8/7/2013

INTRODUCTION TO
MICROPROCESSOR
Chapter 1

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of this topic, you should be able to:

Explain basic components of a computer system using block
diagram.

Describe evolution of microprocessor.

Define the meaning of the term Nibble, Byte, Word, Long
Word.

Explain fetching and execution cycles.

Explain internal structure and basic operation of a
microprocessor.

Explain bus system.

Explain microprocessor clock system.

Identify the examples of microprocessor

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BASIC COMPONENTS OF A
COMPUTER SYSTEM

CPU

Secondary Memory

Main Memory

Memory

I/O

unit
Central Processing Unit
(CPU)

Input Unit

Output Unit

DEFINITIONS
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The hardware within a computer system which carries out the

instructions of a program by performing the basic
arithmetical, logical and I/O operations of the system.

On large machines CPUs require one or more printed circuit

boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the
CPU is housed in a single silicon chip called a microprocessor.

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DEFINITIONS

(CONT)

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

In the past, CPUs were mechanical, electromechanical or

transistor circuit based. Since the 1970s, technology allowed
the CPU to be implemented in a single IC package, called the
microprocessor.

The term CPU and microprocessor has often been mixed up

today. However, the CPU actually refers the core of the
microprocessor.

WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR

It is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts

digital data as input, processes it according to instructions
stored in its memory, and provides results as output.

A microprocessor is an electronic device that consists of

millions (or billions) of transistors packed into one IC.

Its function is to execute instructions in the form of

programs, calculate and store its results.

Microprocessors are used widely in our everyday lives.

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Everyday items that use microprocessors

MORE ABOUT THE MICROPROCESSOR

P is a complex, powerful device:

Able to process huge amounts of data.

Built using transistors etched on silicon die.

Needs external components to support operation.

Microcomputer system support P operations.

The microprocessor can be used to perform complex

operations by giving it instructions.

These instructions are called programs.

Programs are loaded into memory, and are executed line-by

line by the microprocessor.

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COMPUTING SYSTEMS
Rapid pace of information technology is
due to introduction of new
microprocessors.

Most of us think of desktop computers

PC

Laptop

Mainframe

Server

Maybe at most handheld computer (PDA).

In this course, we will look at another type
of computing system which is far more
common that you ever imagined

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Servers:

Big, expensive, available 24x7 (read 24 by 7 or 24 hours
a day, 7 days a week. Mainframes are old servers made by
IBM.

Desktops:

computers on your desk

Laptops:

computers you carry in your bag

PDA (personal digital assistants):

computers you carry in your pocket

Embedded systems:

computers that dont look like computers!

An embedded system is a type of computer

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EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Account for >99% of new

microprocessors

Consumer electronics

Vehicle control systems

Medical equipment

Sensor networks

Desktop processors (Intel Pentium,

AMD Athlon, PowerPC, etc)
combined is only 1%.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Simple definition: Computing systems embedded within

electronic devices.

Nearly any computing system other than a desktop

computer.

Designed to perform a specific function.

Billions of units produced yearly, versus millions of desktop

units.

Take advantage of application characteristics to optimize the

design.

As electrical or electronics engineers, you may be required

to design an embedded system.

But you BUY (not design) a general purpose computer.

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GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTING VS

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
GENERAL PURPOSE

EMBEDDED

Intended to run a fully general set

of applications

Runs a few applications often

known at design time

End-user programmable

Not end-user programmable

Faster is always better

Operates in fixed run-time

constraints, additional performance
may not be useful/valuable

Differentiating features:
Speed (need not be fully
predictable)
Software compatibility
Cost (eg RM3k vs RM5k per
laptop)

Differentiating features:
Power
Cost (eg RM2 vs RM2.50)
Speed (must be predictable)

IC MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
From Sand to Silicone

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

http://www.nikon.com/products/precision/soc
iety/story0202/index.htm

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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Has undergone significant improvements:

4 generations until now.

Tied to development of electronics, semiconductors.
G1

Vacuum
Tube

G2

Transistor

G3

IC

G4

Better IC
technology

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

First Generation (1954-1956):

Vacuum Tubes as switches.

Magnetic drums as memory.
Very big, unreliable, slow.
Examples:

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator &
Computer),

UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).

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FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS

Vacuum Tubes

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Second

Generation (1956-1963):
After invention of transistors.
Smaller, faster, cheaper.
Limited to military and business use.

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SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS

Vacuum tube circuit

Transistor circuit

HISTORY OF MICROPROCESSORS

Third Generation (1964-1971):

After invention of Integrated Circuits (IC).

Many transistors can be packed into IC birth of
microprocessors.

Early microprocessors: Intel 8008, Intel 4004.

Medium Scale Integration (MSI) and Large Scale Integration
(LSI) devices.

Description of SSI,
MSI, LSI, VLSI

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EARLY INTEL MICROPROCESSORS

THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS

PC

Laptop

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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Fourth

Generation (1971-now):
Improvements in IC technology, P design.
More transistors  more processing power.
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).
- Intel Montecito Itanium: 1 bln. transistors.
Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC).
32, 64-Bit microprocessors.

FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS

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COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPUTER

GENERATIONS
Computer

Speed

Memory

Cost

UNIVAC
(1st Gen.)

1.3 kHz

1 MB

$1.6 million

IBM 1401
(2nd Gen.)

2.2 kHz

1.4 kB

$47,900

DEC PDP-8
(3nd Gen.)

1 MHz

6 kB

$20,000

Pentium III
(4th Gen.)

500 MHz

128 MB

$700

MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS

Definition: A complete electronic system built around the

microprocessor to support the microprocessor operation.

May consist of CPU, memory, I/O (disk drives, keyboard,

mouse), system bus, and supporting circuitry.

CPU as the brain controls actions of all components.

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MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS - PC

ROM

Floppy

RAM

CD-ROM

CPU

Supporting
Circuitry

Keyboard

Mouse

HDD

MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS CALCULATOR

Memory

Power Supply

CPU

LCD Display

Keypad

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COMPUTER SYSTEM-SIMPLIFIED VIEW

In general, a computer system consist of the following

elements:

Unidirectional:
Signals flow in
one direction.

Bidirectional:
Signals flow in
both direction
(one at a time).

SYSTEM BUS
A P-based system consists of many components:

CPU.

Memory.

I/O: disk drives, keyboard, mouse.

System Bus.

All components communicate using System Bus.

Communication highway for all components.

A group of wires is called bus.

Contains:

Data bus.

Address bus.

Control bus.

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SYSTEM BUS DATA BUS

Bidirectional (2 ways) bus.

Transfer data to/from the CPU

Data bus

CPU

Control
signal is
READ

R/W

Data bus

Input
(from
Memory or
I/O devices)

CPU
Control
signal is
WRITE

R/W

Output
(to Memory
or I/O
devices)

SYSTEM BUS DATA BUS

Example:

Motorolla 68000 microprocessor has 8 bits data bus,
thus:

Data size n = 8 bits,

Data lines/bus are labelled Dn : D0, D1, .. D6, D7
 The size of data bus is determined by the number of lines

(bits) which is also called data size.

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SYSTEM BUS ADDRESS BUS

Single direction (unidirectional / 1 way) bus

Transfer the address data code to memory or devices.

ADDRESS BUS

CPU to other
elements

CPU

I/O Devices
Memory

SYSTEM BUS ADDRESS BUS

Example:

Motorolla 68000 has 16 bits of address bus:

n = 16 bits (Size of address bus)

Address bus is labelled An : A0, A1, .. A14, A15

216 = 65536

CPU can handle or address 65536 single cells (each
cell has 8 bits data size) of memory.

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In other words, 16 bit

address lines can represent
65536 memory location

0 to 65535 locations,
addressed as 0000h to
FFFFh

16 address lines, then the

size of the memory is equal
to 216 = 64Kbyte.

EXAMPLE 1

8-bit address bus

Address bus labeled

Memory location

28 = 256

Address

A0, A1,..A7

00h to FFh

Size of the memory

28 = 256 byte

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EXAMPLE 2

32-bit address bus

Address bus labeled

Memory location

232 = 4,294,967,296

Address

A0, A1,..A31

00000000h to FFFFFFFFh

Size of the memory

232 = 22 . 230 = 4GB

SYSTEM BUS CONTROL BUS

Control all the activities of the elements.

Regulate information transfer, interrupts, error signals.

Ensures that only one IC is active at a time to avoid a bus
conflict caused by two ICs writing different data to the
same bus.

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THE CPU

Master of all components.

Silicon chip that works as heart of the system.

Job:

Get instructions from memory.

Execute instructions.

Perform calculations (may use math co-processor).

Control bus operations.

THE CPU

CPU consists of:

ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit):

Performs arithmetic/ logic computations.

The number of bits is a most important factor

Determining the capabilities of the processor

Typical sizes:

4 bits (very small microcontroller: remote controllers)

8 bits (microcontrollers: 68HC05, 8051, PIC)

16 bits (low-end microprocessors: Intel 8086)

32 bits (most popular size today: Pentium, PowerPC, 68000,
ARM, MIPS)

64 bits (servers: IBM POWER & PowerPC G5, AMD Opteron,
Intel Itanium

CU (Control Unit):

Responsible to retrieve instructions, analyze, then execute.

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CPU REGISTERS

Data Register

Temporarily stores data for immediate processing

Address Register

Temporarily stores address of data in memory

Instruction Register

Stores the instruction currently being executed or decoded

Includes ALU operation and address of operand

Program Counter

Keeps track of program execution

Address of next instruction to read from memory

May have auto-increment feature or use ALU

Some manufacturers call this register the Instruction Pointer (IP)

Status Register

Stores the result of the current data manipulation (negative,
zero etc)

MICROPROCESSOR IN BITS
The number of bits of a microprocessor dictates the maximum
data width of the memory address and data units.

For example a 4-bit microprocessor can only address up to 16
memory cells and process a maximum data size of 4 bits width.

Microprocessor Bits Clock Speed

Year

Application

Intel 4004

740kHz

1971-1981

General Computing

HP Saturn

640kHz

1980s

Intel 8008

0.5-0.8MHz

1972-1983

Zilog Z80

2.5MHz

1976-present Desktop computers,

industrial, consumer
electronics

Motorola
68000

16

8-20MHz

1979-present Multi-user computers,

General computing,
arcade games, embedded
controller

Calculator
General Computing

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MICROPROCESSOR IN BITS
Microprocessor

Bits

Clock Speed

Year

Application

Intel 80286

16

6Mhz-25Mhz

1982-1990s

General computing,
embedded systems

Intel Pentium

32

Varies

1993-present

General computing,
embedded systems

MIPS R3000

32

33MHz

1988

General computing,
embedded systems
Sony Playstation

AMD Athlon 64

64

1.0GHz
3.2GHz

2003

General Computing

Intel Core 2

64

1.06GHz
3.33GHz

2006 present

General Computing

MICROPROCESSOR
VS
MICROCONTROLLER

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THE MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEM

THE MICROCONTROLLER SYSTEM

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SUMMARY : MPU VS MCU

Microprocessor

Microcontroller

A chip that contains only the

processor

A chip that contains all the

components of a computer
processor components of a
computer processor, memory and
input/output

Need other chips to make a

working system

Less flexibility

More flexible

Less component count in system

Can have very few I/O or many I/O

devices using the same
processor chip

Less powerful

NUMBERING SYSTEMS IN COMPUTERS

Computers are binary machines which can only accept inputs of 1s

or 0s.

Data is also stored in streams of 1s and 0s.

Binary (base 2)

0000, 0001, 0010, 0011

Octal (base 8)

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11 ,12 16, 17, 20

Hexadecimal (base 16)

0, 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, 10, 11, 12, 1E, 1F, 20

Decimal (base 10)

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11

In computing, the microprocessor uses binary data and normally

relate the data to human interface in hexadecimal form. For display
and printing purposes, hexadecimal is much more practical.

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DATA SIZE IN COMPUTING

The capacity of a microprocessor is normally referred to how

many bits of data can be handled at one time, or what is the
memory size .

A bit is used to describe the data of a signal, it could be 1 or

0. In other words, each bit has two states.

Data size is a mean of measure to determine how much data

can be stored in a single cell of memory.

Data type :

Bit (B)

Nibble

Word (W)

Longword (L)

DATA SIZE IN COMPUTING

There is a standardization of data sizes.

Bit (basic unit)

Nibble (or half byte)

One nibble is 4 bits long. Range from 0000 1111. (0 15)

Eg. 0010, 0001, 1100, 1111

Byte

One byte is 8 bits long.

Range from 00000000 11111111 (0 255)

Eg. 00000011, 00001111, 11100011

Word

One word is two bytes long.

Longword

One longword is two bytes long.

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DATA SIZE IN COMPUTING

Words and longwords are normally used to describe instruction size,

from a microprocessor perspective as opposed to disk storage
system which uses megabytes and gigabytes.

DATA SIZE IN COMPUTING

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EXAMPLE

A single cell sized 1 bit can store either logic-0 or logic-1. In

other word, two different situations can be stored or
represented. Thus the range of data is 0 1.

Data size: n = 1

Data capacity : 2n = 21 = 2

Range : 0 1

A single cell sized 4 bit (Nibble) can store 16 possible situations.

Data size: n = 4

Data capacity : 2n = 24 = 16

Range : 0 - 15

FETCH AND EXECUTE CYCLE

The processor executes instructions one-by-one according to the

sequence found in memory

Everything is controlled by, what else, the control unit in the CPU.

To execute an instruction, the processor must fetch it from memory.

The complete steps the processor takes to execute one instruction is

the instruction cycle or the fetch-execute instruction is the
instruction cycle or the fetch execute cycle

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CPE EXECUTION CYCLE

CPU executes instructions in endless fetch, decode, execute

cycles.

It only knows how to do three things:

Fetch instructions from somewhere.

Analyze instruction, get more data if necessary.

Execute instruction.

Keeps track of instruction using Program Counter (PC):

Tells CPU location of next instruction.

FETCH, DECODE, EXECUTE

Reset

Fetch

Decode

Execute

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FETCH STEP 1
CPU

Memory

Control
Instruction Register

Data Registers

Program Counter

$1000

$1000

Instruction #1

$1001

Instruction #1

$1002

Instruction #2

$1003

Instruction #2

$1004

Empty

$1005

Empty

$1006

Empty

$1007

Data #1

$1008

Data #2

$1009

Data #3

CPU gets
instruction address
from PC

FETCH STEP 2
CPU

Memory
Address Bus

Control

$1000

Instruction Register

Data Registers

CPU outputs
instruction address
through Address Bus
Program Counter

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Empty
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

$1000

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FETCH STEP 3
CPU

Memory
Data Bus

Control

Instruction #1

Instruction Register

Data Registers

Memory gets the

instruction and
sends in to CPU
using Data Bus.
Program Counter

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Empty
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

$1000

FETCH STEP 4
CPU

Memory

Control
Instruction Register

Instruction #1
Data Registers

CPU stores
instruction in
Instruction Register
Program Counter

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Empty
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

$1000

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FETCH STEP 5
CPU

Memory

Control
Instruction Register

Instruction #1
Data Registers

After instruction has

been loaded, CPU
updates Program
Counter.
Program Counter

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Empty
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

$1002

DECODE STEP 1
CPU

Memory

Control
Instruction Register

Instruction #1
Data Registers

CPU analyzes
instructions before
executing it.
Program Counter

$1002

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Empty
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

Type of instruction.
Does the instruction require any data to perform calculations?
Where are the data located?

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EXECUTE STEP 2
CPU

Memory

Control
Instruction Register

Instruction #1
Data Registers

Data #1

CPU puts data inside

internal data
registers and execute
instructions.

Program Counter

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Empty
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

$1002

EXECUTE STEP 3
CPU

Memory
Address Bus

Control

$1005

Instruction Register

Instruction #1
Data Bus
Data Registers

Data #1
Result #1

Program Counter

$1002

Result #1

If instruction wants to
write data to memory,
CPU puts its data and
address on the bus.

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Empty
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

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EXECUTE STEP 4
CPU

Memory

Control
Instruction Register

Instruction #1
Data Registers

Data #1
Result #1

Program Counter

Memory receives
instructions and puts
data in the location.

$1000
$1001
$1002
$1003
$1004
$1005
$1006
$1007
$1008
$1009

Instruction #1
Instruction #1
Instruction #2
Instruction #2
Empty
Result #1
Empty
Data #1
Data #2
Data #3

$1002

FETCH AND EXECUTE IN SUMMARY

On program start:
0. Load the program counter (PC) with the address of the first
instruction

Fetch phase:
2. Read the instruction and put it into the instruction register (IR)
3. Control unit decodes the instruction; updates the PC for the next
instruction
Execute phase:
3. Find the data required by the instruction.
4. Perform the required operation.
5. Store the results.
6. Repeat from Step 1.

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TUTORIAL QUESTION

Name the 4 computer generations and the technological

breakthroughs that caused them to happen.

Draw the microprocessor system and explain the functions

of each component in the system.

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