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Research Methodology
The study of conducting research is Research Methodology.
Research:
Reaching conclusions
Research Methods:
May be understood as all those methods or techniques
that are used by a researcher for conducting a Research depending upon the
methods.
(1) Library Research: analysis of historical records and documents.
-
questionnaires,
personal,
Group or
1) Controlled
2) Rigorous
3) Systematic
4) Valid
5) Verifiable
6) Empirical
7) Critical
1. Controlled:
The research problem should not be affected or influenced by
external factors (i.e. variables other than the participating facts).
2. Rigorous: The procedures followed to find answers to questions should be
relevant, appropriate & justified. But the degree of rigiour may vary from one
problem to another problem.
3. Systematic:
The investigation should follow a certain logical sequence
(Not in a haphazard manner)
4. Valid & Verifiable:
or others at any time.
5. Empirical:
The conclusions drawn should be based on hard evidence,
gathered from real life experiences or observations.
6. Critical: The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from
drawbacks. The process adapted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
any critical scrutiny.
Types of Research
Research can be classified from the view point or perspectives as,
From the view point
Application
objective
Inquiry mode
1) Pure Research
1) Descriptive
1) Quantitative Research
2) Applied Research
2) Correlative
2) Qualitative Research
3) Exploratory
4) Explanatory
1) Pure Research: (Basic or Fundamental Research)
Gathering, knowledge is termed as pure or basic research. Just to gather
knowledge in order to formulate or generalize theories or policies.
Eg) Research on mathematics.
This types of research adds knowledge to the already existing organized
body.
Applied Research: To find an immediate solution for a pressing practical
problem.
Eg: Social, economical and political trends prevailing in a country.
Applied Vs Fundamental Based on the objectives of Research:
1) Descriptive Research:
Survey or fact finding enquires of different kinds. It describes
the actual prevailing state of affairs, existing at present.
Otherwise known as ex post facts means existing position of
facts / issues.
Here the variable influencing the research has no control or
the researcher has no control over the variables.
Eg: Frequency of shopping, customer preference etc.
2) Correlative Research:
Goes on to discover the existing relationship or
interdependence between two or more aspects / variables.
Otherwise known as comparative study.
Investigates association between variables.
Eg: Sum of humour and job satisfaction, (related variable)
Analytical Research:
The researcher has to use facts / information already existing and analyze
these data to make a critical evaluation.
Eg: document study / historical evidence.
Descriptive Vs Analytical Research:
Explanatory Research:
Attempts to clarify or explain why and how, any particular research
problem arises and can be solved.
4. Exploratory Research: Study undertake to explore a new area or an unknown
destination.
III. Based on the Inquiry Mode:
1) Quantitative Research:
Relates to aspects that can be quantified and expressed in terms of
quantity.
Otherwise known as structured Research.
In this type of Research, the objectives, design, sample and all the
other factors influencing the research is pre determined.
The research problem and its solution will be expressed in terms of quantity
and hence statistical and economic analysis is adapted in this type of Research.
Quantitative Research:
Otherwise known as unstructured research.
The aspects related to quality / kind or texture.
Eg: Behaviour science
Apart from the above, other types of Research are,
Conceptual Research: Research related to some abstract idea or theory
Used by philosophers or thinkers for developing new concepts.
Empirical research
(based on experiments or experience)
Otherwise known as experimental type of Research.
2) A people person :
/ focus groups.
3) The ability to stay calm: especially when you have pressing deadlines.
Keep well focused and think logically there will always be an end point.
4) Intelligence :
common sense.
7) Commitment:
deadlines short.
to
determine
All the above three are responsible for business decision making.
people
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Step II
Extensive Literature Survey:
A brief summary of the problem should be written down.
Make extensive literature survey
Sources of survey can be, journals, bio-graphics, Govt. reports, books,
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with
the
observations
(field
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The most important step after defining the Research problem is preparing
the Research Design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which the research is
conducted.
It constitutes the BLUE PRINT for collection, measurement and analysis
of data.
Research design provides an answer to the question, what the Researcher is
going to do with regards to framing hypothesis, its operational implications
and how to analyse the data?
Research Design: - Decisions
Highlights certain decisions,
1) Nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study
3) Location where the study would be conducted
4) Nature of DATA required
5) From where the DATA can be collected
6) Time period of the study
7) Type of sample design to be used
8) Techniques of data collection
9) Methods of Data Analysis
10)Preparation of Report.
Research Design
May be sub divided into,
1) Sampling design: Deals with, the method of selecting items for the study.
2) Observational design:
are to be made.
3) Statistical Design:
Deals with the no of items selected or the
study and how the selected data will be analysed.
4) Operation design:
The technique by which the sampling, observational
and statistical designs can be carried out.
Research Design Features :
1) Helps to identify the type and source of information needed for the study.
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The variable that causes the change in the dependent variable is known as
independent or exogenous variable.
Demand (Dependent) ------- Price ,Income
Here demand is a dependent variable while price / income is an independent
variable.
Extraneous variable :
The independent variable which is not directly related to the purpose of the
study but affects the dependent variable is know as Extraneous variables.
The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent value is
technically known as Experimental Error
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9. Experiment:
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Attain reliability
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
Posses the qualities of being flexible, suitable efficient & economical.
Should minimize bias and maximize reliability of data collection &
Analysis.
No experimental error should be allowed
Should yield maximum information
Research problem should be viewed from different angles or dimensions.
The choice of Research design depends on,
Nature of the Research problem
Objectives of the Research problem
Skills / ability of the Researcher
Methods of gathering information
Availability of monetary support
Time schedule
HYPOTHESIS
A Research hypothesis is a predictive statement, which is capable of being
tested using scientific methods, which involves independent and dependent
valuables. (eg) the female students perform as well as the male students.
This statement is a hypothesis that can be objectively tested and verified.
It is a proposition that can be put to test in order to examine its validity.
Characteristics of Hypothesis
1) A hypothesis should be precise and clear. If not clear, the inferences will not
be reliable.
2) It must be capable of being put to test.
3) It should state the relationship between the variables, in case relational
hypothesis.
4) It should be stated in a simple language.
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u = 100
Alternative Hypothesis
Ha
u = 100
Ha
u > 100
Ha
u < 100
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Decision Rule
The researcher should make a decision, if to accept or Reject Ho.
The decision rule should be decided on the number of items to be tested and
the basic of which to accept or reject.
4.
(i)
Researcher may reject Ho, when it is true Type I Error (which must have
been accepted).
(ii)
Researcher may accept Ho, when it is false Type II Error (which must
have been rejected)
5.
(i)
One tailed test rejects the Null hypothesis when the sample mean is either
greater or lower than the hypothesized value of the population mean.
Two tailed Test:
When the sample mean is both greater and lower than
the hypothesized value of the population mean.
Procedure for Hypothesis Testing:
1. Testing hypothesis refers whether the formulated hypothesis is valid or not
2. Whether to Accept or Reject Null Hypothesis.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
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Calculation of Probability:
The diverged results from the expected results, when Ho is true.
(vi)
Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is the proposition or proposal that implies
no effect on the phenomena.
Alternative Hypothesis: is the one predictive statement that implies some effect
on the phenomena.
Concepts Relating to Testing of Hypothesis:
SAMPLE SURVEY
Sampling Design:
An art of obtaining a sample from a given population. The technique or
procedure the researcher adopts for selecting items for the sample from the
population or universe.
Steps in sampling Design
Type of Universe:
1) The first step in sampling design, is to clearly define the total number of
items / cases to be studied, which is technically known as UNIVERSE
Finite
Universe
Infinite
Finite Universe:
Eg:
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2) Sampling Unit:
A geographical area like a state, district or village.
Family, religious community or a school.
Individual (Researcher can select one or two such units).
3) Source List: Otherwise known as Sampling Frame
Consists of names of all items of a universe.
If not available the researcher has to prepare a Source list.
It must be reliable, comprehensive, correct and appropriate.
It should be the representative of the population / universe.
4) Size of sample:
Refers to the number of items to be chosen from the universe.
Size of sample must be optimum. An optimum sample may defined
as the one that satisfies.
The requirements of representatives.
Flexibility
Efficiency
Reliability
Costs or budget should be considered.
Factors Influencing size of sample :
Parameters of Interest:
The items or parameters are selected based on the researchers own interest.
Budgetary constraint :
Cost consideration exercises a major influence.
a) Sampling Procedure:
The type or technique used by the researcher to select the items.
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The technique should be selected so that for a given sample size & budget,
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(1)
The sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of
being drawn during the selection.
Eg:
(2)
The entire population is divided into sub population (sub groups) (i.e.
the sub population being homogenous).
Eg:
50 students of a school having 1000 students on a total were
selected & interviewed on the interest in music.
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The students were grouped based on their age, 7 years, 8 years, 9 years, 10
years & 11 years.
From each age group, 5 students were chosen and totally 50 students were
interviewed.
(3)
Cluster sampling:
The entire population is sub divided into mutually exclusive groups or
clusters
Simple Random sampling is applied and the need clusters are selected for
the study.
If all the elements found in the selected cluster is taken for the study, then it
is one stage cluster sampling.
If random sampling is applied in selecting elements found within the
clusters, it is two stage cluster sampling.
(4)
Systematic sampling:
-
(5)
Area sampling:
sub divisions.
(6)
Stage level
District level
Towns
Villages
This technique is used when the no. of elements present in each cluster
varies.
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II.
Each item does not have an equal chance of being included in the sample.
1)
Convenience sampling:
-
Drawback:
2.
Lack of accuracy
Quota sampling
Caste basic
less expensive, very convenient
Researcher employs his own Expert judgment about who to include in the
sample frame.
Disadvantages of sampling:
1) Inadequacy of samples
2) Chances of bias
3) Problems of accuracy
4) Difficulty of getting the representative sample.
5) Untrained Manpower.
6) Absence of Informants
7) Chances of committing errors.
Sampling Error: Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sample from
the true characteristics, traits, behavior, qualities or figures of the entire
population.
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Data Collection
Data Collection is the systematic gathering of information (data) for a
particular purpose from various sources. (Various sources can be questionnaires,
interviews, observations existing records and electronic devices).
Two Important sources of Information are,
(i)
Primary Data
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The researcher has to decide about the source from which the
information can be obtained or collected.
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1. Primary Data.
2. Secondary Data.
Primary Data: First hand data.
Either Census or Sample technique is to be used.
Census: Total no.of items have to be investigated.
Sample: Selected representatives from the total population have to be investigated.
CENSUS
SAMPLE
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(v)
The interviewer can adjust the language according to the status and
educational level of the person interviewed, thereby can avoid
inconvenience and misinterpretation.
Demerits:
(i)
(ii)
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(c) Occasionally
SAMPLING
A carefully designed sample may actually be better than a poorly planned
and executed census.
Merits:
1. It saves time:
Saves time because fewer items are collected and processed.
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2. It Reduces Cost:
Since only few items are studied, there is reduction in cost & reduction in
man power.
3. More Reliable Results can be Obtained:
Sampling is more Reliable because
(i) fewer chance of sampling error.
(ii) Experience, Trained & Technical people can be employed to process & analyze
the data.
4. It provides more detailed in formations:More detailed information can be obtained by sample survey.
5. Only Sampling Method to depend upon:
When the population is large and finite, the only method applicable is
sampling.
6. Administration Convenience:
The organization and administration is easy in sample survey.
7. More Scientific:
Results can be tested since more scientific.
Shortcomings (or) Demerits
1. Illusory (False) Conclusion:
If sampling is not carefully planned & executed, the conclusions may be
false.
2. Sample Not Representative:
If the sample taken from the population is not the right representative, the
result may be false or misleading.
3. Lack of Experts:
If there is a lack of experts to plan, execute and analyze the samples, the
result would be unsatisfactory.
4. Personal Bias:
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2. Homogeneity:
Selected samples should be homogenous with the samples & the universe.
3. Adequate Samples:
A good number of items should be included for the study.
4. Optimization:
A proper size of sample should be maintained to have optimized results in
terms of cost & efficiency.
Statistical Laws:
Induction:
The logical process of drawing a general conclusion from the study of
representative items is called Induction.
Sampling is based on two fundamental principles of Statistics theory
(i) Law of Statistical Regularity
(ii) The Law of Inertia of Large Numbers.
The Law of Statistical:
Regularity: (Mathematical Theory of Probability), States,
A moderately large number of items chosen at random from a very large
group are almost sure to have the characteristics of the large group.
Proof:
1. Average income of 1,000 people is to be found out,
2. We take a sample of 100 people & find the average.
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EXPERIMENTS
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No Principle of Replication is
Field
rrrrr
rrrrr
rr
Part I
Treatment
rrrrr
Part I
rrrrr
rr Compare the yield of the two parts.
rrrrrAnother
rrrrr
One variety
of Paddy
Variety of Paddy.
Treated
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
Conclusion drawn.
Parts
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Example: When the researcher grows one variety of paddy in the first half of the
field and the other variety in the next half of the field, there may be a possibility or
chance that the soil fertility of the first half of the field may be different in
comparison to the next half.
In this case, he may go on to cultivate the two varieties of paddy in different
parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique.
(i.e.) He may apply Randomization principle and protect himself from the
effects of the Extraneous Factors.
By using Randomization Principle a better estimate can be drawn.
When treated
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
r
Conclusion drawn is more
accurate.
(Can protect Effects of Extraneous Variables)
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The effect of the Treatment : The level o the phenomenon after the treatment.
The level of the phenomenon before the treatment.
Test Area Level of Phenomenon
Phenomenon
Treatment
Level of
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Introduced
Before Treatment (X)
Step.1: Two
Area & the
Step.2: The
test area alone.
Step.3: The dependent variable in both the areas are measured, at the same time.
Step.4: Treatment Effect is calculated by subtracting the value of the dependent
variable in the control area from its value in the test area.
Treatment: 1
Effect = Value of dependent variable in the
control Area Value of Dependent Variable in the test area.
Test Area
Control Area
Treatment Introduced
No
Treatment
(3) Before And After with Control Design:
Step.1: In this design, two areas are selected and the dependent variables in both
the areas are measured for an identical time period before treatment.
Step.2: Treatment is introduced only in the test area.
Step 3 : The dependent valuable is measured on both the areas (control
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One way analysis of variance (one way ANOVA) is used to analyze such a
design.
2.
Design:
Randomizes Block
The subjects or
items are first divided into
groups, known as Blocks
See that, the items in each group or black is homogenous.
Randomly select items from each given block and assign treatment.
Extraneous variables can be fixed and can be measured.
The main feature of this study is, each treatment appears the same no of
times in each block.
This design is analyzed two way analyses of variance (two way ANOVA)
technique.
3. Latin Square Design:
Used in Agricultural Research.
Here along with the effect of fertilizer, the fertility of the soil must be
considered.
If the facility of the soil is not considered along with the fertilizer the
result obtained may be dependable.
Similarly the impact of the various seeds used many also vary the yield.
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Each fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5) will appear 5 items but will be
used only once in each row and in each coloumn.
II
III
IV
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Conclusion :
The field is divided into several blocks (I, II, III, IV & V) and there are
variety of fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5).
Are used in experiments where the effect of the depended variable, when
affected by more than one variable is to be determined.
Used in social & economic studies where usually large no of factors affect a
particular problem.
This design is used when more than two factors at a time affects the
dependent variable.
Accuracy
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OBSERVATION
Observation is defined as a planned method of watching that involves
constraints (steps) to improve accuracy.
Characteristics of Observation :
i. Observation are direct
ii. takes place in natural situations
iii. Less Structured.
iv. Makes only quantitative study.
Applicable in :
1. Life styles
2. Encounters / Settlement.
3. Relationships
4. Groups / Organization.
Acc. to Block & Camion :
1. Observed in natural surroundings
2. Understands events affecting social relations.
3. Identifies regulatives in social life.
4. Hypothesis free enquiry.
5. Avoids manipulations of independent variable.
6. Recording is not selective.
Differentiate Experimental Technique & Observation Technique :
Experimental Technique
Observation Technique
No such controls
Few Controls.
Not Always
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No so.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
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P(X1) is greater than or equal Zero and less than or equal / one (Expressed
in fractions).
2.
The sum of all be probability distribution will be equal to one.
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= 1. 3 .3 1
(x+1)2
(x+1)3
4 1
(x+1)4
1 5 10 10 5 1
(x+1) 5
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(x+1)6
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 (x+1)7
Example: A coin is tossed Four Times what is the probability of obtaining two or
more heads? .
Step I : When a coin is tossed One time, the probability of Head of tail is equal,
(ie) P = q =1/2.
Step II : The various possibilities of Head and tail events will be,
(p+q)4 = 1p4 + 4p3q +6p3q + 6p2q2 + 4pq3 +1q4
------------------------------------------------------------1p4 = (1/2) where P = 1/2) (q = 1/2.)
= x x x 1/2
= 1/16
4p3q = 4x(1/2)3 x = 4 x x x x
6p2q2 = 6 x(1/2 x x x1/2 = 3/8
Therefore, the probability of obtaining 2 or more heads is,
3/8 + + 1/16 = 11/16
2. POSSION DISTRIBUTION:
When P is very small (Success rate is extremely small) and n is very
large (total no of trail items of events is large) then POISSON distribution is
used.
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Normal Equation:
The value of the random variable Y is - (x u) /2
Y=
C (Coefficient)
is constant (3.14159)
e is constant (2.71828)
Standard Deviation:
Represented by it means how much variance (difference) or dispersion
exist from the average.
Example: = Variance (Root of its variance let us consider a population has eight
values, 2,4,4,4,5,5,7,9.
Mean: 2+4+4+4+5+5+7+9
------------------------8
= 40/8 = 5 1) difference between the mean & the mean & the valiance value is
taken.
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= 1 ( 4 5) = (-1) =1 (7 5) = 2 = 4
(5 5) = (0) = 0
Rate of 9+1+1+1+0+0+4+16 38
---------------------------- = = 4/8
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Example: An average light bulb manufactured by Acme Corporation lasts 300days
with a standard deviation of 50 days. Assuming that the bull life is normally
distributed what is the probability that an Acme light bulb will last at most 365
days?
Answer: The value of the normal Random valuable (X) = 365 days.
The mean (u) = 300 days standard deviation = 50 days.
Normal Distribution Y = 1 x e(xu)
2
1
=
502 x 3.14159 x 2.71828 (365 300) /2 x 50
1
=
50 x 6013 x 2.71828/100 = 1/306.5 x 271 = 884//
Y = .88 or 88%
Hence there is an 88% chance that the bulb will last most 365 days.
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