Course 8

Chapter 5. Fuel combustion

Combustion is a chemical exothermal oxidation reaction of combustible
substances. Fuels are substances releasing a large amount of heat when
burned, heat used in energy generation and industrial processes. Fuel
composition contains a fraction of organic material (carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur), a fraction of mineral material (non-combustible
substances producing ash) and humidity.
Fuel classification
Phase
Natural
Solid
Wood, straw, coal,
bitumen

Liquid

Oil

Gaseous

Natural gas
Refinery gas

Artificial
Sawdust
Charcoal (mangal)
Coke
Coal briquette
Petrol (Gasoline)
Petrol for illumination and heating
Diesel engine fuel
Fuel oil
Methanol, ethanol
Lubricant oils
Liquefied petroleum gas
Coke gas,
Hydrogen

The combustion process can be described using the chemical combustion

equations considering the combustible elements from fuel: The combustion
can be complete when the oxidation is total and the combustion products do
not contain anymore chemical energy. The combustion can be incomplete
when the oxidation is not total and the combustion products still can be
oxidated and still contain chemical energy.
Fuel composition is established doing elementary chemical analysis. The
elementary chemical analysis of solid and liquid fuels is expressed as mass
fractions of component elements carbon (c), hydrogen (h), sulfur (s), nitrogen
(n), oxygen (o), humidity (u), ash (a) from 1 kilogram of fuel .
1 kg fuel = c + h + s + n + o + u + a

The chemical composition of gaseous fuels is expressed as volume fractions

of component gases within the gas mixture, meaning in the most general
situation carbon monoxide (co), hydrogen (h), hydrocarbons (c m h n ),
hydrogen sulfide (h 2 s), oxygen (o), carbon dioxide (co 2 ), nitrogen (n), and
humidity (u).
1m N3 fuel = co + h + c m hn + h2 s + o + co2 + n + u

The chemical elements which release heat when burning are c , h , s .

The combustion takes place when fuel and O 2 (air) are brought to ignition
temperature by heating (with exhaust gas) , by compressing or by ignition
from an external source.
It is noted mair min
- the minimum air mass (including minimum oxygen
mass required ) for the complete combustion of the fuel and , iar mair - air
mass used in burning.
The ratio of the air masses : real air mass and minimum air mass is called
excess air coefficient .
=

mair
V
= air
m air min Vair min

- excess air coefficient

When the complete combustion is done using the minimul oxygen mass, the
combustion is said to be stoechiometric. Usually the combustion is done with
higher amount of oxygen than minimum oxigen required for the complete
combustion and the combustion is said to be with excess oxygen or excess
air.
5.1.The complete combustion of solid and liquid fuels
For 1 kilogram of solid or liquid fuel the chemical composition is:
1 kg fuel = c + h + s + n + o + u + a ,
kgH 2
kgC
kgS
with c =
,h =
,s =
,...
kg fuel
kgfuel
kgfuel

(ex.fuel oil c = 0.85 h = 0.12 s = 0.02 o = 0.01 ).

By total combustion of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur it can be written the
chemical reaction of those oxidations.
For carbon
C + O2 CO2
1 kmolC + 1 kmolO2 1 kmol CO2

Carbon has atomic mass 12 and molar mass ( weight) is M = 12 kg/kmol

12 kgC + 1 kmolO2 1 kmol CO2

1 kgC +

c kgC +

1
1
kmolO2 kmol CO2 c
12
12

c
12

kmolO2

c
12

kmol CO2

For hydrogen
1
2

H 2 + O2 H 2 O
1 kmolH 2 +

1
kmolO2 1kmolH 2O
2

Hydrogen has atomic mass 1 and molar mass M = 2 kg/kmol

1
kmolO2 1kmolH 2 O
2
1
1
1 kgH 2 + kmolO2 kmolH 2 O h
4
2
h
h
h kgH 2 + kmolO2 kmolH 2O
4
2
2 kgH 2 +

For sulfur
S + O2 SO2
1 kmolS + 1 kmolO2 1 kmolS O 2

Sulfur has atomic mass 32 and molar mass M=32kg/kmol

32 kgS + 1 kmolO2 1 kmolS O2
1
1
kmolS O2 s
1 kgS + kmolO2
32
32
s
s
s kgS + kmolO2
kmolS O2
32
32

In order to burn 1 kg of fuel it is necessary to calculate the minimum

required
oxygen
mass
for
total
(complete)
combustion:
o kmolO2
c h s
O2 min = + +

12 4 32 32 kg fuel
kgO2
o
c h s
mO2 min = + +
32
kg fuel
12 4 32 32

mN3 O2
o
c h s
VO2 min = + + 22.414
kg fuel
12 4 32 32
3
VO min mN air
Vair min = 2

0.21 kgfuel

r N2 = 79%
rO2 = 21%
Vair

3
mNair

= Vair min

kgfuel

The value of excess air coefficient depends on fuel type and combustion
installation. For example the solid fuels require = 1.1...2 , ( wood
=1.21.4 ; coal = 1.5..2 ) and for liquid fuels = 1.15...1.4 .
The oxidation products are exhaust gases whose volumes is the sum of gas
volumes resulted from aforementioned oxidations , V g
m 3 exhaustgas
Vg = VCO2 + VH 2O + VSO2 + VN 2 min + Vair ex N

kg fuel

3
m CO
c
VCO2 = 22.4 N 2
12
kg fuel
mN3 H 2O

kg fuel
mN3 SO2
s
= 22.4

32
kg fuel

h u
VH 2O = + 22.4
2 18
VSO2

mN3 N 2

kg fuel
= Vair min Vair min = ( 1)Vair min

VN 2 min = 0.79Vair min +

Vex air = Vair Vair min

n
22.4
28

Mass of combustion products is :

mg = mCO2 + mH 2O + mSO2 + mN 2 min + mair ex

mCO2 = N CO2 VCO2

mH 2O = N H 2OVH 2O
mSO2 = N SO2 VSO2

mN2 min = N N2 VN2 min

mair ex = N airVair ex

N =

M
M kg
=

VM N 22.414 mN3

5.2. The complete combustion of gaseous fuels

If it is considered a normal cubic meter of gaseous fuel with the composition
known,written for the most general case, in which the main components are

carbon monoxide (co), hydrogen (h), hydrocarbons (c m h n ), hydrogen sulfide

(h 2 s), oxygen (o), nitrogen (n), humidity (h) and carbon dioxide (co 2 ), :
1mN3 = co + h +

cmhn + h s + o + n + u + co
2

m N3 CO
m N3 H 2
with : co = 3 , h = 3 ,...
m Nfuel
m Nfuel

,being

the

volume

fractions

of

each

component in the gas mixture.

An example of composition for a cracking gas in terms of volume fractions
is:
co = 0 , h = 0.03 , ch4 = 0.38 , c2 h4 = 0.1 , c2 h6 = 0.14, c3 h8 = 0.18, c4 h8 = 0.02 , c4 h10 = 0.1, n = 0.05

their sum being equal with unit.

Through complete combustion of combustible elements ( carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide) it can be written the chemical
reactions of oxidation.
For carbon monoxide CO
1
CO + O2 CO2
2
1
1 kmolCO + kmolO2 1 kmol CO2
2
1
22,4m N3 CO + 22,4. m N3 O2 22,4m N3 CO2
2
1
1mN3 CO + mN3 O2 1mN3 CO2 co
2

co mN3 CO +

co
2

mN3 O2 co mN3 CO2

For hydrogen H 2
1
2

H 2 + O2 H 2 O
1
22.4mN3 H 2 + 22.4mN3 O2 22.4mN3 H 2O
2
1
1mN3 H 2 + mN3 O2 1mN3 H 2 O h
2
h
h m N3 H 2 + m N3 O2 hm N3 H 2O
2

For a hydrocarbon C m H n
n
n

C m H n + m + O2 mCO2 + H 2 O

n
n

1 kmol C m H n + m + kmolO2 mkmolCO2 + kmolH 2 O

4
2

n
n

1 m N3 C m H n + m + m N3 O2 mm N3 CO2 + m N3 H 2O cm hn
4
2

n
n

cm hn m N3 Cm H n + cm hn m + m N3 O2 cm hn mm N3 CO2 + cm hn m N3 H 2O
4
2

For hydrogen sulphide

3
2

H 2 S + O2 SO2 + H 2 O
3
kmolO2 1kmolSO2 + 1kmolH 2 O
2
3
22.4mN3 H 2 S + 22.4mN3 O2 22.4mN3 SO2 + 22.4mN3 H 2O
2
3
1m N3 H 2 S + m N3 O2 1m N3 SO2 + 1m N3 H 2O h2 S
2
3
h2 S mN3 H 2 S + h2 S mN3 O2 h2 S mN3 SO2 + h2 S mN3 H 2 O
2

1 kmol H 2 S +

The minimum volume of oxygen required for complete oxidation

co h
m3 O
n
3

VO2 min = + + m + c m hn + h2 s o 3N 2
4
2

2 2
m N fuel

The sum in the previous formula means that it can be in the fuel mixture
more than one hydrocarbon.
The minimum air volume is Vair min =

VO2 min
0.21

mN3 air
mN3 fuel

The real air volume is Vair min = Vair min

The combustion products are exhaust gas having the volumes of gases
resulted from aforementioned oxidations, V g
Vg = VCO2 + VH 2O + VSO2 + Vair ex + VN 2 min

m N3 CO2
VCO2 = co + m c m hn + co2 3

m N fuel
mN3 H 2O
n
VH 2O = h + h2 s + u + cm hn 3
2
mN fuel
m 3 SO
VSO2 = h2 s 3N 2
mN fuel

 m3 N
VN 2 min = 0.79Vair min + n 3 N 2
mN fuel
m 3 air
Vair ex = ( 1)Vair min 3 N

mN fuel

Mass of combustion products is :

mg = mCO2 + mH 2O + mSO2 + mN 2 min + mair ex

mCO2 = N CO2 VCO2

mH 2O = N H 2OVH 2O
mSO2 = N SO2 VSO2
mN2 min = N N2 VN2 min
mair ex = N airVair ex

N =

M
M kg
=

VM N 22.414 mN3

5.3.Heating value
The heating value or calorific value of a substance is the amount of heat
released during the complete combustion (at p = p0 = 760 mmHg ) of a
specified amount of it (which is 1 kilogram for solid and liquid fuels and 1
mN3 for gas fuel).The heating value is measured in energy per unit weight
which is J/kg (kJ/kg) or cal/kg (kcal/kg) (1cal=4.186J) or J/mol for solid
and liquid fuels or J/ mN3 for gaseous fuel.
The heating value is classified according to phase of water existent in
exhaust gas in: higher heating value (or gross calorific value) and lower
heating value ( or net calorific value). The higher heating value is the heat
amont released by combustion of unit of fuel when all the products of
combustion are brought back to precombustion temperature and all vapour
are condensed (especially water vapor are of interest).This means that higher
heating value contains the latent heat of vaporization of the water produced
by combustion.
The lower heating value is the heat amont released by combustion of unit of
fuel without bringing back products to precombustion temperature and
without water vapor condensed.This means that lower heating value does not
contain the latent heat of vaporization of the water produced by
combustion.In practice the lower heating value is obtained subtracting latent
heat of vaporization of water from higher heating value.

The lower heating value can be determined experimentally or in function of

elementary fuel composition :
- solid and liquid fuel
kJ
o

Qi = 33900c + 119850 h + 10470s 2500u

8

kg

- gaseous fuel

Qi = 12644co + 10760h + 22985h2 s + 35797ch4 + 59955c2 h4 + 64351c2 h6 +

kJ
+ 93575c3h8 + 121627c4 h10 3
mN

Usually the higher heating value is a value experimentally determined in a

laboratory, in real life and designing calculation it is used lower heating
value. As a rule of the thumb the lower heating value is 10-15% smaller than
higher heating value.
Some lower heating values for common fuels are as follows:
Fuel
Coal anthracite
Coal inferior quality
Wood
CO
Methane CH 4
Natural gas
Gasoline
Diesel fuel
Hydrogen
Carbon
Sulfur

Lower heating value (MJ/kg)

33.3
18
12-16
10.9
50.1
38.1
42.5
43
120.1
32
9

If wet 6-9

For fuel mixtures

Qik = giQik - for fuels reported to mass unit in which g i is mass fraction
k

of fuel k within the fuel mixture;

Qik = riQik - for fuels reported to normal volumes in which r i is volume
fractions of fuel k within the fuel mixture.
5.4.Effects of combustion processes
The ideal combustion of fuel is represented in the scheme
Fuel
Ideal combustion

O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 , H 2 O,
O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 , H 2 O,
Fig.37 Ideal combustion
Fuel

NO x (NO+NO 2 ), HC
Real combustion

O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 , H 2 O,

O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 , H 2 O,
CO, SO x (SO 2 +SO 3 ),

Fig.38. Real combustion

Ideal combustion has CO 2 and water as products. Real combustion is not
complete and besides CO 2 and water there are some incomplete combustion
products in exhaust gas which have harmful effects on human health and
environmental pollution.
-CO 2 was considered till recently a clean combustion product, but now is
the main producer of green house effect.
- H 2 O is a clean combustion product being included in its own natural
circuit.
-C m H n unburned hydrocarbons are produced if fuel do not find enough air
(oxygen) during combustion; C m H n are either toxic or harmless, but many of
them are carcinogenic to humans and affect the atmosphere (photochemical
smog).
-CO occurs at incomplete combustion of carbon within fuel; it is toxic and at
high concentrations CO rapidly combines with hemoglobin from blood,
causing lethal intoxications.
- NO x and SO x cause acid rains which destroy vegetation and stratospheric
ozone ; to humans they produce irritations to respiratory ducts, asthma,
pulmonary edeme.
The combustion of fossil fuels is considered as the most pollutant factor
affecting the environment, creating green house effect, depleting ozone layer
and producing acid rains. The combustion of fuel is required in energy
industry in order to produce electric and thermal energy (in power stations)
in transportation using internal combustion engines and in most of chemical,
petrochemical and metal processing industries.

Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

What is combustion ?
How fuels are classified ?
What is stoechiometric combustion ?
What is excess air coefficient ?
What is the elementary composition of solid and liquid fuels ?
What is the composition of gaseous fuels ?
How is determined the oxygen volume and mass required for total
oxidation of unit mass of a fuel?
8. How is determined the air volume and mass required for total
oxidation of unit mass of a fuel?
9. How is determined the volume and mass of combustion products?
10. What is heating value of a fuel? How is classified ?
11. Which are the harmful effects of fuel combustion ?

Course 9.
Chapter 6. Heat engines theoretical cycles
Heat engines are thermodynamic systems which transform thermal energy in mechanic
work or mechanic work in thermal energy. From the first category belong combustion
engines and turbines ( steam or gas) and from the second compressors and refrigeration
installations.
6.1. Theoretical cycles of combustion engines
The combustion engines are heat engines which transform the chemical energy of fuel
released through combustion into mechanic work. Regarding where the combustion
takes place, the combustion engines are divided in external combustion engines
(combustion is produced outside the engine) and internal combustion engines
(combustion is produced inside the engine).
Please access to see engine cycles in motion at www.animatedengines.com

Fig.39. Section through internal combustion engine

Internal combustion engines are classified on several criteria such as number of strokes
(four stroke and two stroke engines), ignition procedure (spark ignition engines or Otto

engines and compression engines or diesel engines) fuel type ( one fuel, dual fuel
engines), cooling procedure (air or liquid cooled engines).
The cycle is made of a succesion of processes which are periodically repeated within
engine cylinders. The process taken place during a motion of a piston is called stroke. A
combustion cycle of the engine can be undertaken in four strokes ( two revolutions of
the crankshaft ) or in two strokes (one revolution of the crankshaft ).
For four stroke engines
Inside the cylinder the piston is actuated, transmitting torque to crankshaft by means
of connection rod. The cylinder is sealed upwards with a part called cylinder head in
which there are intake and exhaust valves . Through intake valve the air or air-fuel
mixture is introduced in combustion chamber from intake duct and exhaust valve
releases the exhaust gas to exhaust duct. The valves are actuated by a distribution
mechanism . The air fuel mixture in combustion chamber is ignited by the spark plug.
Downwards, the engine is enclosed through cranckcase, upside is called cylinder block.
During operation the piston moves between two extreme points called dead centres.
When piston is upwards or at the highest distance from crankshaft, the space upwards
piston is combustion chamber and the piston position is top dead centre (TDC).When
the piston moves downwards it reaches the closest position to crankshaft bottom dead
centre (BTC); travelling the stroke by the piston generates a swept volume which is
called cylinder displacement.

To the four stroke engines, the most spread ones, the thermal processs correspond with
piston motions: induction (intake) compression, expansion (or power) and exhaust. The
combustion process undertakes partly during compression and partly during expansion.

For two stroke

The processes are similar to four stroke and piston opens and closes some apertures
allowing fuel-air mixture to be drawn in the cylinder and to exhaust gases to be pushed
out.
Functionally, the spark ignition engines use an air-fuel (petrol or gasoline) mixture
which is compressed in combustion chamber and ignited by a spark; the front flame
propagates rapidly into all combustion chamber.
The compression ignition engines (diesel) are different than spark ignition engines as
there is no spark and within the air compressed by piston ( with high pressure and
temperature) is injected the fuel very finely sprayed; at contact with hot air the first
drops of fuel vaporise and autoignite, a rapid combustion takes place like an explosive
autoignition (rapid phase) ; the fuel ( diesel fuel) which is gradually injected, it burns as
it is injected (progressive combustion).
The real thermodynamical processes in engines can be represented in p-V coordinates as
follows:

combustion
expansion
spark

compression

exhaust

induction
Vca

Vs

Fig.40. a.Diagram of real cycles of four stroke engine.

combustion
expansion
spark

compression

exhaust
induction

Vca

Vs

b.Diagram of real cycles of two stroke engine.

The specific design parameter of the engines is the compression ratio defined as the
ration of cylinder volume when the piston is in bottom dead centre and the cylinder
volume when the piston is in top dead centre.
It is called volumetric compression ratio

Vca + VS
Vca

,with V ca -volume of combustion chamber and V s -cylinder volume.

The theoretical study of internal combustion engines introduces several simplifying

hypothesis:
a) The agent behaves like an ideal gas. It is not considered the change of gas
composition during operation.(It is introduced air and fuel which are transformed
into exhaust gas). It is assumed that the same amount of ideal gas continuously
evolves during the cycle, without considering induction and exhaust,that ideal gas
having the thermodynamic properties of air.
b) The compression and expansion processes are considered adiabate or polytropic.
c) In order to close the cycle, it is introduced a process equivalent to a isochoric
cooling which corresponds to the free exhaust of gas in real operation.
d) The theoretical cycle for both four stroke and two stroke engines has the same
shape as there were not considered the differences produced by induction and
exhaust.It was neglected the negative mechanic work ( fig 40a) called also
pumping loss.
There are several theoretical cycles of internal combustion engines from which
representative are the following ones, considered for four stroke:

6.1.1.Constant volume combustion cycle

This model of combustion cycle is close to the thermal processes within spark ignition
engines (Otto), for four stroke operation.
Hypothesis : real combustion is replaced with an isochoric heating of the agent.
p

3
Q
2

Lc

4
Q0
1

V2
TDC

Vs
V1
BDC

Fig.41. Theoretical processes in a constant volume combustion cycle

V2 = Vca = Combustion _ chamber _ Volume
V1 = V2 + VS

1-2 adiabatic compression

2-3 constant volume heating=combustion
3-4 adiabatic gas expansion
4-1 constant volume cooling V = ct (free exhaust )
Energetically in the closed system the second principle can be written:
Q Q0 = Lc (J )

There are introduced two design parameters:

V1 V1
=
volumetric compression ratio,typical = 8 13 at actual spark engines
Vca V2
p
p
2) = f = 3 pressure ( increase) ratio during combustion process, = 3 3.5
pi
p2

1) =

The calculation of the engine starts with finding the cycle parameters p,V,T in all the
points of the cycle:
a.Initial data
p1 , T1 Ta + Ta ,V1 , p a -atmospheric pressure , T a -ambient temperature

During the admission the air is heated in contact with the hot engine with T A
The engine is considered a closed system running continuously the same mass of
thermal agent m,which can be calculated from the state equation applied in point 1:
m=

p1V1
RT1

with R =

RM
V
and V2 = Vca = 1
M

b.Parameters of state of cycle points

k

V1
p 2 = p1 = p1 k

V2
1-2 adiabatic transformation
k 1

V
p2 k

= T1 1
T2 = T1

V2
p1

V3 = V2 =

V1

p3 = p2 = p1 k

k 1

= T1 k 1


p3
= T2 = T3
T3 = T2
2-3 isochoric transformation
p2

k 1
T3 = T1
k

V3
p 4 = p3 = p3 k = p1

V4
V4 = V1 3-4 adiabatic transformation
k 1

V3 k
= T3 k 1 = T1
T4 = T3
V

c.Mechanic work of the cycle and engine power

J

Lc = L12 + L23 + L34 + L41

cycle
k 1

p1V1 p2 k p1V1
(
L12 =
1 =
1 k 1 )

k 1 p1 k 1

k 1

p3V3
p 4 k p1 kV1
1 p V

1 k 1 = 1 1 k 1 1
L34 ad =
1 =

k 1 p3 (k 1) k 1

J
pV

Lc = 1 1 ( 1) k 1 1
k 1
cycle

)]

Theoretical power of the engine, in kW

J revs
n
Lc

cycle min

Pt =
i
sec 3
60
10
2 min

with

- number of strokes ( 4 or 2), i number of

cylinders, n - engine speed

The effective power of the engine is smaller than theoretical power due to subunitary
indicated efficiency and mechanical efficiency .
Pef = ind mec Pt (kW )

indicat =

mec =

L
Lr
= real
Lc Lcycle

Lef
Lr

The mechanic work of the cycle L c is the area of the transformation 1234 and is
calculated by measuring that area. Real mechanic work L r is the mechanic work
determined experimentally using the indicator diagram. The effective mechanic work L ef
is the mechanic work produced at the engine flywheel (or at the crankshaft).

d. Cycle efficiency
Q = Q23 = mcv (T3 T2 )
Q0 = Q41 = mcv (T1 T4 ) Q0 0
mc (T T )
T1 T1
1
= 1 k 1
TD = 1 v 4 1 = 1
k 1
k 1
mcv (T3 T2 )
T1 T1

The thermodynamic efficiency for the spark ignition engine with combustion at constant
volume TD depends only by volumetric compression ratio .
So, the compresion ratio is an engine design parameter which determines the fuel
economy of the engine.
The higher , the higher TD .
For air, a biatomic gas k=1.4..1,46 ,so it can be ploted the variation TD ( )

TD

7......9

20

Fig.42. Variation of thermodynamic efficiency with compression ratio

A significant increase of efficiency is obtained untill 20 . Practically the interval for
compression ratio is (8..12) .This limitation is caused by fuel petrol to which an
increase of over 11..13 will produce an abnormal combustion called knock an
explosive phenomenon which must be avoided because it decreases the engine power
and destroys the parts.
e. Effective efficiency of the engine
expresses the real fuel economy of the engine.
Effective efficiency ef
ef =

Lef
Qconst

ef =

Lc Lr Lef
= TD ind mec
Q Lc Lreal

In actual design phase the effective ratios varies according to design parameters around
ef = 0.25 0.42 from heat released within combustion chamber will contribute to the
production of mechanic work, the rest of energy is dissipated into environment.

6.1.2. Dual combustion cycle

The dual combustion cycle is close to thermal processes within compression ignition
engines ( diesel engines) at high speeds. The real combustion is replaced by two
heatings.
- Isochoric transformation (heating) coresponding to rapid combustion
explosive autoignition;
- Isobaric transformation (heating) -at p = ct., coresponding to progresive
combustion.
Qp
p

Qv
2

Lc

4
Q0
1

V2

Vs
V1

Fig.43. Theoretic processes in a combined combustion cycle

V2 = Vca

1-2 adiabatic compression

2-3 constant volume heating (combustion)
3-3 constant pressure heating (combustion)
3-4 adiabatic expansion (exhaust gas)
4-1 constant volume cooling (free exhaust)
Q Q0 = Lc

Q = Qv + Q p

The study of the engine uses three parameters:

1) =

V1
V2

= 16 20 -compression ratio

At diesel engines, during intake stroke only air is introduced within cylinder and is
compressed and fuel is injected at the end of compression. Due to the nature of diesel
fuel, the combustion has no knock.
2) =

p3
p2

3) =

V3'
volume increase ratio in progresive combustion (injection rate or cut-off ratio)
V3

= 1.3 1.35..(1.4 ) -

pressure (increase) ratio

= 1.7 2

The calculation of the engine starts with finding the cycle parameters p,V,T in all points
of the cycle
a. Initial data
For the study of the cycle
p1 = p a T1 = Ta + T A , p a -atmospheric pressure , T a -atmospheric temperature
During the admission the air is heated in contact with the hot engine with T A
The engine is considered a closed system running continuously the same mass of
thermal agent m,which can be calculated from the state equation applied in point 1:
m=

p1V1
RT1

The volume of the combustion chamber can be calculated knowing V 1 and compression
ratio,
V2 =

V1

b. Parameters of state in the main points of the cycle

1-2 adiabatic compression

V3 = V2 =

V
p 2 = p1 1
V2
V
T2 = T1 1
V2

= p1 k

k 1

= T1 k 1

V1

p3 = p 2 = p1 k

p3' = p3 = p1 k

V3' = V3 = V1
V'

3-3 isobaric transformation T3' = T3 3 = T3 = T1 k 1

V3
V4 = V1

3-4 adiabatic expansion

V'
p 4 = p3 3
V4

V' V
V
= p3' 3 3 = p3' k 2
V

V V
1

4 4
1
p 4 = p1 k 1 k k = k p1 = p 4

'

V'
p 4 = p3 3
V4
'

k 1

V'
= p3 3
V3
'

k 1

V3

V4

k 1

= k T1

c.Mechanic work of the cycle

J

Lc = L12 + L23 + L33' + L3'4 + L41

cycle

p1V1 p 2 k p1V1
L12 =
1 k 1
1 =
k 1 p1 k 1

'
L33' = p 3 (V3 V3 ) = p 3V3 ( 1) = p1V1 k 1 ( 1)

L3 ' 4

k 1

k
'
p V p4 k
p3 = p3 = p1

in which
=
1
k 1 p 31
p4 = k p1

'
3

'
3

Lc = L12 + L33 + L34 =

p1V1
(
( 1) k 1 k + k ( 1) k 1 + 1)
k 1

J revs
n
Lc

cycle min

Pt =
i (kW )
sec 3
60
10
2 min
- number of strokes 2 or 4

i number of cylinders
Pef = ind mec Pt (kW )

Lr

=
indicat

Lc

Lreal work of real diagram

L
ef

=
mec Lr
ind -indicated efficiency expresses the degree of perfection of theoretic diagram.

As in constant volume combustion the work of the cycle L c is the area of the
transformation 12334 and can be calculated measuring area.Real work L r is the
mechanic work determined experimentally using the indicator diagram. The effective

mechanic work L ef is the mechanic work produced at the engine flywheel (or at the
crankshaft).
d. Cycle efficiency
Q
Lc Q Q0
=
=1 0
Q
Q
Q
Q = Qv + Q p = mcvm (T3 T2 ) + mc pm T3' T3

t =

Q0 = mcvm (T1 T4 ) Q0 0 it is taken Q0 in absolute value

mcvm (T4 T1 )
TD = 1
mcvm (T3 T2 ) + mc pm (T3' T3 )

There are considered the mean specific heats at constant volume and constant pressure
and as the temperature intervals are close enough so it can be simplified replacing c pm
with k:

TD

1
[( 1) + k ( 1) ]
k 1
1
= 1 k 1
( 1) + k ( 1)

TD = 1

k 1

Analysing TD it is noticed that the efficiency increases with volumetric compression

ratio. Considering Q = Qv + Qo = CONSTANT it can be noticed that efficiency increases
when (pressure increase ratio) decreases , respectively when (volume increase ratio)
decreases.
e. Effective efficiency
ef =

Lef
Q

Lef Lr Lc
= TD ind mec
L r Lc Q

For dual combustion cycle the effective efficiency is ef = 0.26 0.44

Observations:
A. Giving to dual combustion cycle particular values = 1 V3' = V3 - the isobaric
combustion dissapears and the cycle becomes identic with constant volume combustion
cycle . TD

=1

k 1

B. Giving to dual combustion cycle particular values = 1 , the isochoric combustion

dissapears and the cycle becomes identical to original Rudolf Diesel cycle. Nowadays
this cycle is similar to processes in low speed diesel engines.

Qp
2
p

Lc

4
Q0
1

V2

Vs
V1

B. Comparing efficiencies TD for constant volume cycle and dual combustion cycle :
a) For the same compression ratio the efficiency of Otto is higher than diesel
TD t (v = ct ) TD (combined ) (theoretical speculation )
b) In real life
spark engine = 8 13
Diesel engine = 16 22
Due to high value of compression ratio , TD (combined ) TD (v =ct )
So diesel engine efficiency is higher than efficiency of spark ignition engines due to
higher values of compression ratio .

Course S10.
Chapter 6. Heat engines theoretical cycles
6.2. Compressors
Compressors are heat engines which consume mechanical work in order to increase
gas pressure (increasing internal energy of thermal agent). Compresssors are
driven by electric motors or by internal combustion engines.
From the design point of view, the compressors are divided into reciprocating
compressors and centrifugal compressors. The reciprocating compressors use a
mechanism similar to internal combustion engines ( piston-connection rodcrankshaft) for compressing of the working fluids and centrifugal compressors use
the centrifugal force driven by a rotor to thermal agent.
The next explanations reffers to reciprocating compressors.The design of a
reciprocating compressor is close to that of an engine. Inside of a cylinder which
represents the compression chamber, it is actuated the piston which is connected to
crankshaft through the connecting rod. The cylinder is sealed upwards by the
cylinder head in which are placed intake (suction) valve (SA, through which gas is
introduced at ambient pressure) and discharge (exhaust) valve, (SE, through which
gas is exhausted in compressed state). During operation the piston moves between
two dead centers. When piston is in top dead centre, there is some space up to
cylinder head wall which is called clearance volume which has a negative effect
on compressing process.The clearance volume represents 0.030.06 of piston
displacement volume, Vs.
The cylinder head is a cast part with interior channels and a plane surface for
sealing the cylinder which includes the valves made of disks, plates and rings kept
on their seats by springs.
Compressors run automatically.The intake (suction) valve opens when the cylinder
pressure is smaller than atmospheric pressure and is closed when the cylinder
pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure.
Exhaust (discharge) valve SE opens when cylinder pressure is a little higher than
exhaust duct pressure and is closed when cylinder pressure is a little smaller than
exhaust duct pressure.
All compresors are fitted with a compressed gas tank; discharge duct pressure is
equal to tank pressure.

The real operation diagram of a reciprocating compressor is represented in function

means
of
an
apparatus
called
indicator.
p = f (V ) by

p
pev

Lr
pa
V0

Vs
V1

SA
SE
TDC

BDC

Fig.44. Real operation diagram of a piston compressor

V0 - clearance volume , V s =

D 2
4

- volume of the cylinder or volume of the

stroke, in which D piston diameter , S = 1 1,3D - piston stroke

p a intake pressure , p ev exhaust pressure

V1 = Vs + V0

6.2.1.Theoretical compressor
As the first ideal model of compressor operation it is considered the theoretical
compressor which is an ideal compressor having the following simplifying
hypothesis:
- It is not considered the clearance volume;
- Intake and exhaust processes are isobaric at p 0 (atmospheric pressure) and at
p ev (exhaust gas pressure) ;
- Compression is either isothermal, polytropic or adiabatic;
- Diagram is closed by a process showing a sudden drop of pressure pev p a ,
which appears when piston is in TDC;
- The thermal agent is an ideal gas.

p2

Lt
p1

1
V1

Fig.45.Cycle of theoretical compressor

During piston motion in cylinder the gas is introduced at pressure p 1 in empty
space produced by piston motion at isobar intake, the intake valve being opened
and the transformation 1-2 represents the fluid compression from pressure p 1 up to
pressure p 2 . Evolution 2-3 is the release of compressed gas in the tank at constant
pressure p 2 and 3-0 is the equalisation of pressure when suction valve is opened
and discharge valve is closed.
The cycle is composed of the following process:

0 1 . isobaric intake (suction) p1 = pa = ct

1 2 . isothermal, adiabatic or polytropic compression ( with 1 n k )
2 3 . isobaric exhaust (discharge) p 2 = pev = ct
3 0 . instantaneous reduction of presure from pev to p a
It is considered that opening and closing of suction and discharge valves are done
exactly in dead centres, without considering the inertia of fluid mass.
DSA 0

ISA 1

DSE 2

ISE 3

DSA- opening of suction valve;

ISA- closing of suction valve;
DSE - opening of discharge valve;
ISE - closing of discharge valve.
The total mechanical work consumed by the compressor to perform of cycle is
equal to the sum of all mechanical works corresponding to the four transformations
and is equal to shaft work L t

Lt = L01 + L12 + L23 + L03

rev.crankshaft

L01 = Lmec - flow work during intake process

L01 = Ld adm = p1V1
L23 = Ld ev = p 2V2
2

L12 = L = pdV
1

- (negative because is consumed )

- (depends on type of compression process)

rot

Lt = p1V1 p 2V2 + L12

There are studied three separated cases for L12 in the three hypothesis of
compression .
a) Compressor with isothermal compression
L12 iz = p1V1 ln

V2
p
= p1V1 ln 1 L12 0
V1
p2

For T = cons tan t

p1V1 = p 2V2

Lt 0

Lt iz = p1V1 p 2V2 + p1V1 ln

- shaft work consumed by compressor

b) Compressor with adiabatic compression
L12 ad

k 1

p1V1 p2V2
p1V1
p2 k
1
=
=
k 1
k 1 p1

p1
p2

p1V1 p2V2
k
( p1V1 p2V2 )
=
k 1
k 1
k 1

p
k
2

p1V1 1
=
p1
k 1

Lt ad = p1V1 p2V2 +

Lt ad = kL12 ad

c) Compressor with polytropic compression 1 n k

n 1

p1V1 p2V2
p1V1 p2 n
1
L12 pol =
=
n 1
n 1 p1

p V p2V2
n
[ p1V1 p2V2 ]
=
Lt pol = ( p1V1 p2V2 ) + 1 1
n 1
n 1
n 1

p
n
2

Lt pol = nL12 pol =

p1V1 1
p1
n 1

In order to compare Lt consumed in the three hypothesis of compression, it is

plotted on the same diagram, variation p-V of the compressor.
p

p1

3 2iz

2pol 2ad

V
Fig.46 . Shaft work of compression process
Lt iz = area 012 iz 3

Lt pol = area 012 pol 3

Lt ad = area 012 ad 3

Liz Lt pol Lad

The isothermal compressor consumes minimum work, which is true in real

operation; in practice there is a tendency to produce the isothermal compression
by means of cooling the cylinder (water or air cooled) and by fractioning the
compression process and practicing intermediate cooling of the agent.

6.2.2.Technical compressor
The second ideal model of aproximation of processes during piston compression
operation is represented by technical compressor.There are maintained hypothesis
of theoretical compressor, but it is considered the clearance volume.
o Intake and exhaust are isobaric;
o Compression is either polytropic or adiabatic;
o Gas expansion from V0 - is either polytropic or adiabatic.
V0 (m3 ) - clearance volume
Vs =

d 2

4
V1 = VS + V0
0 =

S - volume of piston stroke

- total volume

V0
Vs

0 = 0.03 0.06

0 - clearance ratio
p

Lt
pa V4

V0

Va

1
V

Vs
V1

SA
SE
TDC

BDC

Fig.47. Cycle of technical compressor

1-2 polytropic compression
2-3 isobaric exhaust (discharge)
3-4 polytropic expansion
4-1 isobaric intake
1 ISA

4 DSA

2 DSE

3 ISE

rot

Lt = L41 + L12 + L23 + L34

L41 = p a Va = p1 (V1 V4 )
L23 = Ld ev = pevVev = p 2 (V2 V3 )
L34 =

p3V3 p 4V4
n 1

L12 =

p1V1 p 2V2
n 1

It is considered the same polytropic exponent n for both transformations 1-2 and 34.

( p V + p4V4 )
p V p2V2

( p2V3 + p1V4 ) 3 3
Lt = ( p1V1 p2V2 ) + 1 1

n 1
n 1

p1 = p 4 p 2 = p3
Lt =

n
n 1

( p1V1 p 2V2 )

n
n 1

( p 4V4 p3V3 )

n 1
n 1

n
n

p
p
n
n
3
2

Lt =
p1V1 1
p V 1
p1 n 1 4 4 p4
n 1

n 1

p
n
2

p1Va 1 with Va = V1 V4
Lt =
p1
n 1

Calculation of Va - aspirated volume

compressor flow.
It is noted =
=

will lead to the determination of real

Va
(volumetric efficiency).
Vs

V1 V4 Vs + V0 V4
V
=
= 1+ 0 4
Vs
Vs
Vs

From transformation 3-4: p3V3n = p 4V4n

1

p n
p n
V4 = V3 3 = V0 2
p1
p4
1

V
= 1 + 0 0
Vs

It is obtained :

p2 n

p1

p
2

= 1 0 1

p1

for a given compressor

The volumetric efficiency decreases when the pressure ratio

p2
increases.
p1

For two compressors which has to produce the same increase of pressure (

p2
p1

given), the volumetric efficiency decreases when the clearance volume increases
( 0 ) .
The existence of clearance volume leads to the decrease of aspirated volume,
decreasing the compressor flow.
6.2.3.Compressor flow, efficiency and power
The theoretical flow of technical compressor is:
m3
revs
nr
D = Va

min
revs

- gas flow expressed in normal conditions

DN
DN = D

n r - compressor speed

p1 TN mN3
p N T1 min

Real gas flow of the compressor is expressed in function of Vs .

mN3

D = Vs nr

min

gas flow coefficient which depends on several factors:

= 1 2 3 4 1
1 =

volumetric efficiency (consideres the influence of V0 )

2 considers that p1 p a
(Tcylindergas Tatmospheric )
3 considers that T1 Ta
4 considers the gas loss from cylinder and piston and lack of sealing of
intake valves.
Orientative values for = 0.65 0.85 for small and rapid compressors.The real flow
is expressed in mN3
D N = Vs n r

p A TN
p N TA

Isothermal efficiency ratio between mechanic work of theoretical ( technical)

diagram in the hypothesis of isothermal compression and real work .
iz =

Lt iz

mec =

Lr

Lr
Lef

Lt - theoretical work

mechanical efficiency expresses the friction loss in bearings, ring-

cylinder and the work consumed for driving water and oil pumps.

 - subunitary measures t he heat engines are consuming work, so loss will

contribute to the increase of consumed work L Lt Lr Lef .

For calculation it is introduced c (global, general efficiency)
c =

Lt
Lef

= iz mec

The power required for compressor driving

Theoretical power: Pt =
Effective power: Pef =

Lt n
60

Pt

6.2.3. Multi-stage compressors

In order to compress gas at high pressures, the compression process is divided in
succesive stages of compression; the process is produced in series cylinders and
after every stage the gas is cooled.

Fig.48.Scheme of a three stage compressor

It is noticed that the gas is compressed in the first stage from p 1 to p 2 , then it is
cooled and introduced inthe second stage of compression at p 2 and is compressed
up to p 3 , it is cooled again and introduced at p 3 in the third stage and compressed
up to p 4 .
The reasons of stage compression are:
1) When pressure is increased, the gas temperature increases too. The
lubrication oil is heated and its viscosity decreases under acceptable limits; at
high temperatures light fraction of lubricants are vaporized. A fraction of oil
can be leaked through cylinder rings and it can burned because of high
temperature of hot air.
2) Stage compression and intermediate cooling tend to the isothermal
compression and minimise the consume of work.
3) The compression procedure is chosen according to final pressure :
For p e 5 7 bars it is used one stage compressor
p e = 5 25 bars
two- stage compressors
p e = 20 80 bars
three- stage compressors
p e = 60 200 bars four-stage compressors .
For final pressure 600 800 bar there are seven stages of compressors.
6.2.4.Two stage compressor
It is considered a two stage compressor (configuration of fig. 48, but with only two
stages). In the first stage, the agent enters pressure p 1 and temperature T 1 and is
compressed up to pressure p x and temperature T x . In the second stage the agent
enters at pressure p x and temperature T x and it is compressed up to pressure p 2 and
temperature T 2 . By hypothesis the cooling in the cooler is considered good enough
so the gas temperature aspirated in the second stage to be equal to the gas
temperature aspirated in the first stage, meaning Tx = T1 . The mass flow of each
stage is the same and the volume flow is smaller in the second stage because the
pressures are higher.
The compression processes in both stages are considered to be polytropic with the
same n.

p
3

2
LII

px

Tx = T1

LI
0

1
V

Fig.49. Compression processes in two stage compressor

The processes from compressors are :
0 1 p1 = pa = ct , admission
First stage 1 x' polytropic _ compression
x' x' ' p = ct , disch arg e
x

Second

x' ' x p x = ct , admission

stage x 2 polytropic _ compression
2 3 disch arg e at p = p = ct
2
ev

The discharged volume in the first stage at p x corresponds to x' ' x' .
The discharged volume in the second stage at p x corresponds to x' ' x .
The aspirated volume inthe second stage is smaller than discharged volume as
x' ' x x' ' x' .
The shaft work is the sum of shaft works corresponding to both stages. Lt = Lt I + Lt II
n 1

p
n
x

Lt I =
p1V1 1
p1
n 1

Lt II

n 1

p
n
2

=
p xVx 1
px
n 1

TaI = TaII p xVx = p1V1

n 1
n 1

n
n

p
p
Lt =
p1V1 2 x 2
n 1
p
px
1

In order to fix the intermediate pressure p x , from the condition that the consumed
work is minimum, it will result:

dLt
= 0 px
dp x
m
m
px
d p x

+ = 0
dp x p1
p 2

n 1
It is noted m =
n
m 1
m 1
px
1 mp x
1

=0
m
p
p
p
p
1
2
1
2
p xm 1 p x m 1
p2m
=
=
px =
p1m
p2m
p xm +1

p x p2
p
or x =
=
p1
p1 p x

p1 p2

or

p2
p1

Consumed shaft work is minimum when its components are equal LtI = LtII
n 1

p2 2 n
2n

p1V1 1
Consumed shaft work is Lt =
p1
n 1

Observations: Results are similar also for technical compressor.

In general situation for a compressor with z stages and the hypothesis:
1
Intake temperature is the same in every stage
2
The diagram of compressor is that of a technical compressor
3
Compression and expansion are polytropic with the same n,
It will result an equation
to

the

stage

zn p ev
1
Lt =
n 1 p adm

n 1
zn

of

p j +1
pj

p
= ev , in which p j is the pressure corresponding
padm

compression

p V J
a a rev

and

consumed

shaft

work

is

In which Va = Vs (m3 ) for the first stage.

Observations:
a) The total compression process in a multistage compressor tends to an isothermal
process.
b) Compressing in stages and applying intermediate cooling will reduce the
consumed shaft work. For example there are considered two compressors with the
same flow operating through the same pressures p1 , p 2 , the first compressor
working in one stage, the second compressor working in two stages; both
compressors have the model of teoretical compressor.

LtII
px

LtI
0

Fig.50. Operation of one stage and two stage compressors

LtI = area 01x' x' '

two
LtII = area x' ' x 23

Lt = LtI + LtII = area 01x' x 23

stages

Lt = area 01x'23

one stage
It is noticed that there is a difference between two areas, area x,x22, which is
equal to the economy of shaft work which appears at two stage operation.
SPECIFIC IMAGES FOR RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Compressor valves

Course 11.
6.3. Gas turbines
Gas turbines are thermal installations or heat engines which transform expansion
energy of exhaust gas after fuel combustion to produce mechanical work.
The energetic dimensions of thermal installations expressed in thermal power are :
- Steam power stations 50 1000 MW
- Gas turbine installations 5000 50 000 kW (max.100 000 kW)
- Internal combustion engines 1 kW 300 kW (30 000 kW).
Gas turbines are simple in design, having reduced weight and bulk; they have no
parts in translation motion and can use low quality fuels.
The theoretical turbine cycle differs from internal combustion cycle by that the
exhaust gas expands up to intake pressure and some processes take place in separate
aggregates outside the turbine ( in internal combustion engines, all processes take
place inside the engine).
Gas turbines are represented in fig.51a

Fig.51. Gas turbine. Principle schemes for constant volume combustion cycle and for
constant pressure combustion cycle
Within compressor 1 air is compressed, then introduced in the combustion chamber 2
where fuel is burned then exhaust gas expands in turbine 3 which starts to rotate. On the

turbine shaft are mounted air compressor and fuel pump 4. Fuel ignition is produced by
spark plug 5. The turbine drives the compressor and the fuel pump and transmits work to
a consumer which can be a electrical generator. The rotational compressor is centrifugal
or axial and produces high air flows in combustion chamber at compression pressures
p compr = 8 14 bars .
The combustion chamber can host the combustion either at constant volume (upwards,
fig.51b). or at constant pressure (downwards, fig.51b). In the first stage of turbine
development the combustion chambers provided combustion at constant volume V = ct ,
being fitted with automated intake and exhaust valves. Then, in the second stage of
turbine development, the combustion was produced at constant pressure in open
combustion chamber in which fuel and air are injected continuously. As a fuel it is used
either gaseous fuel or sprayed liquid fuel ( petrol) or sprayed solid fuel ( coal dust).
Within the turbine, the internal energy of thermal agent is turned into mechanic work in
two stages: fuel internal energy is turned into exhaust gas kinetic energy which expand
through turbine blades producing mechanical work.
The exhaust gases having a pressure p = 8 14 bars and temperature t = 750 1000 0 C
enters the convergent-divergent turbine nozzles in which are partially expanded
causing a increase of speed up to 102 m/s.
Then gases are expanded up to exhaust pressure pev = 1bar ; during its flow through
channels it exerts an active force (impulse law) which produce a rotational torque at
turbine shaft and a reactive force upon blades; the kinetic energy of gases is turned into
work. At turbine exhaust the gases have a pressure and temperature of p = 1bar
t = 300 350 0 C

and speed of v = 20 40

m
.
s

6.3.1.Constant pressure gas turbines

Fuel

Combustion
chamber
p3=p2,T3

Starter
motor

Electric
generator

p2,T2

Compressor
p1,T1

Turbine
p4=p1,T4
Atmospheric
air

Fig.52. Gas turbine combustion at constant pressure

Exhaust
gas

The theoretical cycle of the turbine has the following features:

The process is open (compressor absorbs atmospheric air and turbine eliminates exhaust
gas).
The process is cyclic having the following simplifying hypothesis:
1) The thermal agent is an ideal gas; it is not considered the change of gas
composition; it is considered that the same mass of ideal gas evolves continuously
and cyclically.
2) Gas compression in compressor and gas expansion in turbine are adiabatic
transformations. The real process in combustion chamber is replaced by a heating
process at constant pressure. The cycle is closed by a hypothetical transformation
of isobaric cooling of gas which replaces the exhaust gas from turbine and air
intake within compressor.
p
p2

Q
2

Lc

p1

Q0

4
V

Fig.53.The theoretical cycle of gas turbine combustion at constant pressure

The theoretical cycle is composed of :
1-2 adiabatic compression in compressor p1 p 2
2-3 constant pressure heating ( combustion) ( p 2 = p3 )
3-4 adiabatic expansion (in turbine ) from p 2 = p3 to p 4 = p1
4-1 constant pressure cooling ( p 4 = p1 = p a ) corresponding to turbine gas exhaust and
air intake in compressor.
The cycle has two functional parameters.
=

p2
pressure increase ratio in compressor, with current values = 8...12(14 )
p1

T3
extreme temperature ratio ( maximum and minimum temperature ratio) of the
T1

cycle T max and T min

T1 Ta

T a air temperature T1 = Ta + Ta 290...300 K

The temperature at the end of combustion, T3 ,is limited ; it is recommended for gas
turbine with uncooled steel blades that T3 not to exceed 700 7500C ( T3 1000 K ) ; if
the blades are cooled or made of ceramic materials the temperature can reach
t 3 = 1000 1100 0 C
or T3 = 1300 1400 K .
The values of extreme temperatures ratios are (3..3.5) for steel blades and
(4..5) for ceramic materials.
The thermodynamic study of gas turbine is made considering that 1 kg of agent flows
through it, resulting unitary values of the work .The final values are multiplied with
the agent mass flow rate.
It is noted lc as the unitary values of work, meaning that the work cycle is divided to
the mass of thermal agent evolving in the cycle :
lc =

Lc
m

The unitary mechanical work of the cycle can be written as a sum of mechanical
works of each cycle transformation.
J

kg

l c = l12 + l 23 + l34 + l 41

Also the unitary mechanical work of the cycle can be written as a difference between
shaft works of the two aggregates ( turbine marked with subscript T and compressor
marked with subscript k):
J

kg

l c = lT l k

l T - unitary shaft work produced in turbine

l k - unitary shaft work consumed by compressor
k 1

J
k
lk =
p1 v1 1 k
k 1

kg
k 1

J
k
lk =
RT1 1 k
k 1

kg

l k 0
k 1

p
k
4

lT =
p 3 v 3 1
p3
k 1

lT =

p
p
k
1
RT3 1 k 1 in which 4 = 1

p3 p 2
k 1
k

T3 = T1

In the upper formula v 1 and v 3 have the meaning of specific volumes ( v =

V
) as the
m

calculations are referred to 1 kg of agent.

It results:
k 1

l c = lT l k =
RT1 k 1 1 k 1
k 1

The theoretical power of the installation Pt is equal to product between the unitary
work multiplied by turbine mass flow rate.
Pt =

lc m
10 3

(kW ) , with m -mass flow rate of the agent

The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle:

t = 1

q0 lc
=
q
q

q unitary heat received in transformation 2-3 (isobaric heating)

q = c pm (T3 T2 )
q 0 unitary heat released in transformation 4-1, in isobaric cooling, with negative value

q 0 = c pm (T1 T4 )
t = 1

c (T T )
q0
T T
= 1 pm 4 1 = 1 4 1
q
c pm (T3 T2 )
T3 T2

For constant c pm in the ratio,

T1 = Ta + Ta
p
T2 = T1 2
p1
T3 = T1

p
T4 = T3 4
p3

k 1
k

k 1
k

= T1

k 1
k

T1

k 1
k

k 1 T1 T1
k
T4 T1
1
=1
= 1 k 1
t = 1
k 1
T3 T2
T1 T1 k
k

8......14

20

Fig.54.Thermodynamic efficiency versus

The pressure increase ratio is limited at 8 12(14) because when air pressure is
increased in compressor, it is increased the mechanic work consumed by compressor
and useful power Pu of gas tubine installation is reduced. Useful power is obtained by
subtracting from the power generated by turbine, the power consumed by compressor.
Pu = PT Pk (kW ) and if is increased then useful power is reduced.
It is noted =
Pu = Pt =

lc m

10 3
lT l k

lc
=
lT

Pu l c
=
usefulness of turbine power
PT l T

lT

=1

lk
lT

Replacing the expressions for

k
RT1
k 1

lk and lT

=1

k
1

RT1 1 k 1

k 1
k

= 1

k 1
k

k 1
k

It is observed that for a certain value of , for T3 given, the usefulness of turbine power
lowers when , the compression pressure ratio (in compressor), is increased. For gas
turbine installations, = 30% 40% meaning
Pu = 30 40% of PT , showing that
compressor consumes up to from turbine power .
If would increase over 12...14, then the usefulness of turbine power would decrease
more, so the optimal value of = 8 12(14 ) was reached from contradictory reasons.

In order to have a gas turbine installation of a given power it must be used a gas turbine
having a power 3-4 times higher, meaning higher investments.The compromise on
selection is illustrated in the following table:

8
10
12
14
t
0.448
0.48
0.508
0.529
0.46
0.423
0.393
0.365
t ( = 3.34)
(0.55)
(0.52)
(0.493)
(0.47)
t ( = 4)
1

t = 1

k 1
k

= 3.34 for ordinary blades

( ) = 4 for cooled blades

6.3.2. Heat recovery in gas turbine installations

In order to increase the efficiency of gas turbine installations, these are fitted with heat
recovery systems which are taken over some of exhaust gas heat and use it to heat the
compressed air. By preheating it is reduced the differece between exhaust gas
temperature and air intake temperature, the fuel consumption being reduced.
Fuel
Heat recovery
Starting
motor

Combustion
chamber
p3=p2,T3
Generatorelectric

p2,T2

Compressor
p1,T1

Turbine
p4=p1,T4
Air

Fig.55. Gas turbine installation with heat recovery

Exhaust
gas

p
p2

Q
2

Lc

Q0

4
V

Fig.56.Theoretical cycle of gas turbine installation with heat recovery

On the graphic, the cycle transformations are the same as in case without heat recovery,
the difference being that heating 2-5 is done by the heat recovered from exhaust gas. It is
noted the recovered heat Qrec - heat taken from exhaust gas and Q' - heat absorbed from
combustion:
2-5 preheating with exhaust gas
5-3 heating ( combustion) at constant pressure
Q rec = mc pm (T5 T2 )

Q ' = mc pm (T3 T5 )

3
T

Fig.57. Theoretical cycle of gas turbine installation with heat recovery in T-S.

Theoretically, the preheating can be done up to 4 corresponding to T4 which is the

exhaust gas temperature at turbine exit.The temperature up to which the preheating is
done is T 5 which is smaller than the gas temperature at turbine exit T 4 =T 4 .
It is defined heat recovery degree :
=

mc pm (T5 T2 )

mc pm (T4 T2 )

p2
p1

T5 T2
T4 T2

T3 = T1

0.8 0.85
T4 = T1

T5 = T2 + (T4 T2 )

1 k
k

The mechanical work of cycle with heat recovery is identical with the mechanical work
of cycle without heat recovery:
For 1 kg of agent
l c = lT l k

k
1

lT =
RT1 1 k 1

k 1
k
k 1

k
lk =
RT1 1 k
k 1

k 1

lc =
RT1 k 1 1 k 1

k
k 1

The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is modified because q is replaced by q

=

lc
q

in which q' = c (T T ) = kR [T (T T ) T ]
pm
3
5
3
4
2
2
k 1

1k k
k k1

1
1

trec =
k 1
1 k
k 1

k
k

When = 1 T5 = T4 and the cycle recovers totally the heat.

trec

k 1
1k k
k k1
1k k
k k1

1 k

k k 1

1
1
1
1

=
1 k
k 1

k
1
1 k

k 1

or trec = 1

k 1
k

At gas turbine installation with heat recovery ratio = 0 , the thermodynamic efficiency
t varies inversely with compression pressure ratio .
1

t = 1

trec = 1

k 1
k

- without recovery

k 1
k

t
without heat
recovery

with heat
recovery
lim

Fig.58 Thermodynamic efficiency variation versus with and without heat recovery
Heat recovery is efficient up to a compression pressure ratio limit lim reduced at
8 10, for = 3 3.5 .The method of heat recovery is a method of recovery the efficiency.
In order to apply the method, at high , it must be lowered the temperature T2
(there are several steps of compression); to apply the heat recovery, T4 must be high,
using gas turbine with expansion in stages.
6.3.3.Gas turbine efficiency
For gas turbines are used two efficiencies, an internal efficiency which considers the
loss from thermodynamic processes due to irreversibility and frictions between gas and
parts and the second efficiency a mechanical efficiency which consider mechanical
frictions ( bearings) and work consumed for driving oil pump, speed regulator and other
auxiliaries.
Their equations are reported to compressor and turbine :
A for rotative compressors (engines consuming work)
Internal efficiency k ,i =

lk
l k ,r

l k l mec consumed work

l k ,r l mec real

If the compression process is adiabatic, it is possible to represent in T-S both reversible

and irreversible processes, written for 1 kilogram of agent.
T

p2
p1
2

1
s1=s2

Fig.59. Reversible and irreversible adiabatic compression

1-2 adiabatic reversible compression (theoretical)
1-2 adiabatic irreversible compression (real)
The adiabatic irreversible process increases entropy even there is no change of heat with
the environment
a) For adiabatic compression (reversible)
k 1

p
k
2
l k = vdp =
RT1 1

k 1
1
p1

p
J
in which 2 =
p1
kg

J
di = q + vdp cu q = 0
kg

or l k = vdp = i1 i2
b)
l k ,r

k ,i =

For adiabatic compression, real, irreversible

= i1 i 2 and analog with aforementioned formula

i 2 i1
i 2' i1

k ,i =

T2 T1
T2' T1

For compressor driven by gas turbines k ,i = 0,85 0,92

Mechanical efficiency
k ,mec =

l k ,r
l k ,ef

in which l k,ef - mechanic work consumed at the compressor shaft

k ,mec = 0.94..0.98

B for gas turbine

Internal efficiency
T ,i =

lT ,r
lT

lT ,r - real mechanical work in turbine l T - theoretical

turbine
T

p3

p4
3
2
4 4
s3=s4

Fig.60.Adiabatic reversible and irreversible expansion

3-4 adiabatic reversible expansion ( theoretical)
3-4 adiabatic irreversible expansion (real) with increase of entropy
k 1

k RT3 p 4 k J
a) l T = vdp =
1

p 3 kg
k 1
3

p
p
1
T3 = T1 ; 4 = 1 =
p3 p2

4
J
l T = vdp = i 3 i 4 from di = q + vdp
kg
3

lT ,r = i3 i4'

T ,i =

lT ,r
lT

i 3 i 4'
=
i3 i4

or

T ,i

T3 T4'
=
= 0.88...0.95
T3 T4 T ,i

Mechanical efficiency
t ,mec =

lT ,ef

lT ,ef
lT ,r

- effective work at turbine shaft

C-Effective efficiency at turbine shaft ( ef )

mechanic work in

T ,i T mec lT
ef =

lk
k ,i k mec

q
CA

Final ( effective) efficiency of the turbine installation considers internal and mechanical
efficiencies of the compressor and turbine, but also the efficiency of the combustion
chamber.
efficiency of combustion chamber
CA
q -received heat
J
q = q 2 3 = c pm (T3 T2 )
kg

The efficiency of the combustion chamber is the ratio of the heat generated in the
combustion chamber divided to the effective heat released through fuel combustion.
CA =

q
in which bH i -effective heat released
bH i
kg fuel
kg agent

b specific fuel consumption

kg fuel

H i - fuel low heating value

The specific fuel consumption is calculated as follows:

kg fuel
B

,with B- fuel flow rate ( masic) and m -thermal agent flow rate
b=
kg agent
m

Applications

Gas turbine blades

Examples of use of gas turbine engines

Open-cycle constant-pressure gas-turbine engine

J85 General Electric 17a turbojet engine - military use

Power generation gas turbine- The SGT-1000F is designed for high-efficiency power
generation in industrial and fossil-fueled power plants. The photo shows the rotor of an SGT-1000F gas
turbine at the Berlin plant in Germany. This type of gas turbine has a capacity of 68 megawatts.

Super Marine Gas Turbine

Turbocharging of internal combustion engine
Can be done by mounting on the internal combustion engine a device called turbocharger. It has two
parts, a turbine and a compressor on the same shaft. The exhaust gas of the engine expands in the
turbine, the turbine rotates and actuates the compressor which compresses the fresh air at the engine
intake. As you can see in the image the path ways of the fluids ( exhaust gas and air ) are separated.
The effect on the engine is to increase the power and to lower the specific fuel consumption. This effect
is amplified when the compressed air is cooled in a heat exchanger which allows to enter combustion
chamber a greater air- fuel mixture.

A closer look on turbocharger shows the turbine section in red and the compressor section in blue, both
mounted on the same shaft, assuring a dynamic link between the two aggregates.

Further reading on the pages of turbocharger manufacturers Garrett and Holset.

Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.

What are heat engines and how are classified ?

What are internal combustion engines and how are classified ?
Which is the operation principle of internal combustion engines ?
Which are the parameters defining the theoretical cycle of internal combustion
engines ?
5. Which is the theoretical cycle for spark ignition engines ?
6. Which is the theoretical cycle for compression ignition engines?
7. Which are the formulas for work, power and efficiency for a spark ignition
engine?
8. Which are the formulas for work, power and efficiency for a compression ignition
engine?
9. What is a compressor ?
10. Which are the parameters of compression process ?
11. Which are the hypothesis of theoretical compressor ? Which are the hypothesis of
technical compressor ?
12. Which are the formulas for work, power and efficiency for a reciprocating
compressor ?
13. Why are used multistage compressors? In what terms?
14. What is a gas turbine installation? How is made of ?
15. Which are specific parameters of a gas turbine installation?
16. Which are the formulas for unitary work, power and efficiency of a gas turbine
installation ?

Course 12
Chapter 7. Heat transfer
7.1.Heat transfer forms
Most of natural and industrial processes took place with heat exchange and that is why
it is important to know heat propagation or transfer, to study thermal phenomena and
their time variation, to determine heat exchange in quantitative terms. It is important in
engineering work how intense is the heat transfer or how long a heat transfer process can
last.
Heat propagation is produced in three ways: by conduction, convection and radiation.

Thermal conduction is the heat transfer within the same body when there are areas
having different temperatures or in different bodies in contact, having different
temperatures.Thermal conduction is specific to solid bodies, being produced by electron
difusion ; for liquid and gaseos phases the conduction is produced only in boundary
layer due to molecular oscillation.

Thermal convection is a macroscopic heat exchange specific to fluids in motion which

transfer heat energy from the high temperature areas to low temperature areas.

Thermal radiation represents the heat transfer under the form of radiative energy which
appears between two surfaces with different temperatures, separated by a space allowing
the radiation.The transformation of thermal energy into radiative energy and reversed is
a intra-atomic phenomenon.

Real heat transfer processes are performed by all three ways of propagation which have
different laws, but usually a way of propagation is dominant.These phenomena are time
variable being irreversible because the temperature difference is finite and cannot be
considered infinitesimal.

Temperature depends on space and time coordinates.If it is considered a part of space,

every point has an associated local temperature after an arbitrary distribution, creating a
temperature field.The equations which define the temperature field can use different
coordinate systems: cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, vectorial, having, respectively, the
equations : t = f (x,y,z,); t = f (r,,z, ); t = f (r,,, ); t = f (r, ).
The field has usually different values of temperatures and it is considered as continuous
if a at infinitezimal variation of coordinates correspond infinitezimal variation of
temperature. If temperature variation is finite for infinitezimal variation of coordinates
(space) then the temperature field is discontinuous. The space points having the same
temperature are called isothermal curve (or areas). When temperature varies with time
the temperature field is variable or non stationary and when temperature is constant the
temperature field is stationary or constant.
If temperature field is stationary then its equation is t = f (x,y,z). From an isothermal
area can be plotted an infinite number of directions which can intersect other isothermal
areas of other constant temperature.For two isothermal areas having the temperature
field t and t+t, the direction for which the temperature variation is maximum is on the
perpendicular n, plotted to both isothermal areas.

Fig.61.Directions of temperature variation

In temperature field, in a given point can be determined a vector whose direction is the
direction of the shortest perpendicular between isothermals, for which the temperature
variation is maximum and the absolute value is the temperature variation divided to unit
of length of the path on this direction.The vector is called temperature gradient and its
sense is positive in the direction of increasing temperature.
t dt
gradt = lim n0 =
n dn

In heat transfer there are three very used measures heat, heat transfer rate and heat flux:
1.Heat Q is a form of energy being measured in Joule (J) in (SI).
2.In heat transfer is very important the heat variation in unit of time called heat transfer
rate or rate of heat transferred or heat flow per unit time ( or Q ).Its value shows the
intensity of the heat exchange.
=

Q
Q dQ
= lim 0
= Q [W ] ,
=

with Q is heat quantity transmitted in time interval .

The standard unit for the rate of heat transferred is Joule per second or Watt (W),the unit
for power.
3. If the rate of heat is divided to surface of heat exchange then it is obtained heat flux q
( heat rate propagated through unit of surface perpendicular on its direction) :
q=

Q W
=

A A m 2

7.2.Conduction.General equation
The law which formulates heat propagation through conduction, known as Fourier law,
expresses the proportionality between heat flux and temperature gradient (-grad t).
q = ( -grad t) = - grad t
The sense of vector q is reversed of temperature gradient, meaning that is the same sense
of temperature decreasing as heat propagation takes place on the direction of maximum
temperature variation and in the sense of decreasing temperatures (according to the
second law of thermodynamics).
The factor of proportionality from Fourier law is called thermal conductivity and it
represents the heat transmitted in unit of time through a unit surface, for a temperature
variation of 1 degree, on a unit of length of 1 m.
=

q
Q l W m W
=
=

gradt A t m 2 K mK

The coefficient expresses the property of bodies to transmit thermal energy and it has
different values according to different materials, depending on structure, density,
humidity and temperature.
From all materials, metals and their alloys have the highest thermal conductivity (silver
- 410 W/mK, copper 395, gold 294, iron 45), the smallest values being attributed to
thermal isolator materials (water at 25C 0.58 W/mK, wood 0.093 W/mK, cork 0.05
W/mK, polyurethane 0.05 W/mK, air at 25C 0.024 W/mK ).
The general equation of thermal conduction is established separating from the
homogeneous and isothropic material an elementary parallelipiped with sides parallel
to coordinate axis. The heat absorbed on x direction through area ABCD which has
temperature t in time interval d is:
dQ x =

t
t
dAd = dydzd
x
x

Fig.62.The thermal flux on the three directions

The heat releases from parallelipiped on x direction in time interval d through area
EFGH is:
dQ x =

t
t
2t
t + dx dydzd = dydzd 2 dxdydzd
x x
x
x

The heat retained in parallelipiped is

dQ x = d Q x dQ x =

2t
2t
dxdydzd

dVd
=
x 2
x 2

For y and z directions there can be written similar equations:

dQ y ==

2t
2t
,
dVd

dQ

dVd
==
z
y 2
z 2

The heat variation on three directions is :

2t 2t 2t
dQ = dQ x + dQ y + dQ z = 2 + 2 + 2 dVd
y
z
x

The heat transmitted to elementary volume produces

elementary mass dm with value dt, and

a temperature increase to

2t 2t 2t
dt
dQ = dmc
d = 2 + 2 + 2 dVd or
y
z
d
x
2t 2t 2t
dt

= at
=
+
+
d c x 2 y 2 z 2

in which a is thermal difusivity a =

expressed in m2/h and and t is Laplace

operator .
2
2
2
= 2 = 2 + 2 + 2
y
z
x

Observation: Delta sign was bolded in order to pay attention on its significance, it does
not represent a difference of temperature but Laplace operator applied to temperature.

If within parallelipiped there are punctual heat sources uniformely distributed in unit
of volume, then Fourier equation becomes:
dt

=
d c

2 t 2 t 2 t qv
2 + 2 + 2 +
y
z c
x

in which q v is the heat flux on unit volume of internal heat sources.

7.2.1. Heat conduction at steady state
The steady state in heat conduction means that heat flux is constant or, in other words,
the temperature of isothermal areas is constant in time or the heat entering a unit of
area must leave it too.
t
=0

There will be considered several classical cases of conduction heat transfer for plane,
cylindrical and spherical walls:
a)
Plane walls
It is considered an homogeneous plane wall, of infinite length and width, having
constant thickness and constant thermal conductivity . Upon x direction which is
perpendicular on the wall plane it occurs a temperature variation on wall sides having
values t 1 and t 2 . This temperature field is unidirectional ( only on x direction ) and
Fourier law is written. The aim of the calculation is to find how temperature varies in
the wall,as a function of x coordinate or t = f (x).

Fig.63.Temperature field distribution in plane wall

Writing the Fourier law on x direction it yields:

q =

t
x

or

q dx = dt

By integration and separation of variables :

t2

t1

q dx = ( )dt
Integrating for x = 0, t = t 1 and for x = , t = t 2 , it results:


(t2 t1 ) = (t1 t2 ) W2 or q = (t1 t2 ) W2

m
m

is called thermal resistance of the wall (R t ) and is a measure analog to

The ratio

q=

electric resistance from Ohm law:

q=

(t1 t2 ) similar to
Rt

I=

U
Re

with I- current (A), U-voltage ( V) and R e electric

resistance (Ohm).
Being given the thermal flux q it is calculated the rate of heat transfered ,in W:
= qA = A

(t1 t2 )

The heat Q which is transmitted through wall in time , expressed in Joules is:
Q = = qA =

(t1 t2 )A

The temperature t at distance x measured from lateral face of the wall can be obtained
by integrating the equation of the heat flux :
t = t1 q

or

t = t1

(t1 t2 )

The formula is used to calculate the temperature inside the wall in any point.
In an homogeneous plane wall with constant thermal conductivity, the temperature has
a linear variation with thickness of the wall.
If the wall has several layers (n layers ) of different thickness i and conductivities i
then the thermal flux q is constant for each layer.
For example,for two layer wall with t 1 ,t 2 ,t 3, temperatures of first wall,interface surface and
second wall, respectively, the heat flux is :
(t t ) and q = 1 (t t ) = 2 (t t )
q= 1 3
1
2
2
3
1 2
1
2
+
1 2

For n layers heat flux

q=

(twi twe ) ,with t -temperature of the first wall and t the

wi
we
n

i =1

temperature of the last wall.

The total rate of heat transfer which passes through the wall surface A has the equation,
:
= qA =

(twi twe ) A [W]

n

i =1

b) Cylindrical wall
It is considered a homogeneous tube or pipe having a constant circular section, constant
thermal conductivity and length high enough to consider that temperature variation is
only radial and not axial.The inner tube temperature is t 1 and the outer temperature is t 2 ,
with t 1 >t 2 .

Fig.64. Temperature field distribution in cylindrical wall

It is considered an imaginary annular section inside the tube of thickness dr and radius r
limited by two isothermal cylindrical areas. The temperature changes only in radial
direction.In steady state the rate of heat transfer is constant and its equation according
to Fourier law is:
= qA =

dt
dt
A = 2rl
dr
dr

A is the lateral area of the cylinder surface through which the heat exchange is done.As
thermal conductivity and rate of heat transfer are constant, the variables can be
separated and can be integrated on the contour for r = r 1 t = t 1 and for r = r 2 t = t 2
r2

t2

dr
= 2l dt
r
r1
t1

It results

and
=

t1 t2 =

2l

ln

r2
r1

2l
l
(t1 t2 ) =
(t1 t2 )
r
1
d
ln 2
ln 2
r1
2
d1

Dividing the rate of heat to the length of tube l, it is obtained the linear rate of heat l
(the rate of heat transmitted through a tube of 1 m length),which has the unit W/m:

l =

(t1 t 2 )
=
1 d2
l
ln
2 d 1

and

l =

(t1 t2 ) = (t1 t2 )

1 d2
ln
2 d1

Rt

The thermal resistance of the wall is R t ,with

Rt =

d
1
. ln 2
2 d1

The thermal fluxes for the tube surfaces (inner and outer surfaces),expressed in W/m2 ,
are:
q1 =

d1l

2 (t1 t2 )
d
d1 ln 2
d1

and

q2 =

d 2l

2 (t1 t2 )
d
d 2 ln 2
d1

The dependency relations between the linear rate of heat transfer l and fluxes are:
l = d1 q1 = d 2 q2

In an homogeneous cylindrical wall with constant thermal conductivity, the temperature

has a logarithmic variation with wall thickness .
The temperature in a point in the cylindrical wall at diameter d is :
t = t1

d
t t
d
ln = t1 1 2 ln
d
2l
d1
d1
ln 2
d1

If the cylindric wall has several layers (n layers ) of i thickness and i conductivities
then linear rate of heat transfer is:
l =

(t1 t2 ) =
Rt

(t1 t2 )

i =1

d
1
ln i+1
2i d i

c) Spherical wall
It is considered a spherical wall with constant thermal conductivity.The inner sphere
temperature is t 1 , and outer t 2 , with t 1 >t 2 .It is considered an imaginary spherical
annular section having the thickness dr and radius
r limited by two spherical isothermal surfaces.In
steady state the thermal flux is constant and its
expression is given by Fourier law. As thermal
conductivity and heat flux are constant the
variables are separated and then are integrated on
the contour for r = r 1 t = t 1 and for r = r 2 t =
t 2 resulting the flux reported to sphere.
Fig.65. Temperature field distribution in spherical
wall

 =
A
q

and

4 r 2 - dt
dr

dr
= -4 dt
2
r

Integrating on r and t, it results :

t1 t2
t1 t2
=

1
1 1
1 1 1


4 r1 r2 2 d1 d 2
(t t )
(t1 t2 )
= 1 2 =
Rt
1 1 1

2 d1 d 2
=

The thermal conductive resistance R t is

Rt =

1 1 1
.
2 d1 d 2

In an homogeneous spherical wall with constant thermal conductivity, the temperature

has a hyperbolic variation with sphere radius .
If the spherical wall has several layers (n layers ) of i thickness and i conductivities
then the rate heat transfer reported to sphere is with the expression:
=

(t1 t2 ) =
Rt

(t1 t2 )

i =1

1 1 1

2i d i d i+1

Course S13
7.3.Convection
Heat transfer convection is a process of exhange of heat between a solid and a fluid in
motion due to a temperature gradient.Convection can have two forms a) free convection
(or natural convection) having small fluid velocities produced by non-uniformities of
temperature fields generated by density gradients within fluid b) forced convection
having high fluid velocities generated by pressure variations produced by mechanical
means (fans, pumps).
Convection is influenced by:
- Fluid properties ( thermal conductivity, c-specific heat, a-difusivity ,- density,
-(kinematic ) viscosity);
- Geometry of exhange heat surfaces and orientation towards flow direction;
- Fluid flow: a) laminar, specific to small velocities with low convective
phenomenon and b) turbulent, specific to high velocities with dominant
convective phenomenon.
The convective flux cannot be computed applying Fourier law because it is not known
the temperature gradient at the contact surface between wall and fluid. That is why it is
used another law, Newtons law, which determines the thermal flux transfered by the
surface of a solid body with t s temperature to a fluid in motion.
Q
= (t s t f ) t s solid body temperature, t f fluid temperature
S
W
convection coefficient in unit 2
m K
Convection coefficient depends on variables = f l , w,t s ,t f , ,c p ,, , a
Q = (t s t f )S

q=

l - legth specific to fluid flow

w - flow velocity
thermal conductivity
c p - specific heat at constant pressure
fluid density
kinematic fluid viscosity
a difusivity coefficient
Convection coefficient is defined as the heat quantity exchanged through convection
on unit of surface, in unit time, for a difference of temperature of 10C. This coefficient
is experimentally determined getting results for different real cases and then the results
are generalized using similitude.
Similitude or similarity teory is based on the fact that two phenomena or systems are
thermally similar if associated thermal measures of a phenomenon are in a constant
ratio with thermal measures of the other phenomenon, measures being done in similar

points and moments of time. Similitude can be applied to other phenomena, not only to
thermal ones, but also to dynamic, hydraulic processes.
Similitude started with geometrical similitude studying the behavior of a prototype
system ( original) towards that of a model, found at a given scale ratio (example: lift of
airplane wing, drag of a boat).
Physical similitude deals with the study of similarity studying on the model the
phenomenon of the original.The physical phenomena described by the same
mathematical models generate a class of similar phenomena.
Physical similitude is based on three axioms and three laws.
A 1 ) any physical phenomenon can be mathematically modeled;
A 2 ) a law true for an element of the field is true for the whole field of the phenomenon;
A 3 ) the mathematical model of a class of similar phenomena is invariant to
transformation of the class phenomenon.
Similitude laws are enounced defining the similitude criterium a nondimensional group
of physical measures which characterises similar phenomena.
L 1 ) Newton: physical phenomena are similar if homologous similitude criteria have the
same values; phenomenon A and B are similar if similitude criterium has the same
value for A and B phenomenon, meaning A = B .
L 2 ) Vaschy Buckingham-Federman: any physical phenomenon can be expressed
through a criterial relation.
Example: A relation between physical parameters can be replaced with a criterial
relation f (,c , ,v,t , w,l ) F ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) = 0
L 3 ) Kirpicev-Guhman: A necessary and sufficient condition as two phenomena to be
similar is to have homologous similitude criteria equal.
The criteria are non-dimensional and represent combination of measures which describe
a process.
Example: it is considered the flow of two fluids through two pipes,with velocities
w1 , w2 described by the ratio of space and time.
w1 =
w2 =

l1

1
l2

As the motion of flow inside the pipes is similar, then

w2
l2
2
= k
= kw
= kl
1
w1
l1
k
k w k
or
=1
kw = l
k
kl
w
w
or 1 1 = 2 2 = cons tan t - criterium of homocronicity
l1
l2
w
= cons tan t
l

For particular case of convective heat transfer it is considered that similitude criterium
depends on the measures which influence the convective phenomenon, but it is not
known the exponent of these measures.
It is noted with a, b, c, d, e, f and g the exponents of the measures imposing the
condition that sum of the exponents to be zero, for every dimensions because
criterium is adimensional.
= a wb d c d e cp f g
f

a
b
d
e
g
2
ML L
c M M L M
= 3 [L] 3 2 3
Tt t
Lt L t T Tt

It results for every fundamental dimension (M- mass, L- length, t- time,T- temperature)
a distinct equation which generates a homogeneous system with 4 equations and 7
unknown variables which is not determined:

[M ] a + d + e + g = 0
[L] a + b + c d 3e + 2 f = 0
[t ]imp 3a b d 2 f 3g = 0
[T ] a f g = 0

The solutions are determined for independent variables (g, f, b),considering a particular
value for g = 1.
Then
a=1-f
c=b-1
d=f-b
e=b
and = 1 f w b d b1 f b b cp f 1 then it is grouped in brackets after g , f ,b

=

c p

wd

d
= Nu is Nusselt invariant (criterium)

Ratio p =
= = Pr is Prandtl invariant

a
c p

Ratio

Ratio

wd

wd

= Re

is Reynolds invariant

Criterial equation Nu = C (Pr ) f (Re)b characterises the convective heat transfer in forced
motion

Criterial equation Nu = C (Pr )a (Gr )b characterises the convective heat transfer in free
motion, in which Gr represents Grasshoff invariant.
gl 3 t
, in which
2
1
, T m - average temperature between wall and fluid in Kelvin ,
=
Tm
Gr =

g- gravitational acceleration;
l- flow specific dimension;
t - temperature difference between wall and fluid;
- kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
7.4.Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is a heat exchange between bodies found at distance, even placed in
vacuum and is based on the property of bodies of emitting and absorbing radiations.
Thermal radiation is the effect of electromagnetic wave absorbtion produced by the
electron and ion oscillation which is transformed into thermal energy.
In other words heat transfer due to emission of electromagnetic waves is known as
thermal radiation.
Radiation has dual feature of wave and corpuscle ( photon emission) and thermal
radiation is specific to infrared spectrum with wavelength ranging 0.8m-0.8mm.
For solids and liquids in which the intermolecular distances are close to wavelengths of
thermal radiation, radiation is produced on a very thin layer on the surface and
absorbtion and emission are produced over a continuous spectrum of wavelenghts. For
gas and vapors in which the intermolecular distances are greater than wavelengths of
thermal radiation, the radiation took place in entire volume in discontinuous spectral
bands, specific to every substance.
For a body the incident radiation can be reflected, absorbed or transmitted further.

The bodies absorbing the whole incident radiative energy are called black bodies and
the bodies which do not absorb totally the whole incident radiative energy (is partly
reflected, absorbed or transmitted), are called gray bodies.
A black body is defined as a body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its surface.
Actual black bodies don't exist in nature - though its characteristics are approximated
by a hole in a box filled with highly absorptive material.
A black body is a hypothetic body that completely absorbs all wavelengths of thermal
radiation incident on it.
There are several laws gouverning radiative heat transfer, the most important being:
Stefan-Boltzmann law The energy radiated by a blackbody in all directions and
on all wavelenghtes by the unit of surface and in unit of time is proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature of the body.In other words the heat flux q is
proportional to absolute temperature at the fourth power.
T 4
2
, in W/m
qr = C0
100

, with C 0 -5.6703x10-8 (W/m2K4) Stefan-Boltzmann

constant,

Kirchhoff law- The energy radiated by a graybody in all directions and on all
wavelenghtes by the unit of surface and in unit of time is proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature of the body and with emissivity of the gray
body .
- indicates the radiation of heat from a body according the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law, compared with the radiation of heat from a ideal black body where the
emissivity coefficient = 1.
T 4
2
in W/m , - emissivity coefficient of the graybody which
qr = C0
100

lies in the range 0 < < 1 depending on the type of material and the temperature
of the surface.
Emissivity is the ratio of the radiation emitted by a surface to the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature.
The radiant heat flux transmitted through two parallel plane plates is :
T1 4 T2 4
2
q = C0

[W/m ] and the rate of heat is :
100 100

 T1 4 T2 4
Qr = C0

S , [W],
100 100

Example - Radiation from the surface of the Sun

If the surface temperature of the sun is 5800 K and if we assume that the sun can be
regarded as a black body, the radiation energy per unit time and surface can be
expressed like:
q r = (5.6703 10-8 W/m2K4) (5800 K)4
= 6.42 107 W/m2 .

7.5 Overall heat transfer between fluids separated by walls

The heat transfer between fluids separated by walls is performed simultaneously
through conduction, convection and radiation, the phenomena influencing one each
other and
that is why the overall heat transfer must be considered according to
dominant phenomenon.
At the contact between fluid and wall having a temperature difference between them,
there are simultaneously produced convection and radiation.Never convection can be
separated by radiation but at lower temperatures radiation can be neglected. The heat
transmitted from wall to fluid Q = Qc + Qr is a sum
of convective and radiant heats. The equation is the
same if reported to unit of surface expressed in heat
fluxes: q = q r + q c
Keeping the heat transfer form given by Newton
law it can be written Qr = r (t p t f )S and is
overall heat coefficient through convection and
radiation.

c convective heat transfer coefficient

r radiative heat transfer coefficient

Fig.65. Thermal flux from wall to fluid

If convection is dominant, it can be written the radiative thermal flux in the following
way, in which the radiative flux q r keeps the form of equation for convective heat
transfer:
q r = r (t p t f

If radiation is dominant it can be written the convective thermal flux in the following
way, in which the convective flux q c keeps the form of equation for radiative heat
transfer.
Finally :
T p 4 T f 4

= ( c + r ) (t p t f
q = q c + q r = ( c + ) C 0
100 100

The expression of emission coefficient caused by convection phenomenon c results

from equality aforementioned :
c =

c (t p t f )

T p 4 T f 4


C0
100 100

The radiative heat transfer coefficient results also as:

T p 4 T f 4

/ (t p t f
r = C 0
100 100

Case studies
A. Plane wall
For a heat transfer from two fluids separated through a plane wall, from left to right, in
fig.66, there will be a convective-radiative heat flow from fluid 1 to wall, a conductive
heat transfer through the wall (decreasing temperature from t p1 to t p2 ) and a a
convective-radiative heat flow from wall to fluid 2.
In steady state the global thermal heat flow ( or rate of heat) between fluids is equal
to thermal flux through any of three environments, meaning:

Fig.66.Thermal flux through fluids separated by a plane wall

The heat fluxes through every environment can be written:

with 1 coefficient of convection from fluid 1 to the wall, - thermal conductivity of

the wall , - wall thickness and 2 coefficient of convection from the wall towards the
fluid 2.
The total temperature variation between the fluids can be written as :

f1

f2

= t

f1

p1

+ t

p1

p2

+ t

p2

By repacinf temperature differences from flux formula above,it results:

f2

K overall heat transfer coefficient beween fluids through the wall

Analog, equations are determined for every type of wall according to its thermal
resistance.
B. Layered plane wall

Fig.67. Thermal flux through fluids separated by a layered plane wall

The thermal flux is similar to the homogeneous plane wall made of one single type of
material, but as there are several layers (n) of material with different thicknesses i and
thermal conductivities i ,then the overall heat flux q is:

C. Cylindrical wall

Fig.68. Thermal heat flow through fluids separated by a cylindrical wall

For the cylindrical wall the heat flow is the same in convectionfron the fluid 1 to the
wall ,then in conduction inside the wall and finally in convection from outer wall
towards fluid 2.
In steady state ,knowing the surfaces of heat exchange, it can be written:

= 1 d1 l ( t f 1 - t p1 ) = 2l

t p1 - t p 2
= 2 d2 l t p2 - t f 2
d2
ln
d1

As in case of plane wall there are calculated three differences which will be summed to
get:

tf1 -tf 2

d2
1
1
1
=
+
ln
+
l 1d1 2
d1 2 d 2

1
d2

1
1
1
+
ln
+
1d1 2
d1 2 d 2

(t f 1 - t f 2 ) l

D. Layered cylindrical wall

Fig.69. Thermal heat flow through fluids separated by a layered cylindrical wall

Similar to the cylindrical homogeneous wall,it can be written for the multi-layered wall:

1
n

di + 1
1
1
1
+
ln
+
1d1 i = 1 2 i
di
2d n + 1

E. Spherical wall

(t f 1 - t f 2 ) l

Fig.70. Thermal heat flow through fluids separated by a sperical wall

Condition of a steady state for homogenous wall (n = 1 ) :

d1

(t

f1

- t p1 ) = 2

t p1 - t p 2
2
= 2 d 2 ( t p2 - t f 2 )
1
1

d1 d 2

As in previous situations three temperature differences are calculated and summed up to

get t f 1 - t f 2 , then resulting :

1
1 d1 2

1
1 1
1
1
+
+
2 d1 d 2 2 d 2 2

(t f 1 - t f 2 )

F. Layered spherical wall:

1
1 d1 2

1 1
1
1
+
+

2
d
2

d
d

i
i
+
1
i =1 i
2 n +1
n

(t f 1 - t f 2 )

G. Ribbed wall

Fig.71. Thermal flux through fluids separated by a ribbed wall

Ribbed area A 2 , is used in that side where the convection coefficient is (much)
smaller ( 2 < ( < ) 1 )
The ribbs are relatively thin so that the conductive transfer is approximated
considering only the wall of thickness
Condition for steady state transfer is:

= 1 A1 ( t f 1 - t p1 ) =

t p1 - t p 2 = 2 A2

( t p2 - t f 2 )

and, as previous,three temperature differences are calculated and summed up to get

t f 1 - t f 2 ,then resulting :

A1

1 A1 1
+ +
1 A2 2

Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.

Which are the forms of heat transfer ?

What is a stationary (steady state) heat transfer?
How is defined a thermal flux?
What is thermal flux density?

(t f 1 - t f 2 )

5. What is the equation of Fourier law ?

6. How is defined thermal conductivity ?
7. What is the expression of conduction heat transfer for homogeneous plane walls?
And for non-homogeneous ones?
8. What is the expression of conduction heat transfer for homogeneous cylindrical
walls? And for non-homogeneous ones?
9. What is the expression of conduction heat transfer for homogeneous spherical
walls?
10. Which are the measures determining convective heat transfer ?
11. Which is Newtons law ?
12. Which are the laws and principles of similitude ?
13. Which is the radiant heat transfer law ?
14. Which is the expression of overall heat flux between two fluids separated by a
wall ?

Applications to heat transfer

S14. HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are devices that are used to transfer heat from one hot fluid (primary thermal
agent) to another cold fluid (secondary thermal agent); they can be used either as independent units
or as parts integrated into other systems.
The heat exchangers can be classified on several criteria, one being the construction type which
influences the mode of heat transfer between fluids. According to construction criterion, they can be
divided into:
Continuous-action apparatus with or without mixing of thermal agents (recovery heat

exchangers), in which heat transfer is performed in stationary state.

Discontinuous-action apparatus in which heat transfer is performed intermittently (heat

exchangers with heat accumulation in which heat is available and delivered at request) or
periodically (regenerative heat exchangers in which heat is cyclically transported by hot fluid and
accumulated into a chemically inert material to heat agent which eventually is released to cold
fluid).
As recovery heat exchangers are the most spread ones, the current application is dedicated to
them. They can be also classified according to several criteria, the most important being the
following:
phase of fluids changing heat-there are designed different combinations as required, fluids being

gases, vapors or liquids: gas to gas, gas to liquid, gas to solid, liquid to liquid or liquid to solid.
During the heat transfer the thermal agents can change the phase or not.
thermal agent circulation:
-

parallel flow - fluids flow in the same direction and sense;

counter flow - fluids flow on the same direction, but in opposite senses ;

cross flow - fluids flow on perpendicular directions;

mixed flow - fluids circulate on different surfaces of the heat exchanger in different ways:
parallel flow, counter flow or cross flow.

The heat exchangers can be designed to allow multiple passes of the fluid through the heat
exchanger; to extend the period of heat transfer, the fluid paths can be increased by means of several
baffles as represented in fig .b and d.

Several images and schemes of heat exchangers are presented below:

One fluid circulates through the tubes from left to right and the other fluid circulates up-down
through the outer space of the shell,the path being longer due to baffles.

One fluid circulates through the tubes from right to left and backwards and the other fluid
circulates up-down through the outer space of the shell,the path being longer due to baffles.

There is a compact heat exchanger with hot fluid circulating through elipsoidal tubes and the
coolant ( usually air) circulating perpendicular ( cross-flow) through the plates.

There is also a

compact heat exchanger with a refrigerant

fluid circulating through

rectangular tube and the coolant ( usually air) circulating perpendicular through the fins. The fins
have multiple orifices (louvers).

The heat exchanger condensates the steam using cold water circulating through pipes. The
condensate is gathered downwards. This is a phase change heat exchanger.

The backward of a home refrigerator with a heat exchanger for the refrigerant made of tubes
and plates. The cooling is done by the air.

Old fashion cast iron radiator ( water-air heat exchager)

Ultimate radiator having thermostate to regulate the flow or the hot water and a heat-counter to
allow the automatic calculation of costs.

Heat exchanger of an engine-The coolant circulates through the cylinders and takes over heat
then the thermostate in function of coolant temperature allows to coolant flow ( less or more) to

circulate in the heat exchanger. The coolant is cooled by the air flow drawn by a fan. The heat
transfer is cross-flow type.

Oil cooler of an engine - The hot oil circulates through several tube plates and it is cooled by
engine coolant. The heat transfer is counter-flow type.

Typical Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients

Free Convection Gas - Free Convection Gas : U = 1 - 2 W/m2K (typical window, room to
outside air through glass)
Free Convection Gas - Forced liquid (flowing) water : U = 5 - 15 W/m2K (typical radiator
central heating)
Free Convection Gas - Condensing Vapor Water : U = 5 - 20 W/m2K (typical steam
radiators)
Forced Convection (flowing) Gas - Free Convection Gas : U = 3 - 10 W/m2K (superheaters)
Forced Convection (flowing) Gas - Forced Convection Gas : U = 10 - 30 W/m2K (heat
exchangers gases)
Forced Convection (flowing) Gas - Forced liquid (flowing) water : U = 10 - 50 W/m2K (gas
coolers)
Forced Convection (flowing) Gas - Condensing Vapor Water : U = 10 - 50 W/m2K (air
heaters)
Liquid Free Convection - Forced Convection Gas : 10 - 50 W/m2K (gas boiler)
Liquid Free Convection - Free Convection Liquid : 25 - 500 W/m2K (oil bath for heating)
Liquid Free Convection - Forced Liquid flowing (Water) : 50 - 100 W/m2K (heating coil in
vessel water, water without steering), 500 - 2000 W/m2K (heating coil in vessel water, water
with steering)

Liquid Free Convection - Condensing vapor water : 300 - 1000 W/m2K (steam jackets around
vessels with stirrers, water), 150 - 500 W/m2K (other liquids)
Forced liquid (flowing) water - Free Convection Gas : 10 - 40 W/m2K (combustion chamber
+ radiation)
Forced liquid (flowing) water - Free Convection Liquid : 500 - 1500 W/m2K (cooling coil stirred)
Forced liquid (flowing) water - Forced liquid (flowing) water : 900 - 2500 W/m2K (heat
exchanger water/water)
Forced liquid (flowing) water - Condensing vapor water : 1000 - 4000 W/m2K (condensers
steam water)
Boiling liquid water - Free Convection Gas : 10 - 40 W/m2K (steam boiler + radiation)
Boiling liquid water - Forced Liquid flowing (Water) : 300 - 1000 W/m2K (evaporation of
refrigerators or brine coolers)
Boiling liquid water - Condensing vapor water : 1500 - 6000 W/m2K (evaporators
steam/water)

OVERALL HEAT EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT ( FOR AE-ONLY)!!!

APPLICATION FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
During internal combustion engine operation, the cylinders, cylinder head, pistons and valves
are heated as a result of the released heat due to combustion and friction.
Overheating could impede engine operation, reducing the mechanical strength of materials
from which parts are made of, lowering the lubricity of oil film or even burning the oil film from
cylinder surface.
In order to ensure engine security and durability, heat must be released in such an extent as
temperature of inner walls of the cylinders not to exceed the value related to an appropriate
lubrication.
The cooling system of an internal combustion engine consists of equipment, apparatus and
devices which forcedly remove through the cylinder walls a part of the combustion heat produced in
the combustion chamber.
Considering the coolant nature, the cooling systems are classified in liquid-cooled and aircooled systems; considering the fluid circulation the cooling systems are classified in natural
circulation (fluid flow is produced by density difference of hot fluid and cold fluid) and forced
circulation (fluid flow is produced by a pump).
In present work the cooling system is a liquid cooled, with forced circulation used for a twocylinder, four-stroke, compressed ignition engine (Diesel).

The cooler is a recovery heat exchanger working in cross flow which releases heat to
environment, the working fluids being water and air.
In order to determine overall heat transfer coefficient, for a given engine operation mode, it is
used the cooler heat balance considering that the heat flow released by water is equal to the heat flow
received by air.
-

The heat flow exchanged by fluids , Q , can be expressed with relation:

t 2e
t 2e t 2i
Q = k A t m = m 2 c p2
t 2i

in which:

) [W ]
[

k overall heat transfer coefficient in W/m 2 K ;

[ ]

A surface of heat exchange of the cooler in m 2 ;

m 2 air flow passing through in [kg/s] ;
tm log mean temperature difference of fluids in cross flow [C] .

The log mean temperature difference is determined with the formula for cross flow fluid
circulation:
-

t m = t m cc

which: tm cc is log mean temperature difference for counter flow fluid circulation and it is
calculated with relation

t m cc =

t max t min
[C ]
t
ln max
t min

t max = t1e t 2i , t min = t1i t 2 e

It is noted with t1,i and t1,e water temperatures at cooler inlet and, respectively, cooler outlet
and t 2,i and t2,e air temperatures at cooler inlet and, respectively, cooler outlet;
- is a coefficient considering cross flow fluid circulation, being established by similitude as a
function of: = f (P, R ) ,
P=

t 2 e t 2i
t t
, R = 1i 1e
t1i t2i
t 2 e t 2i

The value of coefficient is read from figure 2 for a cross-flow heat exchanger, both fluids
being unmixed.

Air flow can be calculated with relation: m 2 = 2 S 2 w2

which:
2 air specific mass (density) in intake manifold in [ kg m3 ],
2 1,1 kg m3 ;

S 2 cooler frontal surface in [m2];

w2 air mean speed at cooler inlet, in [m/s].

The air mean speed w2 is determined by measuring with anemometer the air speed in different
points on cooler frontal surface. It was experimentally determined a dependency
of cooler air speed engine speed using test bench.

From equation (1) yields the formula for overall heat transfer coefficient:

k=
in which: c p 2

t 2e
t 2i

m 2 c p 2

t2 e
t2 i

(t 2 e t 2 i )

A t m

- air mean specific heat at constant pressure, between cooler inlet t2i and

outlet temperatures t 2e . As air temperatures vary in a limited interval (10...80C) the specific heat
can be approximated: c p 2

t 2e
t 2i

= 1026 J kg K

The testing installation is the same installation used for determination of engine heat balance
and excess air coefficient. The assembly composed of engine and cooler is instrumented with 4
thermocouples measuring water inlet temperature, water outlet temperature, air inlet temperature and
air outlet. Additionally, it is used a tachometer in order to determine engine speed.

The cooler, made of rectangular finned cells in order to increase the cooling surface, is
represented in figure 3, in which:
H cell height;
L cell length;
L fin length;

B fin width;
- fin thickness;
s cell width;
d a distance; between fins.
The cooler elements required for the calculation of heat exchange surface are measured:
- cell number n c ;
- fin number n a ;
- cell length L [m];
- cell height H [m];
- cell width s [m];
- fin length L [m];
- fin width B [m];
- fin thickness [m];
- distance between fins d a [m].
The engine is started and operates at a constant speed until engine is heated and the
thermometers indications are stable.

The determinations are made at one or two engine speeds between 1500 ... 2200 rpm after
reaching engine thermal balance. The speed measurement is done using an inductive transducer
working on the principle of variation the inductive field of a coil when the teeth of a gear ring on the
flywheel are passing through.

For every engine operation mode are read the following measures: water inlet temperature t1i
[oC]; water outlet temperature t1e [oC]; air inlet temperature t2i [oC]; air outlet temperature t2e [oC];
engine speed n [rpm].

The area of the surface through which is exchanged heat is :

A = (2nc LH 2na L ) + (2na BL nc Ls ), [m 2 ]

Using the four read temperatures there is computed t max = t1e t 2i , t min = t1i t 2 e then
t m cc =

t max t min
[C ]
t max
ln
t min

there are computed P and R and it is chosen from fig. below in function of P and R, then tm is
determined.