in
its food, it unfortunately accumulates almost all the
DDT and heavy metals that were taken in by its prey. In
this way the concentration of these substances is
magnified along the food chain. This is known as
biomagnification.
This biomagnification of DDT has resulted in a
decline in the number of offspring produced by some
birds of prey, including herring gulls, falcons, eagles
and ospreys. These birds are high-order consumers.
The concentration of DDT in these birds may be 250
times that of the non-living surroundings. Such high
concentrations of DDT seem to prevent the formation

32

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

of eggs or result in the production of eggs with thin,

brittle shells, which tend to break prematurely during
brooding.
In aquatic ecosystems, where food webs are often
very complex and food chains can be very long, magnifications 80 000 times greater than the non-living surroundings have been observed. In Japan, the biomagnification of mercury released from industry into
Minnamatta Bay resulted in the deaths of 52 people.
These people regularly ate fish from the bay over a long
period and suffered mercury poisoning. Cats, another
high-order consumer in the community, also suffered.
As mercury poisoning attacks the nervous system,
these diseased cats often shook and jittered
uncontrollably. Hence the illness became known as the
disease of the dancing cat. The levels of mercury and
other heavy metals in fish at Australian fish markets is
regularly monitored. In Sydney, for example, this
thorough testing has occasionally resulted in swordfish,
a high-order consumer, being withdrawn from sale
because of heavy metal concentrations above recommended levels. A knowledge of food webs allows the
types of fish that are at risk to be identified and helps to
ensure that contaminated fish are not sold.

Human wants and sustaining ecosystems

finding a balance
The high energy demands and lack of recycling in
human-dominated ecosystems make them unsustainable. Strategies are required to reduce demand and
increase recycling and to maintain remaining natural
ecosystems. Strategies to achieve this include:
national and international agreements to reduce
energy consumption, promote recycling, prevent
dumping of wastes and reduce the destruction of
natural ecosystems
education to promote lifestyle changes that reduce
consumption and encourage recycling
preventing the import and accidental release of
introduced species
maintaining a range of habitats to promote diversity
(e.g. national parks and reserves)
regenerating natural ecosystems where they have
been destroyed or degraded
farming native animals and crops rather than introduced species
establishing sustainable quotas to reduce the
impact of the removal of plants (e.g. trees for
timber) and animals (e.g. fish) taken from natural
ecosystems.
These and other strategies are easy to outline but
they are difficult to implement because the management of the worlds resources is not only a matter for
biology, but also involves a complex set of interacting
influences including politics, economics and culture.

The difficulties involved in developing an agreed,

worldwide strategy to reduce human impact on ecosystems have promoted an emphasis on actions by
each individual rather than governments alone.

Summary 1.10
Humans have had a range of impacts on ecosystems. These include the destruction of ecosystems (e.g. clearing forests and estuaries), introduction of species that compete with or prey on
native species, and pollution of ecosystems with
contaminants that affect the survival of organisms.
The use of energy and matter in most humandominated ecosystems in developed countries is
not sustainable.
A variety of strategies can be used to balance
human activities and needs in ecosystems to conserve, maintain and protect the quality of the
environment, but these are difficult to implement
due to economic, cultural and political pressures.
Energy use and flow in undisturbed ecosystems is
more efficient than energy flow through disturbed
ecosystems (e.g. agricultural and urban ecosystems).
Matter recycling in undisturbed ecosystems is more
efficient than matter recycling through disturbed
ecosystems (e.g. agricultural and urban ecosystems).

Questions 1.10

Table 1.10.3 Human energy consumption per person, selected

countries (1991)

Country

Population
(millions)

Energy per person

(gigajoules)

Bangladesh
Nigeria
India
Indonesia
Brazil
China
Turkey
Japan
Germany
United States

116.6
99.1
859.2
181.4
163.3
1 151.3
58.5
123.8
79.5
252.8

2
6
9
10
23
23
30
140
187
320

Briefly comment on any trend you can infer from the graph.
Is human impact on ecosystems mainly a result of over-population?
Suggest one other factor that seems to influence human energy
consumption.
9 Some poisons used to kill insect pests in lawns are sprayed at night
because they break down quickly when exposed to light. These poisons
are extremely toxic and can kill birds even in small concentrations.
When used correctly, why might these very toxic poisons often cause
less damage to the community than less poisonous substances such as
DDT and heavy metals? Explain.
10 Research one agreement, activity or event to reduce detrimental
human impact at the following levels:
international
national
local area or local government
individual.

1 List three main ways in which humans have a detrimental impact on

ecosystems. For each of these, suggest one way in which the impact
could be reduced.
2 How is the flow of energy in natural ecosystems different from that in
disturbed ecosystems?
3 How is recycling of matter in disturbed ecosystems different from that
in natural ecosystems?
4 Suggest two reasons why it is difficult to implement strategies to
protect the quality of the environment.
5 Identify one way in which you could reduce your detrimental impact on
the environment.
6 David Suzuki once said that if you really want a species to survive, eat
it. What might he have meant by this?
7 The list below indicates some strategies humans employ to reduce
their impact on the environment:
maintaining treed areas in pastures
contour ploughing
recycling
biological control
the Kyoto agreement.
Research two of these and explain how they reduce human impact on
ecosystems.
8 Table 1.10.3 (below) shows the energy consumption per capita in a
variety of countries. Graph energy consumption against population.

Ecosystems

33

Investigations

Investigations 1 to 6 should be carried out in two

different ecosystems or in an ecosystem that contains a
variety of vegetation types. In this way, comparisons
can be made and the important factors contributing to
the existence and maintenance of the ecosystem can be
more easily identified.
Ideally, one of the two ecosystems should be in your
local area so that frequent visits are possible. Name the
ecosystems and communities studied.
The aim of this sequence of practical work is to
study an ecosystem and identify interrelationships
between living and non-living things and interrelationships between living things in the area.
Care should be taken to ensure that the ecosystem
is disturbed as little as possible by your investigations.

Investigation 1
Measuring physical characteristics of an
ecosystem, and observing incidence of human
impact

Information
An examination of the physical characteristics of an
ecosystem can provide a basis for understanding the
interrelationships that exist within an ecosystem. In
particular, it can help to explain the existence and
extent of the ecosystem as well as the distribution and
abundance of organisms within it.
The aims of this exercise are to provide experience in
the use of a wide range of procedures that can be used in
your field work to study physical environmental factors,
and to use the data collected to explain the distribution
of organisms in the ecosystems studied.
Ideally, these abiotic factors should be measured
over a long period of time. Brief visits to ecosystems can
sometimes provide very misleading data. Climatic
factors in particular are best measured over many years
or at least over the seasons. If it is not possible to visit
your study area regularly throughout the year, additional data can sometimes be obtained from students
who have studied the ecosystem in previous years.

Recording data
Students:
observe and measure a variety of abiotic
characteristics in ecosystems and relate
them to the distribution of organisms
tabulate data, calculate means, graph
changes against time, evaluate the variability
in measurements
identify the impact of humans in the
ecosystems studied.

35

woodland

bare rock

Make measurements at a number of randomly

selected sites along a transect (see Investigation 2)
or at randomly selected sites throughout the area.
On the transect diagram of the area mark the sites
where recordings were made (see Figure I1.1).
Collect data on as many days as possible.
Indicate the time and date when the data were
collected.
Construct a table to record your data
(see Tables I1.1 and I2.1).

closed heath

woodland

closed forest
Key:

Height (m)

30

woodland
eucalypt

25

forest
eucalypt

20

shrubs

15

ferns
3
grass

10

1,2,3,4,5
sites
for data
collection

5
0
5

Figure I1.1

34

10

15

Vegetation transect

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

20

25

30

35

40
45
Distance (m)

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

Table I1.1

An example of a table to record temperature data

Date

Time

Temperature (C)
maximum
minimum

1/6/04
2/6/04
3/6/04
4/6/04

9 a.m.
9 a.m.
9 a.m.
9 a.m.

20
20
15
10

8
11
7
4

Part A Temperature

Questions
1 Were there differences in the temperature recorded in the ecosystem?
2 Would it be more difficult for an organism to adapt to an ecosystem
with a varied temperature or to one with a fairly constant temperature?
Why?
3 How does temperature influence water availability?
4 How does temperature influence the water requirements of organisms?
5 Did the soil temperature vary as much as the atmospheric temperature?
6 Why do some animals live in burrows?

Temperature range
Materials

Part B Light intensity

a maximum/minimum thermometer

Materials

Method
1 Use a maximum/minimum thermometer to measure
the maximum and minimum temperature each day.
2 Collect data at a set time each day (e.g. 9 a.m.) and
reset for the following day.
3 Record temperature range for each day and month.
4 Calculate an average maximum and minimum
temperature for each month for which have data.
5 Use a graph to present maximum and minimum
temperature data.

Atmospheric temperature
Materials
a thermometer

Method
1 Use a thermometer to measure the temperature at
regular intervals throughout the day in the shade
and in full sun.

a light meter

Method
1 Use a light meter to measure the light intensity at a
range of heights above the ground (e.g. ground level,
hip level and eye level).
2 Repeat at set times in the morning, at midday and
in the afternoon.
3 Rate the light intensity as very high, high, moderate,
or very low.

Questions
1 Was the amount of cloud cover similar when the measurements were
made?
2 (a) Were there differences between the light readings in the ecosystem?
(b) How can you account for the differences?
3 Was there less light available at ground or hip level than at eye level?
How might this influence the growth of shrubs and grasses?

Part C Relative humidity

Materials

Soil temperature
Materials

wet and dry bulb thermometer (psychrometer)

relative humidity conversion chart.

a soil thermometer or laboratory thermometer

Method

Method

1 Use a wet and dry bulb thermometer and the conversion chart to measure the relative humidity at
regular intervals throughout the day.
2 Measure the humidity at different heights above the
ground.

1 If you have a soil thermometer, push it into the

ground to its maximum depth.
If you are using a laboratory thermometer, dig a
narrow hole almost as deep as the thermometer.
Gently lower the thermometer into the hole and refill the hole, leaving the tip of the thermometer
exposed.
2 Leave the thermometer in the soil for about 3
minutes.
3 Check and record the temperature.
4 Repeat as early as possible, in the middle of the day,
and as late as possible.

Questions
1 (a) Were there differences between the humidity readings in the
ecosystem?
(b) Were some areas generally more humid than the other areas?
2 How might humidity affect the rate of water loss from organisms?
3 Use a graph to record humidity for the period of your study.

Ecosystems

35

Part D Rainfall

Wind exposure

Materials

Method

a rain gauge

Rate the exposure to wind as very high, high, moderate,

low, or very low.

Method
1 Use a rain gauge to measure rainfall each day.
2 Collect the data at a set time each day (e.g. 9 a.m.)
and empty for the following day.

Questions
1 Were there differences in the rainfall in the ecosystem?
2 How might rainfall affect other abiotic factors such as humidity and soil
moisture?
3 How might rainfall influence the organisms in the ecosystem?
4 Research the mean annual rainfall and monthly or seasonal rainfall in
the ecosystems you studied. Graph these data to show the rainfall
pattern over the year.

Part E Wind

1 (a) Were there differences between the wind readings or exposure in

the ecosystem?
(b) Was one area more exposed to wind than the other?
2 How might wind influence the organisms in the ecosystem?
3 (a) How might wind, rain and temperature interact to make organisms
colder?
(b) What is meant by the chill factor?
4 Was there any evidence of damage caused by winds or of trees and
shrubs leaning in a particular direction because of a pattern of
prevailing winds?
5 Would trees find it more difficult to withstand high winds in areas with
deep or with shallow soils? Explain.

Wind speed

Part F Soil

Materials

Soil pH

an anemometer or modified Beaufort scale

(see Table I1.2)

Materials

Table I1.2

Modified Beaufort wind scale

Observation

Rating

smoke rises vertically or drifts gently; wind vane

does not move
wind felt on face; leaves rustle; wind vane moves
leaves and twigs constantly moving; raises dust;
small branches move
large branches in motion; difficult to use umbrellas
whole trees swaying; twigs and leaves fall from trees

very low
low
moderate
high
very high

Method
1 Use an anemometer to measure wind speed at
regular intervals throughout the day.
2 Measure the windspeed at different heights above the
ground (e.g. ground level, hip level, and eye level).
3 Note high and low readings if the wind is occurring
in gusts.
4 Rate the wind speed as very high, high, moderate,
low, or very low.

Wind direction
Materials
a thin piece of cloth on a stick
a compass

Method
Use a compass and a thin piece of cloth on a stick to
determine the wind direction.

36

Questions

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

a bottle, with holes in its lid, containing talcum

powder or barium sulfate
a Petri dish
a dropper bottle containing universal indicator
a universal indicator pH colour chart.

Method
1 Collect a small sample of soil and place it on a Petri
dish.
2 Sprinkle a layer of talcum powder (or barium
sulfate) on the soil.
3 Add a few drops of universal indicator to the talc.
4 Observe the colour and compare it with a colour
chart to find the pH.

Soil humus
Materials
a trowel
a 30 cm ruler.

Method
1 Carefully dig a hole in the soil.
2 Use a ruler to measure the depth of the darkcoloured topsoil layer.
3 Observe the depth of the leaf litter and humus on top
of the soil.
4 Rate the humus content as very high, high, moderate,
low, or very low.

Soil moisture
(Use either materials and methods 1 or 2.)

Materials 1

Soil mineral content

1 strip of cobalt chloride paper per test

Materials

Method 1

a laboratory or commercial garden soil test kit. (Soil

test kits are available in most school laboratories or
can be obtained from a plant nursery. These can be
used to measure the content of a range of salts,
including nitrates, sulfates, phosphates in soil.)

1 Place a piece of dry (blue) cobalt chloride paper on

a soil sample.
2 Note the time it takes to change from blue to pink.
(Cobalt chloride paper can be made by soaking filter
paper in a cobalt chloride solution and then drying
it. It should be kept in a dry, sealed container with
some silica gel crystals.)
3 Rate the soil moisture as soggy, wet, damp, dry, or
very dry.
OR

Method
1 Follow the instructions given in the soil test kit.
2 For each mineral, rate the soil as good, moderate, or
poor.

Soil air content

Materials 2

Materials

a small clear plastic jar or beaker

a trowel

a plastic bag that can be sealed

a glass Petri dish or evaporating dish
a chemical balance
an oven

Method 2
Collect a small soil sample.
Place the sample in a plastic bag and seal it.
In the laboratory, find the weight of the soil sample.
Place it in an oven on low heat until it has dried out
completely.
5 Reweigh the soil. (The difference between the weight
before and after heating provides a measure of the
water content.)
1
2
3
4

Soil porosity
Materials

a Petri dish
a filter funnel
glass wool
a 25 mL graduated measuring cylinder
a beater or jar for water marked at 100 mL

Method
1 Collect a sample of soil and thoroughly dry it on the
dish in the sun or in an oven on low heat.
2 Pack a small amount of glass wool into the filter
funnel.
3 Gently pack some of the soil into the filter funnel on
top of the glass wool.
4 Place the funnel over the graduated measuring
cylinder.
5 Add 50100 mL of water and time how long it takes
for 10 mL of water to collect in the measuring
cylinder. More water can be used if too little water
passes through the soil.
(If you are going to compare soils from different
sites, ensure that the same quantity of soil and
water is used for each test.)
6 Rate the soil porosity as very high, high, moderate,
low, or very low.

Method
1 Place a sample of soil in a beaker of water and note
the rate at which air bubbles from the soil.
2 When comparing different soils, use the same
volume of soil.
3 Rate the soil air content as very high, high,
moderate, low, or very low.

Questions
1 Were there differences in the characteristics of the soils in the
ecosystem? Describe any differences.
2 (a) Briefly explain how each of the soil characteristics studied might
influence the organisms in the ecosystem.
(b) Was there any evidence that soil type influenced the distribution of
the vegetation types in the ecosystem?
3 How might soil porosity influence soil moisture content?
4 (a) Was there evidence of rotting organic matter in the soil?
(b) How might this contribute to soil quality?
5 You have measured many different abiotic factors in your study. Others
studying the same area might obtain data different from yours. How
could you account for this variability in data? Consider a range of
abiotic factors in your answer. Are some methods of measuring abiotic
factors more accurate than others? Explain with examples.

Part G Human impact

Method
While doing investigations in the ecosystem, record
evidence of human impact, for example:
introduced species
erosion due to human activity
pollution.

Question
How might human impact influence the substainability of the ecosystem
studied?

Ecosystems

37

Method

Investigation 2
Using a transect to study the
distribution of plants
Students:
construct a transect to record data
describe and analyse the distribution of
plants in an ecosystem
design a study to investigate factors influencing
the distribution of plants in an ecosystem.

Information
It is usually too time-consuming to show the position
of every plant in an ecosystem on a map. However, it is
relatively easy to show the distribution of the plants
within a section of the ecosystem. One way of doing
this is to record the plants along a cross-section or profile of the ecosystem. The line through the area along
which this cross-section is taken is called a transect.

Materials
a length of string marked with coloured adhesive
tape at 5 m intervals (the string should be long
enough to cross the area to be studied)
a compass
a metre ruler
a small stake (optional)

Table I2.1

1 Select a compass heading that cuts across the ecosystem.

2 Tie the string to a rock, tree or stake.
3 Walk through the ecosystem gradually unrolling the
string. Use the compass to make sure that you are
walking as near as possible to a straight line.
4 Draw vertical and horizontal axes on your page.
Label the vertical axis height and the horizontal axis
distance (see Figure I1.1). Mark out approximate
units on the axes.
5 Draw a cross-section of the topography of your
transect (see Figure I1.1).
6 At each 5 m interval along the string, note the
plants that lie within 1 m along one side of the
transect and estimate their height.
(The plants need only be identified in general terms,
e.g. grasses, ferns, shrubs, trees. Bare rock or sand
should also be shown.)
7 Use symbols to show these plants on the crosssection you have drawn (see Figure I1.1).
8 From the transect, identify sites where there appear
to be different types of vegetation.
9 Number these sites on the transect.
10 Measure and record the abiotic factors at these sites
and record the data in a table (see Table I2.1). (See
also Investigation 1 for procedures.)

Physical factors along the transect

24
13
23
54%

24
13

55%

moderate
SW
extreme

Sites
3

24
13
23
59%

24
13
23
58%

24
13
23
82%

moderate
SW
high

moderate
SW
high

moderate
SW
high

minimal

moderate
moderate
low

very high
very high
very high

very high
very high
very low

moderate
moderate
very low

low
low
very low

6
shallow
dry
low
moderate

none

very low

5
shallow
soggy
moderate
very low

7
shallow
damp
moderate
moderate

7
deep
damp
high
moderate

poor
moderate
moderate
moderate

poor
poor
moderate
moderate

poor
moderate
moderate
moderate

good
good
good
moderate

temperature (C)

max.
min.
soil
relative humidity

wind

speed
direction
exposure
light intensity

eye level
hip level
group level
soil

pH
depth
moisture
humus
air
nutrients

nitrates
phosphates
sulfates
potassium

38

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

Questions
1 Describe any variation in plant distribution you observed.
2 Try to explain these variations in plant distribution in terms of
(a) variations in physical environmental factors
(b) interrelationships between organisms.
3 How might the variations in plant distribution influence the distribution
of animals? (For example, would tree- or grass-dwelling animals be
able to inhabit all areas of the transect equally?)
4 Design an investigation to determine the factors that influence the
distribution of one of the plants identified in the transect.

Investigation 3
Using quadrats to measure the abundance of
plants in an ecosystem
Students:
use quadrats to study species abundance
describe and analyse the abundance of
plants in an ecosystem
design a study to investigate factors
influencing the abundance of plants in an
ecosystem.

Information
The aim of this exercise is to measure the abundance of
a plant species within an ecosystem. Use either method
1 or method 2.

Materials
a tape measure or string marked at regular intervals
with adhesive tape
a metre ruler

Method 1
1 Select the plant species the abundances of which
you want to measure.
2 Choose a quadrat size suitable for the plant being
studied. (A tree may require quadrats of 10 m by
10 m or more. Grass may require quadrats of less
than 1 m by 1 m.)
3 Note the size of the quadrat to be used.
Table I3.1

4 Use string with adhesive tape attached at appropriate intervals, or a tape measure, to mark out a
square quadrat.
5 Count the plants that are members of the species
under study.
6 Record the data in a table (see Table I3.1).
7 Repeat steps 4 to 6 at a number of randomly selected
sites throughout the ecosystem or at sites along a
transect.
8 Estimate the total area of the ecosystem.
9 Calculate the average number of plants per square metre.
10 To find the abundance, multiply the average number
of plants per square metre by the number of square
metres in the whole ecosystem.
OR

Method 2
1 Use the transect from Investigation 2.
2 In each 5 m interval along the transect, count the
number of plants of the species under study that are
not more than 1 m away from one side of the string.
3 Record the data for each 1 m x 5 m rectangle (see
e.g. Table I3.1).
4 Calculate the average.
5 Estimate the total area of the ecosystem.
6 Calculate the average number of plants per square
metre.
7 To find the abundance, multiply the average number
of plants per square metre by the number of square
metres in the whole ecosystem.

Questions
1 Explain why the quadrat size chosen was appropriate.
2 How could more accurate data be obtained?
3 Would the same procedure be suitable for estimating the abundance of
bush rats in the ecosystem? Explain.
4 (a) Did each quadrat contain a similar number of plants?
(b) How even does the distribution of these plants appear to be?
(c) If the abundance in each quadrat is very different,
(i) how can these differences be explained?
(ii) how should you report the abundance data in the ecosystem?
5 Design an investigation to determine the factors that influence the distribution of the plant species studied in this exercise.

An example of plant abundance

Species under study: Banksia paludosa

Quadrat size: 5 m x 5 m (i.e. 25 m2)
Area of ecosystem: 5000 m2
Abundance
sample number
1
2
3
number of B. paludosa
12
10
5
average number of B. paludosa per quatrat = 10
average number per m2 = 10/25 m2
Abundance = average number of plants per m2 x area of ecosystem in m2
i.e.
= 10/25m2 x 5000 m2
= 2000

density/25 m2
4
13

5
10

10

Ecosystems

39

Investigation 4
Distribution and abundance of animals
Students:
use tables to record field data
describe and analyse the abundance and
distribution of animals in an ecosystem

Information
The distribution of animals within an ecosystem can be
determined in a variety of ways. The distribution of
invertebrates can often involve the trapping and killing
of organisms such as insects. The aim of this exercise is
to determine the distribution and abundance of a
variety of animals with minimum disturbance of the
ecosystem.
The procedures below can be carried out at a
number of sites throughout the ecosystem. If they are
carried out at regular intervals along a transect (see
Investigation 2), you may be able to use data collected
along the transect to help you to explain the distribution of animals. It may be necessary to move some
distance from the transect line to avoid excessive disturbance of the area.

Materials

a trowel
a pair of gardening gloves
a large sheet of white paper or cardboard
an open tin can or small soil auger
a sweep net
a metal spatula or blunt knife

Method
Note any evidence of feeding patterns observed
throughout this exercise, for use in Investigation 5.
WARNING: Take care to avoid snakes, spiders and any
insects that may sting or bite.

Part A Leaf litter

1 Rake and turn the leaf litter in about 1 m2.

2 Count the organisms present and identify them in
general terms.
3 Spread samples of leaf litter on white paper and
watch for movement.
4 Record the data in a table (see Table I4.1).

Table I4.1 An example of an animal abundance and distribution

record in leaf litter

Site
Animals observed

1
2
3
4
Number observed

skink
spider A
spider B
amphipods
native cockroach
white grub
bull ant
seed ant
slater

2
1
1
7
1
1
3
many
2

5
Total

Comments
One skink lost its tail when disturbed.
The amphipods were difficult to count because they jumped about
very quickly.
The white grub appeared to be an insect larva.
The seed ants were moving very rapidly along a single line in great
numbers. A nest was found nearby.
The slaters appeared to be dead.

Part B Soil
1 Remove the leaf litter from a small area.
2 Press an empty tin can into the soil.
3 Remove the can, lifting out the soil. If the soil does
not come out with the can, gently dig it out with a
trowel.
4 Spread the soil on a sheet of white paper.
5 Count and identify organisms in general terms.
6 Record the data in a table.

Part C Rotting logs and branches

1 Use a trowel or stick to break open rotting logs or
branches.
2 Count and identify the organisms in general terms.
3 Record the data in a table.

Part D Grasses, sedges and small

shrubs
Flying insects
1 Using a sweep net, sweep the net in wide arcs with
the hoop just above the foliate.
2 When the disturbed insects fly or jump in, turn the
handle so that the hoop folds up, closing off the
opening to the net.
3 Count and identify the organisms in general terms.
4 Record the data in a table.

Insects attached to plants

1 Carefully examine the foliage of a range of shrubs
and grasses.

40

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

2 Count and identify the organisms in general terms.

3 Record the data in a table.

a dissecting microscope or hand lens

plastic gloves

Method

Part E Bark
1 Use a metal spatula to lift small pieces of bark on
shrubs and trees.
2 Count and identify the organisms in general terms.
3 Record the data in a table.

Questions
1 How could animal distribution and abundance be measured more
accurately?
2 Many native mammals are nocturnal. How could these be observed?
3 Were the animals evenly distributed across the different sites?
4 Try to explain the variation in distribution of at least two animals.
5 With reference to a specific animal, suggest how each of the following
might have influenced its distribution and abundance:
(a) The availability of a resource.
(b) A physical environmental factor.
(c) An interrelationship with another organism.
6 Design an investigation to determine the factors that influence the distribution and abundance of an animal studied in this exercise.

Investigation 5
Food webs

1 Identify and record all the organisms you observe in

the ecosystem.
2 Note any firsthand feeding you observe (e.g. honeyeater feeding on eucalypt flowers, grasshoppers
chewing on grass).
3 Note any secondhand evidence of feeding (e.g. halfeaten leaves, gnawed bark).
4 Collect animal and bird droppings.
5 Pull apart droppings with probes, dissecting needle
and forceps.
6 Examine the droppings contents under a dissecting
microscope or hand lens.
7 Record the contents of the droppings in a table.
8 Use the data collected and reference books to construct a food web.

Questions
1 List the types of food sources of which you would not be able to find any
evidence in animal droppings.
2 List the types of materials that can be found in animal droppings.
3 Do animal droppings give an accurate view of the food sources of
animals? Explain.

Students:
describe two trophic interactions found
between organisms in the area studied
construct food chains and food webs to
illustrate the relationships between member
species in an ecosystem.

Information
When ecologists construct food webs, they often make
detailed observations of organisms in the field over a
long period of time, examine the stomach contents of
dead animals and study animal droppings. With
adequate reference materials, fur, feather and seed
samples in stomach contents and droppings can
usually be traced to the specific species of mammal,
bird or plant that was eaten.
The aim of this exercise is to construct a simplified
food web. The exercise is best carried out while completing Investigations 1, 2 and 3.

Materials

ten plastic bags for droppings

a dissecting needle
forceps
a probe
a Petri dish

Ecosystems

41

Practice Examination Questions

Multiple choice
1 The area of an ecosystem where members of a species are found is
known as their:
(a) distribution
(b) biomass
(c) habitat
(d) abundance.
2 Coral polyps often contain algae living within their tissues, which contribute to their spectacular colours. The algae generally do not survive
outside the polyp and the coral grows more slowly if the algae are not
present. This association could be best described as:
(a) competition
(b) commensalism
(c) allelopathy
(d) mutualism.
3 The collective name for the members of a particular species living in
an ecosystem is a:
(a) population
(b) habitat
(c) family
(d) community.
4 The map in Figure E1.1 shows the distribution of the common brushtail
possum. From this distribution map, you could conclude that:
(a) the abundance of the common brushtail possum is greater on the
mainland than in Tasmania
(b) the common brushtail possum is not evenly distributed throughout
its range
(c) changes in vegetation patterns have isolated populations of the
common brushtail possum
(d) none of the conclusions A, B or C are correct.

5 The main role of bacteria in the ecosystem is to:

(a) act as chemosynthetic producers
(b) provide a food source for plankton-feeding aquatic animals
(c) prevent overpopulation by causing disease
(d) make minerals in dead organisms available to plants.
6 Since people have been cultivating the land in Australia, the size of the
deserts has been increasing. Which of the following would be most
likely to cause marginal crop or grazing lands to become permanent
deserts?
(a) Loss of nutrients to grazing animals.
(b) Loss of minerals in harvested crops.
(c) Erosion and loss of soil.
(d) Insufficient use of organic fertilisers.
7 In a forest five species of insect-eating birds are found. All of these
species are able to survive. One reason why all might be able to survive
is because they:
(a) eat the same type of insect
(b) eat in different parts of the forest
(c) have their populations kept in check by predators
(d) feed off each other.
8 The graph below indicates the loss of water by evaporation from three
terrestrial organisms.
Which organism is most likely to inhabit a moist environment?
(a) A fly larva.
(b) A crustacean.
(c) An adult beetle.
(d) A small lizard.

40
35

fly larva

Evaporation rate
(mg/cm2/h)

30

small
lizard

25
20

small
crustacean

15

adult
beetle

10
5
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

Temperature (C)

Figure E1.2

Figure E1.1 Distribution of the common brushtail possum

in Australia

42

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

Evaporation of water from four animals

9 Figure E1.3 illustrates the appearance of birds in Kakadu National Park

after fire.
Which of the following birds would you most expect to arrive 4 days
after a fire?

Grass

Suckers

Cold ash

Hot ash

Fire

Bird Species

dingo

fox

possum

sheep

rabbit

tree

grass

black kite
woodswallow
tree martin
pied butcherbird
grey butcherbird
kookaburra
red-backed kingfisher
forest kingfisher
torresian crow
whistling kite
black falcon
brown falcon
B

owl
night jar
magpie-lark

dingo fox

straw-necked ibis

possum sheep rabbit

red-tailed black cockatoo

tree grass
partridge pidgeon
little corella
northern rosella
galah
quail

Figure E1.3

More than
4 weeks

34 weeks

13 weeks

13 days

13 min

Figure E1.4

Arrival of birds in Kakadu National Park after fire

(a) A black kite.

(b) A kookaburra.
(c) An owl.
(d) A galah.
10 Which of the following roles is NOT played by bacteria in an
ecosystem?
(a) Matter recycling.
(b) Energy recycling.
(c) Nitrogen fixing.
(d) Decomposition.

Short answer and extended response questions

1 The greenhouse effect results in the warming up of the atmosphere.
This is mainly caused by increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere. From your knowledge of the carbon cycle:
(a) suggest two ways in which the greenhouse effect might be
reduced
(b) explain why some crop farmers see the increased carbon dioxide
concentration as beneficial.
2 (a) What are figures A and B in Figure E1.4?
(b) What information is conveyed by Figure A but not by Figure B?
(c) What information is conveyed by Figure B but not by Figure A?
(d) What provides the initial source of energy to this community?
3 (a) What is a resource?
(b) Briefly describe how a named resource affected the distribution of
a named organism in an ecosystem you have studied.

(A) Food web (B) Food pyramid

4 (a) What is the main role of decomposers in an ecosystem?

(b) Give examples of two types of decomposers.
5 A farmer decided to grow corn to feed his pigs, which he then sold. He
argued that if he collected the pigs droppings and used them to
fertilise his corn, he could continue the process forever.
Explain the main flaw in the farmers reasoning.
What eventually happens to all the energy that enters this ecosystem?
6 (a) Name an ecosystem you have studied.
(b) Describe the method you used to determine the abundance of an
animal or plant.
(c) How could the accuracy of your estimate be improved?
7 A student noticed that slaters appeared to be most abundant in moist,
dark conditions where humus was plentiful.
(a) Write a hypothesis that attempts to explain the distribution of
slaters in terms of one factor.
(b) Design an experiment to test this hypothesis.
8 A student made the following observations when studying a rock
platform:
Periwinkles, chitons and limpets grazed on green algae, which covered
the rocks. The octopus not only dined on small fish, which fed on zooplankton, but also competed with the starfish for limpets, periwinkles
and mussels. The water abounded in phytoplankton and zooplankton.
The zooplankton devoured the phytoplankton, while they themselves
fell prey to the mussels and barnacles, which filtered the water to
collect any microscopic organisms.
(a) Use this description to draw a food web for the community.
(b) Name a second-order consumer.
(c) Name one of the organisms that would be under the greatest threat
from biomagnification.
(d) What might be one short-term consequence of the elimination of
mussels from the ecosystem?
(e) Which organisms would have the greatest biomass in this
community? Explain your reasoning.

Ecosystems

43

Scallops caught (tonnes)

3000

Bass Strait

Lakes Entrance
Jervis Bay

3500

Great Oyster Bay

Norfolk Bay

4000

Port Phillip Bay

North-east Tasmania

4500

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1950

Figure E1.5

Table E1.1

1960

1970
Year

1980

1990

Annual Australian catch of scallops

9 The graph shown in Figure E1.5 illustrates the annual Australian catch
of scallops. The arrows indicate the opening of new fishing grounds.
(a) Describe one trend you can infer from the data.
(b) Assume you have been asked to manage the catch of scallops.
Suggest one strategy you would implement to ensure the catch
could be sustained. Briefly state how you would determine
whether your strategy was successful.
10 Use the information presented in Figure E1.6 and Table E1.1 to account
for the distribution of forest and heath.
11 Give an example of mutualism and explain how it is different from
commensalism.
12 During an investigation of an ecosystem you studied evidence of
human impact.
Describe one example of human impact on an ecosystem, and explain
how this impact has affected:
- the diversity of species in the ecosystem
- the sustainability of the ecosystem.
13 The graph shown in Figure E1.7 compares the rates of photosynthesis
and respiration in a pond on a sunny day. Water plants and one species
of fresh water fish live in the pond.

Physical factors along the transect

24
13
23
54%

24
13

55%

moderate
SW
extreme

Sites
3

24
13
23
59%

24
13
23
58%

24
13
23
82%

moderate
SW
high

moderate
SW
high

moderate
SW
high

minimal

moderate
moderate
low

very high
very high
very high

very high
very high
very low

moderate
moderate
very low

low
low
very low

6
shallow
dry
low
moderate

none

very low

5
shallow
soggy
moderate
very low

7
shallow
damp
moderate
moderate

7
deep
damp
high
moderate

poor
moderate
moderate
moderate

poor
poor
moderate
moderate

poor
moderate
moderate
moderate

good
good
good
moderate

temperature (C)

max.
min.
soil
relative humidity

wind

speed
direction
exposure
light intensity

eye level
hip level
group level
soil

pH
depth
moisture
humus
air
nutrients

nitrates
phosphates
sulfates
potassium

44

Biology in Context: The Spectrum of Life

35

woodland

bare rock

closed heath

woodland

closed forest
Key:

Height (m)

30

woodland
eucalypt

25

forest
eucalypt

20

shrubs

15

ferns
3
grass

10

1,2,3,4,5
sites
for data
collection

5
0
5

Figure E1.6

10

15

20

25

30

35

40
45
Distance (m)

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

Vegetation transect

photosynthesis

rate of reaction

respiration

0
sunrise

Figure E1.7

noon

sunset

sunrise

Rates of reaction in a pond

(a) Explain why the rate of photosynthesis drops to zero at night, but
the rate of respiration remains fairly constant.
(b) Estimate the times at which the most and least amounts of
dissolved oxygen would be found in the pond.
(c) More fish were added to the pond. A short time later the same
number of fish died. Moreover, the fish died just before sunrise.
Explain how this could be related to the rates of photosynthesis
and respiration in the pond.

Ecosystems

45